Professional Documents
Culture Documents
UTERATVRE REVlEW
In troduction
son and plant sprays based on cornpost and various plant materials have been in
practice since the 1920s (Koepf1992). Applyng compost in liquid form has roots in an old
gardening practice of soaking seeds and drenching plan ts or soi Iwi th compost water'
for fertilizaton and to help prevent damping-off (Rodale 1967). An increasing body of
ex perimental evidence indicates that plant disease can be suppressed by applying a
variety of water-based compost preparations (reviewed in Weltzien (1991) and Diver
(1998. There has been a recent sUl'ge of popular interest in the potential for
improving plant health through the use of water-based compost sprays, typicaJ!y called
compost teas.
There are severa! reasons why cornpost tea use is expanding (Touart 2000;
Scheuerell, persona! observation). Garden writers are exposing the idea to a wide au
dience. Professional 1andscapers are using compost tea and educating clients. Golf
courses are assessing compost tea for fertility and disease control. Municipal parks and
recreation departments are using campost tea for gl'Ounds maintenance. A number of
individuals and companies are selling compost tea at farmers markets, retai! outlet,>,
nternet si tes, and through application services.
I
Autumm 2002
313
Terminologq
During the 1990s, water-based compost preparations received increasing attention
from growers and researchers resulting in a proliferation of preparation rnethodolo
gies and terrninologies (Brin ton 1995; Diver 200]). Numerous terms have been used
to describe compost fermentations-compost
tea, aerated com.post tea, organic tea,
com post extracts, watery fermented compost extract, amended extracts, steepages,
and slurries - and each needs to be clarified, Many are synonymous with each
other or are easiJy confused with other concepts.
'Compost tea' has been described as the product of showering recirculated water
through a porous bagofcompostsuspended
over an open tank with the intent of main
taining aerobic conditions (Riggle ]996). The product of this method has also been
termed 'aerated compost tea' (Pscheid t and Wi ttig 1996) and 'organic tea' (Merrill and
McKeon 2001). Severa! companies have developed various units for making compost
tea under highly aerated conditions. Each company describes the end product as 'com
post tea' thus effectively cementing the term 'compost tea' into COmIDonusage.
The use of the term 'compost extract' poses a particular challenge due to the
widespread use of this terrn in studies on the chemical properties of compost
314
AUlumn 2002
AullHT1n~QOl
315
TABLE 1
Process Steps for production of compost teas
Process Step
Nonaerated
(NCf)
Ferrnentation vessel
Open container
Compost source
Aeraled
(ACf)
Inexpensrve
Hdiilbh..
Acr
Make or buy
Issue
Expense and
rellability
l-rec of biocido
residue
Typcally held in
Pathogcn free.
perforatcd
Fecdstocks and
container
age affect
suppression
vVate.r sou rce
and ratio
I:Hu 1:10
composr.water
Ratios of 1:10 la
1:50 in
comrnerca unit-,
raijo
Fermentation
nutrients
Fermentation
duration
Range from
1-21days
Filtration
Tank mi"
Nutrients
Surfactants
Stickers
UV stabilizers
51>r1W cquipment
Dechlurinoted
Sorne nutrients
Can lncrcase
toam excessively
I)g saponin.
Need defoamers
disease control.
also pahogens
Fabltunes 013\'
Longer times
prevent timlng
Ilexibility
Noz zle ur
ernitter
dependen!
Integrated in -ome
cornmerdal unit-,
Most work don"
wlth undilured
NCf
microbe-,
Proposvd
guidelnes, see text
Depends on
intended use
and expcrlcncc
Can improve
dlsease cont rol,
nutrients ITIlly
increase
pathogens
PSI, \ elociry,
sheer, pressurc
drop el fects
Use
prevenuvely.
total coveragc
needed
umented evidence to substantiate this claim, nor have we observed phytotoxic symp
torns when NCT was used as a foliar spray or potting mix drench (Scheuerell and Ma
haffee, unpublished data). There are no biological grounds to substantiate the claim
that low oxygen conditions are ideal for most human pathogens to grow (Murray
1999). Well-designed experimenta that directly compare both production methods are
necessary to determine the utility of aeration.
Aerated production requires mechanics and energy for continuous air addition; a
number of desgns are currently in use. Common aeration designs include showering
recirculated water through a porous bag of cornpost that 16 suspended over an open
tank (Cantisano 1995; Riggle 1996; Merril and Mckeon 2001), recirculating water
th:rough a vortex nozzle mounted aboye a tank (lngham and Alms 1999), injecting air
through a hollow propeller shaft (Soilsoup.com), venturi nozzLes (Composttea.corn),
aquariurn stones (lngham2000a), or fine bubble diffusion mats (Growingsolutions.com,
Compara.com). There are a growingnumber of companies offering units that produce
316
Auturnn 2002
aerobic' compost tea' by suspencling compost in a fermentation vessel and actively aer
ating and/ or recircuJating the liquid (Diver 2001).
NCT has traditionally been made by rnixing one volume compost with four to ten
volumes o water in an open container, initially stirring the mixture, and then Leaving
it undisturbed at lS-2SoC for at least three days (Weltzien 1991). Brinton (et al. 1996)
advocates stirring NCT every two to three days during the ferrnentation to possibly
facilitate the release of microbes frorn compost partieles. Container sizes range from
several thousand liters down to small buckets. However, to avoid compost sampling
error, at least SOOgcompost should be used when considering experimental designs
for in vitro inhibition screening with NCT (Yohalem el al. 1996b).
Other preparation rnethods are in limi.ted practice and have not been assessed in
controlled tudies for disease suppression. One method involves straining water
through cornpost-filled sacks directly into a spray tank for use (Diver 1998). Another
rnethod is to make instant compost tea by mixing water with finely ground compost
without ferrnentation or filtrarion before use (Don Cranford, personal comunica
tion). Gardening lore also recommends hangi.ng burlap bags filled with compost in
water barreis to produce a plant drench (Peavy 1992). Several other related prepara
tions have been rnade including herbal or manure teas (Di ver 2001), but wiU not be
dscussed further. Regardless of preparation method, compost teas are typically ap
plied with conventional pesticide spray equipment after filtering out material that
would cJog the nozzles (Brinton et al. 1996, [ngham 2000b).
For clarity, research reports on the use of compost tea should include detailed in
formation on severa] ferrnentation and application pararneters (Table 2). As a group,
the fermentation parameters will influence the composition and population of micro
bial species in the final product. The application parameters influence the exte.nt of tar
get coverage and establishment of the applied microorganisms on pLant surfaces.
TABLE2.
Fermentation and application pararneters that could influence
cornpost tea production and efficacy.
Ferrnentatun l'ararncters
F vermentation
vessol
Cornpost
Water sourre
Forrnentation nurnents
lnclude al1y srirring, '1gltalillll, or acration: indicate time 1)1re.,ding(s) during production
Ff'rml'ntntion duration
Filtration
Oilution rano
Adjuncts
Application cquipment
Applcaon
Autumn 2002
317
Ti:o-c;ue
Altl'tlhlflll
<;in,...nl\
P/JIltly
Altrnrarul
.:.vfllru
Tomate
plant
5<:al,,1 Conlrol1
Palhogen
lnoculated
Compost
Tvpe
Fermenuon -ermenauon
Duration
Nurnents
Sprav
Adjuncts
Source
7 JdV>
i\unc
'uhc1It.\m r-t,,1
IV
5 ~ IlP
SA
'pures/ml
Sp0nl
mushroom
Field
Conid!a,
Ca 11le
.1n1oLInI nllt
NCUk
1'1'1<l
1.1da""
Nene
Nonc
Tsror. 1999
m~!1UI'~
~t~lteJ
8elnr'I>
Ilcilfl
1\
DL
:_>-
Bt!'UI
DL
Bean
DI
(I1h'n'/1
O(Jlrl!"~
rl'Wn'.il
SI'trytb
fllrt"n'jl
HCltrytlo;
{_,r.ll~
(1111..'11'/,
(,r,lp.:'
Nene
Nene
Mc.<..."ltlll~en
1'/,,, Iqq~
2 10
"p''1rc~mi
O.5W
None
Urban und
Trankner IW3
lU
'-purco:;(ml
'\J<.lnl'
Lrb.m und
ml
1(1"
chlcken Illl,,'
,~)~t~\tr~ld
luI'KL......t.raw.
"pore'1 mi
",11
n"IJ
2, 111'
(UJntn
bernes
I~'I"""
1.A.'tItKt"
(.,11
1~llt!l'"
Strawberrv
.. porc!-o rnl
1)51.0',
('xtfil(t
V('j]-lt
DL
berri
..~.
[iulryt,..
10"
~pOI~:-'1
8tJy!'\
Nene
"une
I"r"nkner19'1)
Kettcrer
"/.lI.ILN:
hll'~).,.~lraw~
2.JIIJ4
,",1"''"
0.5'
0.(.15 pinc 011
:'\lunl'
K,'tlt:'rt!r
ct nI 1<192
"in)'
months
2 li)h
..por""o.;/nll
11"""0 b..!ddm;.
chicken litter
~ J~lV!'o
l'ield
N.Hur~T
l.::tttlt.'n'l,II1lIrl'
711 day'
J\.lllU'
NOIH'
\\'~Ikl' 1Y9'I
!>lrdwbNI)
ndd
Ndlurc.l1
l.'hil.hn
rn.mure
7-21 u<'Y'
Nune
~Imt.'
W~lk~ I'I'N
Strowberrv
F,dd
Natu ra1
Lllll1u
l dav-,
Nene
Nonv
~1,"dll'l'I<l
I"'''I/I,s
i:ltr.J\.\bt.IT\
hd.l
N.lurul
J\unc
(\'UllC'
~llmft 1'~JlI
Il<"MI,.,
~Irol\\'bt.'rr~ Fill.!
2 111"
"'pnn'!-- mi
I h.l~tl-str~l\\~o,1
14 hour ...
I'(I':~yt.,,~t
l'xll'"d
L:1lL!c rnunure
J4 dav-
Nutrienl broth
dh.hl't incrl!a~
t-Im'Il'J'
1'\ (me
\lOnt.'
~k\..>U,I~l'n
.. ,111 I..q.
(IUt?rc.'1I
HtJ/r.l/lI!""'j'''4'1I
Jflltr.vtl~
1110nul'('
,'mt'rriJ
t"jflt'rtll
/l(llryl"
drlc'fl'd
'Mrl\'
httl'~41t;OI1
l'lllt'fl'll
Tumato
I'crf"'r
Dl
In"
.,pt.lr~ mi
DI
(.r,pc
n._-'n'!(w;
Tornato
Pepper
(,rapt'
DI
DI..
Pepper
Grap"
lornoto
f"lI
DL
berne-,
:!JI, 111'
'pm""!1I'I1
l*.ttrtiJ!'
'l cmato
LII
Natura!
(I",''''tl
lollolg,
Htf/ry/l~
t'im'rt'll
1l,'lnrll'
(lIh:tl.'Q
lt~ltlwl""'ll.'"
MalJ..c.
t:nrbol/tlllt
[~/"ill}lJl'
Be.::m
In'
mfi"Slm: ....
Patato
Ph_vfophUuJr7 Potalo
IIl_(rsIIJll:,
Nene
Hon,o manure
11dnvs
t,r~pp m.rrc
J-!diIV"
"')porf~, m)
borne .....
m.mure
Elad and
I'J<I~
EI.d and
Shh~lI"'fg
I'N~
~uttlcnl broth
~I,h.ldnd
~hllcnbel'';
'voru-
didn't mcrease
"'urpr~'ll.m 01
l dav
lermentations
L.1Ull!
U,b,IllJI1d
lrankner lqq1
~htltmbt..>rg
suppn-ssion ni
1l1day
errnentanon...
19<14
14 duv
Nonc
:'\iOI1:C
Elad nnd
~hli"nlx>r~
;' dJyM
~uni!
,'une
Yuhdlem
1'l94
IV
:,,\
...pOrE$, mt
Ln'U~hro()11'I
GIl
Not ~t;llL~1
Nol ~t-,lted
JI.
105
"P""'
dlll.lt..N-l
7-14<1,,)".. \Ion!!
"IYIi"'''
I'JJyrophllwro
1'-\11I\l'
Fleld
fipld
~A
n~ld
N~lturdl
l~vrs(",.,lr.lw
",11
7d",
H.5t.(,
~.'o...f'in
(o(llroJled onl\'
by ,Idding pUfe
cLlllu~ o l1licr\-IDliJl
dn I:a.gOrU.s-blo lt'il
iw~tbefllTe ..pmying,
Non!:'
I\:flf11..'
KC'Hc.-rer ,1nd
Sch\\'ilg~r1.'1'12
I(ellorer 1990
jongebkK.'li
,'1111.149:1
c;1lntinued
318
AUlumn2002
T ABLE 3. continued
Pathogen
Inoculated
COmp()M
Optimurr;
F[.lnncntHJn
I'errnenatiun
Spray
Typ<'
Duration
Nulri(!nt't
Adjunctv Source
t.H
Nol stated
Not Sl~llcd
7-11 doy.
None
DI-
K A Itrl
~pornngiaJmj
DI
K> 1Il'1
...pomngia/ml
Ficld
Natural
""lhogen
l Iost
Ti!'l~ue
Scalcl
PII.'I!lIphlll(JYr
IllO),,11,)
ufi'stlll/":
P',~I"p/f",ru T ornato
III/j ....
rm' ..
I'ltI,;nwl'llra
ltiffll11
Lrape
i1
Pln~mllplml (.,rap<'
Conlrol2
;1"'fI,1111
Pill1>/IIHJ1O/'tl
["t,('(I111
fl;"IItIc'IIt.':I=ll
tradh,"II,!n
l'':II,',/cWWIIIIS
Grllpc
Crape
.'ll.la)'!-t
1\IOI1C
Kcuerer and
Schwager,
1992
Ketterer
1990
11ul'M'-'H raw-
",11
'vV~ltzien and
Keucrer 19Mba
Ketterer 1990
davs
Nene
Nnnc
Achimu and
Schlosser 1992
1-luN. ~tmw
..o. l
~ U"Y<
None
Nnne
Wrltzl~n 1
Pil1i) bark
7 Jay~
'\lom'
NOI1~
Zholl1g
Fidd
NI)
1 ~ IU*
du/ml
I(}'
None
Nonl"
..o. ll
IV
None
1d.,y~
soil
sporangie /ml
Ar.1bjJ\1~i~~A
doy
Hurse-straw-
DI
l,H
!'lInngl't'
1 IrT'
I iOI'M,>-'-1r,lw-'it\ilI4
Ll.,f:~.
casern
I'I9H
lit
"R~
ul.
~alllm'tl
SA
'poces/ud
SpCl1t
rnushroorn
7da)'f.
:--Jont.'
f\,'UIH..'
Yohalern d 111
1994
5/'/1(11,,'/1111,','(1 Curumber
DI
)'.";,ND
C'lmml'"
Various
'vono
Nene
Snmcrsk :lnu
Wt.'II;tien 19M
fidt.l
Natural
lhicken
m.tnurc
711 dd)"
Scheuercll
and Mahnftee
SJ"l11rr(lth,,,,, Ro""
fllIlllAAl
"'<-Id
Natural
7-11 doy.
ll.~'~m, ola-ses
Rose
Fi,IJ
Natural
Mixt'd -ource
71'1 doy.
(I.,r-; rnolasses
J d~ly"
:-JOIW
NOIw
Wclil.l~n 1<)~9
Nono
SIIekenheim
<
fl/111,.!J1I1!rl
SplIlU'fOJfj)(.'jl
1\11">t'
}'fUmO:;tt
2tKIl.lb
Nonc
Scheuerelt
and Moh.111e;,
2())()b
SpIMI'ft'Jlltt'CIt
J J(1II1111J1~I
Nono
~h('lIcrell
and M.,h,H<..,
20001>
Crope
(,11
NI)
t lor-c-straw-
Grape
I'iel<l
N,1Iur.,1
(';tlllc'
ruanurr-
Jd,w ..
;\Ion('
Crape
t-rcld
Natural
:1 d.,y"
Non ..,
UJhl1lUJJl
1lt'f(Hnr
C"P<'
Field
Natural
l lurse rnanu re
J day'
N\)I1~
c;ac"'(~llht.!im
Caso
bouilon,
1993
mppolIl).5'~,
Vt')I!ut'Ul
Apple
IV
f;A
, - 1fI'
sp()res/ml
"pent
7 davs
NUI1I,;'
Nnne
\'I",turm
"mrtlUIII/:o
Apple
Field
N;,hlrdl
Sf"'II(
rnushroom
7d.1V..
~lnnl,;'
NO!1C>
Arulrews -t1J93
\'I'"lufm
fIIllcqmdi, ..
.11'1'1"
FicloJ
I\,J,lw'dl
Ci\ttJ(,1 m.mure
7Jay"
\Juno
Nene
Androws 'l'193
\'t'nlunll
Applc
Fi~ld
\J111L1r~)1
~p"nt,
mushroorn
7d<1Y'
Non<'
Latron
Yulhlk'nl L'I al
RI9S6
19%
(j.O'~:; ur ',f
LI/l(',mda
.,...,iJ
I/j'ralllr
tJ,'ltllu/"
I\J<)J
'h'l~/,h"
llnanuln
None
1/j'('jJ/f1f
Plul/qullN~
rlli'Tlfl/a/ll."
mushroom
Sackenheirn
1991
ullO.02.,cr
Appk
V.'UI'/flll
t/UuTtjlmli
Fil~ld
)"",
"\11)
'vtanure-stmw-
~7 d~ly~
None
Nonc
!'o4)11
..
Trankner H1d
Kireluu-r-
13iL'lwllt"nk
198~
'WlltllOmtJ,WS'
,-ow/Jl.-'stri.-=
ornato
:'A
Fichl
1 < IO~
dl.l/m!
Cm"
m.1nUI'('
7 day'
Non ...
Nnn('
AiDahmon
.:md Iluitin~
1999
IE>.perlml.'lllal SC'31t.IV - in vilm, OL- Jpt.lchl.-'J h,:-~ISI.A - ~ldlinM d~av. CH ,,,mmercl.ll gT('~-'nhouses~tting. Fidd
t'mldoor Jgronmicnmdilinn:,. ~ ConlTol~ I Iret1tmenb ~tilll~llratlv 1~s.-..discase lhan control trCillnlcnt
lminimul1'1 p = n,05),
-Irealm~nt no di (J(.>I',mct.':I frnm ,~o"lrollro,llmtml
Auturnn 2002
319
room compost to compare NCT and an air-bubbled ACT for in vi/ro effects on germi
nation of conidia of venturin inaeoualis. They concluded that seven day NCT inhibited
gerrnination while the ACT had no effcct. Conidial inhibition was induced after the
seven day aerated ferrnentations were allowed to incuba te for an additional seven days
without aeration.
Scheuerell and Mahaffee (2000b) exarnined the role of aeration and three compost
types (yard debris, chicken manure/ sawdust, eMe mixed source) in producing com
post teas lar controlling powdery mildew (Sphaerothcca pan llosa varorosae) on field
grown
roses. The ACT were fermented for 24 hours in cornmercial compost tea 'brewers'. The
NCT's were fermented in buckets for seven to ten days. Applications were rnade every
seven to 11 days over a ave month season. AH six compost teas significantly reduced
powdery rnildew incidence on leaflets compared to a water spray control; within each
compost type there was no difference between the ACT and NCT. The composted chick
en rnanure produced the most suppressive compost teas. The authors concJuded that
compost source was more importanl than aeration for maximizing disease control.
A variety of foliar diseases have been suppressed by applications of NCT. A range
of experimental approaches and scales have been utilized including uitro inhbition,
seedling assays, detached leaves, growth charnbers, production greenhouses, and field
studies (Table 3). The large number of studies supporting the use o NCT for pathogen
suppression indicares that it is a viable tool. A number of these studies have been re
viewed previously (Weltzien 199]).
Research on the use of ACT to control foliar and fruit diseases is sumrnarized in
Table 4. The lirnited number of controlled studies using ACT have not been widely cir
culated and therefore will be covered in more detail here. In the Willamette Valley Ore
gon, Pscheidt and Wittig(1996) did not observe significant contrcl of powdery mildew
of apple or grape, apple scab, peal' scab, brown rot of peach, peach leaf curl, and cher
ry leaf spot when ACT was applied in the field on regular intervals. One significant re
sult, reduced incidence o brown rot blossom blight (Monilinia laxa) on sweet cherry.
was observed. The ACT was stored in containers for 12-15 hours overnight, and it is
unknown if this could have negatively influenced the observed leve! o suppression
for all host-pathogen eombinatons.
Other farm trials used ACT on a variety of crops with variable yield and disease
control (Granatstein 1999). No effect of ACT applications on early blight of tomato was
observed. Lettuce drop incidence was reduced in a surnmer butnot a spring crop. Post
harvest fruil rot ofblueberries was significantly reduced, but offset by reduced yields.
Spinach yield also decreased, but spring and summer broceol yields increased. It is
apparent that impacts on plant health and yield can be crop specific and general in
ferences about disease suppression 01' yield cannot be made.
While relatively Iittle research has been conducted 011 soil-borne dsease suppres
sion with compost tea drenches, this technique is practiced in the organic agriculture
community. NCT was investgated for use as a seed treatment to prevent pea seedling
damping-off caused by PythUI7I uliimum (Trankner 1992). NCT'~ prepared from either
cattle manure or grape rnarc and fermented for five or ten days were effechve in sup
pressing in uitro PytiJillnt mycelial growth. They also significantly increased seed ger
mination, root length, and root dry weight when seeds were soakcd, redried, and sown
two days later in soil inoculated with P. ultilllLtI1l. Weltzien (1991) reports that Rhizoc
tonia solani has been suppressed il1 uitro by NCT and that heat sterilizing the NCT in
crea sed radial growth oi Rhizoctonia colonies relative to an untreated control. Sigllif
icant control of Fusarium wilt of pepper (F. oXySpOrLlI1I f. sp. VtlSil~fec/lIl11) and cucumber
(F. oxysporul/'l f. sp. CIICIII11Crinllm) by drenching NCT in greenhollse tests has recently
320
Autumn 2002
Compost
Type
Fermenrion
Duration
Fermenauon
Nutnents
Source
Vcrml-
24 hours
Soil Sou~
solution
BarkcrPlolkin 20(1()
N,)I
rcportcd
24 hourv
1.25f~,mclasses,
rock ftour
Cranetstem
1999
NdI1Hi'1I
Nol
r.pnrll'u
24 hours
rock dU"ot
Fleld
Nat'ul"ill
No!
reported
24 hours
Fi,'ld
Natural
Nol
reported
Cherry
blo-,..,um
!'icld
Nnlur.ll
Applc
l-lcld
Nof urul
HtlSI
Tissue
Scale
lnoculated
Tomate
f\.,liilgl!
I;icld
Nntural
Alternaria allemdl,l
Iumato
tOh.1gC
FI~ld
Nnl'l.lr.,]
Hlumerielln j~dpi
Cherry
[',cid
Pathogcn
Alternarla
Septoria
...
Control!
ccmpost
I~fl\'~...
Drup rot,
Leuucc
-SprUl);
...s.u.
mmer
Mf\llilinia
ta\d
Podoephacre
tl'rminab.
loucotrtcha
r(~..1harvest
Ilh -,
Sphill'Tothl'C'il
pann('~.1
1.251.. 11 rnolasses,
Granau ..tein
1m
24 hours
O.5f.~r,nolasscs
rock dust
Pschedr nnd
With" 19%
Not
reponed
24 hour
rock dust
O.5'~,molasse
Pscheidt and
Wiltig 19%
NOI
2l hours
0.51/1 rnolasses
rock duct
Pscheidt and
Willi~ 19%
Blueberry
[ruit
Fluid
N.Hur.11
NOI
reported
24 hourx
1.25f'{, molasses,
rock flour
{_,rano1tst~ln
n(~\!
!'icld
Natural
Chickcn
manurc
2.4 hour-,
O.J'~, molasses
Scheuere!l
and MJI",fft...,
R,,,,.,
Fit>ld
j\."lur.
Mi'tl
24 hour-,
(l.3'~. molasscs
Schcuerell
and Mahaffee
2000h
Schcucrell
p,lI1nos~' Ru-.e
I;ll!IJ
1999
2000b
";0111'0..'
Sphaeruihcca
Pscheidt and
Wiltig 1996
l"(K:kIlnur
reponed
..,phaerothl!(.., panno-a
o.:n. molasses
jvutural
Ynrd
dl~hri:-.
201hours
0,31", rnolosses
Notlll'.1
Nut
2-1 hours
1l.:;I" molasses
.1OdM,lhaffce
2000b
I',lphnn.l
d\.f~)rI"dn~
rt)jlch
FI.'Id
Uncnula necator
Vcnturia ,""~qllnh~
(,ropc leavcs
-clusters
Fldel
Applc leaves
Fi~ld
-Truit
Ct>n;di.l
Nnlllral
Natural
In vllro
gerrn Inanon
Venturta plrln~
Pear
fruit
rock dll~1
reponed
h~i1\',''''
n.ld
Natural
Nlll
reponed
24 hourx
Nul
reported
0.5(;, mol,l~sl>S
Pscherdt and
Witllgl9%
rock dust
Pscheidt and
Will'g 1996
241"",,,
O.5H~, mnla.:~"i
rock dust
Pschcult and
Witlls 19<)6
51'""1
mushroom
bubbled Io r
7 day~
Nt'U1(
Cronmdl,
1996
NOI
24 hOIlC:;
O.5''h molasses
I':.Cheldt and
Willlg 1996
reponed
rock dust
I Control: ,. rreatments stauatcallv less disease Ih.m conl rol tT(:~f;lhnent Irnmirnurn p - 0,05); - treatment no difference trorn control
tTt:alnll"nt;2Commcrdal
product conlainmg n'Oldo;.::,tl~. kllp. btlt f11Ilno. "ilricddd, ~A504 (~Iil Soup
Ec..lmond~W. A)
'"e.,
been reported (Ma et al. 1999; Ma et al. 2001). The NCT had an i/1 vitro mycolytic eEfect
on FlIsnrilllll microspores and chlamydospores, indkating that destruction of pathogen
propagules could be playing a role in disease suppression. The potentiaJ ofusing com
post tea for controlling soil borne disease, especially as a potted plant drench, deserves
further research.
There is illcreasing i.nterest among ACT practitioners to have their product tested
by commerciallaboratories
for il1 vitro suppression of various soil-borne pathogens;
sorne growers have reportedly used these assays to select for improvements in the sup
pressive qualities of their compost tea (Vicki Bess, BBC laboratories, personal com
munication). However, it is well established that in vitro inhihition is not always a good
predictor of disease su ppression when used as a screen for microbial antagonists (Cook
and Baker 1983). For compost tea, assessing the utility of in vitro pathogen sc.ree:ning
wiU require data correlating in vitro results to suppression under field condi tions. Test
ing compost tea for soil borne disease suppression under simulated field conditions,
Composl Science & Utilization
Autumn 2002
321
Alllumn 2002
A"tumn 2002
323
Autumn2002
Total
du
Hurse mnnure
Horse rnanure
1.4 x 1[)1O
Horse manure
7.6 x
Enterobacteriaceae
1 \ 107
2 x 10'
Acunomycetes
Fungiand
Yeasts
Source
1 x lOS
Stindt, 1990
Keterer, "1')90
uJ7
Cattle rnanure
Cattle manure
2..8 x 11IB
Caule rnanure
82 x lO>.!
Crape mere
Grape ruare
Grape ruare
Aerobic
Bacten,
JOR
"x lOS
1()6
Stindt, 1990
Kctterer, 1990
Ketterer el ul. 1992
2. \ 1l~'
9 x lO"
3)( .105
Stindl,1990
3.1 x IlilO
Ketterer, 1990
7.4 x 107
Horsc-chlckcn
2,4 ~ 10;
5.6 \ 10111
1.1 x 102
Chicken rnanure
0.8
Welke, 1999
Cllltle manure
35
Welke, 1999
.1C"mpOSI:water ratio" range frorn 1:5lo 1:9. Data are trom 7-il da)' fermentations with no added ferment.ation nutrlcnts.
Autumn 2002
325
Autumn 2002
Conipost Feedstocks
Compost feedstocks can include animal manures and bedding, landscape and
agricultura! plant material, and sollo Each have characteristics that influence the bio
logical and physical characters of a matute compost, which could in turn irnpact the
efficacy of compost tea made from the compost. Early reports on NCT indica te that the
rnost efficacious control was attained using animal manure composts as opposed to
cornpost made sole1y frorn vegetative material (Weltzien 1990;1991).
The superiority of manure containing compost was supported when 32 different
composts were screened for the in vi/ro inhibition of V. inequalis conidia: onJy composts
containing undigested plant material were not efficacious (Andrews 1993). Contrary
to this, Elad and Shtienberg (1994) determined that plant-based compost produced
from grape marc was equalJy effective as manure based compost to make NCT that in
hibited B. cinerea on folage in greenhouse assays. While differences in compost source
used for compost tea do translate to different levels of disease suppression in the field
(Scheuerell and Mahaffee 2000b), the leve! of suppression could not be predicted by
microbial enumeration on selective media.
Due to the potential for transferring detrimental effects, compost for compost tea
shouJd be certified free of human pathogens and residual herbicides. Raw manures
shouJd be avoided because of the potential of human pathogens being present. Herbi
cide contamination of compost tea is becoming a potential issue with the increasing oc
curence of clopyralid and piclorarn con tamina ted compost (Bezdecek el al. 2001; Rynk
2001). However, we are unaware of any reports indicating contamination of compost
tea from herbicides in compost.
Conipost Age
There is increasing .knowledge on how old compost made frorn particular feed
stocks can be befare it is no longer useful for makng suppressive NCT. Trankner (J 992)
reviewed Cerman studies that clairn composts should be two to si>:rnonths old when
selected for use. In summarizing work by Di ttmer el al. (1990) and Dittmer(1991),
Brin ton et al. (1996) indicate that compost made only with plant material such as lea
ves, yard trimmings and straw is not usefuJ after aging three months while horse and
dairy manure compost can be used unti1 nine to 12 months old. In a cucumber
downy mildew assay using NCT prepared with horse manure cornpost, six rnonth-old
corn post was significantly more effective than one-year-old cornpost (Winterscheidt
et al.
1990) cited in Weltzien 1991)). Andrews (1993) reported that the efficacy of NCT for
in
nitra inhibition of V. inaeoualie germination declined as cattle manure-straw compost
aged from 12 to ] 8 to 24 months. In trying to extend the usefu I Iife of eHecti ve
cornpost
sources, air dried compost has been used to produce NCT that was egualJy effective
as fresh compost for B. cinerea suppression (Urban and Trankner 1993). Purther work
of this nature might alJow effective compost to be dried and stored large quantities for
fu tu re use. Thus, the effect of compost age on efficacy of cornpost tea is a factor of feed
stocks and storage conditions. Although no compost tea research has documented the
stability of compost used in trials, compost stability could be a more useful parameter
to report than compost age.
Autumn 2002
327
Fermentation Time
For NCT, several studies have indicated that disease suppression vares wdely in
relation to the fermentation time (Wellzien J 990). Optimum fermentation times are
listed in Table 3. Mnimum effective ferrnentation time has been as short as one day
for in uiiro B. cinerea inhibition (Urban and Trankner 1993), or three days for in vi/ro in
hibition of V. innequaiie conidia (Andrews 1993). Usually, a five to eight day and up to
a 16 day fermentation time is needed for any level of disease control, which has been
h.ypothesized to aIlow sufficient time for facultative anaerobes to domnate and for
their metabolites to accurnulate (Weltzien 1991). Several studies have indicated that
suppressiveness noreases with increasing fermentation time to a maximum and then
declines. Ketterer (1990) indicated a three day fermentation time peaked inhibition of
downey mildew (Plas1IIoparn vitcola) on detached grape leaves. Weltzien et al.
(1987, cited in Weltzien 1988) found that a four to seven-day fermentation time was
optimal
for suppressing powdery mildew CE. beiae on sugar beet in laboratory studies. Ket
terer et al. (1992) examined Botytis suppression on detached grape leaves with one,
three, seven and 14-day fermentations of three composts, and suppression was uni
formly maximized at se ven days. These same composts uniformly suppressed grape
berry infection by B. cinerea after eight days of fermentation. However, Elad and Sh
tienberg (1994) observed that NCT fermented for 14 days was consstently more sup
pressive towards B. cinerea than seven-day fermentations. Weltzien (1990) showed that
late blight (P. infestans) lesions on detached tomato leaves were inhibited to the great
est degree by seven or 14-day fermentation as compared to one, two or 28 days. The
mximum NCT fermentation times reported for significant disease suppression were
two and four-months, observed in a cornmercial vineyard experirnent that evaluated
grape bunch. rot (B. cinerea) control (Ketterer el al. 1992). The general trend for maxi
mizing suppression depends primarily on the host-pathogen system and secondarily
on the compost feedstoc.k, but the ideaJ fermentation time may need to be determined
for each host-pathogen-compost system.
Much less is known abou t the effect of fermentation time on efficacy of ACT. Can
tisano (Cantisano 1998) states that one-day aerated fermentations are used for foliar
feeding while maximum disease control is acheved with seven to 14 day ACT. On the
other hand, Ingham (1999 2000b) states that the optimurn ACT fermentation time co
inci.des with maximum active microbial biomass during fermentation, often 18-24
hours with commercial aerobic cornpost tea makers.
328
Autumn 2002
Fermeniation Nutriente
Optional nutrients can be added at the beginning or during fermentation resulting
in an unknown selective eruichrnent of the fermenting community (Bess 2000). Severa]
manufacturera
of compost tea equipment also offer prepackaged fermentation nutrients;
these typically contain molasses, soluble kelp, humic materials and lesser amounts of or
garue rnaterials and minerals. While practitioners u e a wide range of termentation nu
trients, including rnolasses, kelp, fish emulsin, rock dusts, and plant extracts (personal
observation), it is not known what efiect these nutrients have on disease suppression.
Reductions in disease levels have been attained by using fermentation nutrients in
NCT production (Table 3), with added concentrations general1y ranging up to 1%, but
3r,) sucrose has been used (Sackenheim, el al. 1994). Malt (1 %) was ferrnented in horse
manure NCT to in crease suppression of P. injeettms (Ketterer 1990). Urban and Trankn
er (1993) report that fermenting with 5-7 gl I peptone OY yeast extraer inhibited B.
cinerea up to 100% while starch and sucrose additions were less effective. However,
Elad and Schtienberg (1994) found no significant increase in B. cinerea control with the
addition of an unstated quantity of nutrient broth (Difco), One issue to using NCT fer
mented with added nutrients is that an offensve odor is often quite evident. We have
observed that odor production is directly tied to nutrient addition, if no nutrient is
added there is littJe offensive odor. A user friendly research focus for NCT production
would be exploring nutrients that minimally increase offensive odors.
ACT production frequently uses fermentation nutrients (Table 1), with a number
of rcipes and commercial blends being used (lngham 2000b). Tngham (lngham 2000b)
sta tes that the final balance between bacteria and fungi in ACT can be predetermined
by selecting appropriate cornpost and termentation nutrients. However, after trying
various rcipes. we have been unable to produce ACT dominated by fung. We have
also encountered loss of suppression associated with the addition ofnutrients. It is also
possible that residual fermentation nutrients could stimulate pathogens that have an
efficient saprophytic phase, thus negating suppressive effects of the compost tea. Batch
fermentations that are terminated at the mximum metabolic activity levellikely leave
un:fennented nutrients available to all organisms. This could counteract nutrient com
petition-rnediated biocontrol.Identification of nutrients that facilitare multiplication of
antagonista while not supporting growtb of animal or plant pathogens is needed.
Other fermentation factors that could affect disease suppression include fermen
tation temperatura and pH. For NCT, fermentation ternperature has been reported to
be within 15-21C. No studies have manipulated the fermentation temperature to ob
serve the effect on disease suppression, but ternperature nonuniformly influences
growth rate of microorgan.isms.lt is also possible that matching the fermentation tern
perature to the targeted environment temperature could reduce the stress experienced
by applied organisms.
The pH of ACT or NCT could impact the growth and diversity of organisms in
compost tea, thereby influencing efficacy. In general, bacterial growth is favored by
neutral pH while yeast and fungi are favored in alkaline and acid pH ranges (Schlegel
1993). YohaJemctal. (1994) reported that the pHof their NCT was consistently between
pH 8.0 and 8.5 in an in uitro assay that assessed V. inneoualis conidia germination. Ur
ban and Trankner (1993) determined that the pH should be aboye six to optirnize in
vitro inhibition of B. cinerea. Nothing has been reported about the relationship between
compost tea pH and field suppression. Once specific microbial antagonists are identi
fied, it is possible that manipulation ofpH during compost tea production could assist
their enr.ichment and survival after application.
Composl Sclenea & Ullllzalion
Aulumn 2002
329
Steue Scheuerell
I1l1d
WaJter M(lhaffee
Aulumn 2002
Autumn 2002
331
Standard Specicarions
It is well k.nown that in uitro inhibition often correlates poorly with field perfor
mance of foliar bological control agents (Andrews 1985; Cook and Baker 1983). As
sessing germination of pathogenic spores by compost tea has limitations: 111 oitro inhi
bition of conidia germination of V. inaeoualis did not correlate to apple scab control in
the field (Andrews 1993). The nutrient aga.rs typically used in in uitro assays do not
rep resent the distribution and abundance of leaf surface nutrients (Derridj 1996).
Antibi otic production observed in agar culture may not be expressed in various
enviren ments (Bonsall et al. 1997; Duffy and Defago 1999). No laboratories performing
in vitro inhibition assays have published their database on the relationship between in
vitro in hibition and field performance of compost tea, therefore, jt is difficult to
independently assess the utility of these assays.
332
Autumn 2002
colforms
Wlir()r1115
Cnl11pUSI
<.1 MPN/g
No!
930MPN/g
Not
dctcced
detected
8 day nonaernted
cornpost tea, no
fcrmentation
nutrients addcd
O.R clu/ml
Not
dctected
35cfu/ml
NOI
dctected
Broccoli tlssue
3 MPN/g
Not
dctcctcd
<:3Ml'N/g
L~l~"tissuc
.131\,r'N/g
Nol
detected
No!
delccted
Not
delcCI~d
<3 MPN/g
Aulumn 2002
333
AUlUmn 2002
AutlJmn 2002.
335
336
COn1poSI
ALJlumn 2002
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Ketterer, N. and L Schwager. 1992. Effect of compost extracts on the disease incidence and the phyl
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338
Autumn 2002