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INTRODUCTION
Efforts to design a working gas turbine engine had been under way for years prior to World War II. Engineers eventually succeeded in placing a few engines in combat aircraft briefly during the closing stages of the war. The war
effort had brought about many advances in gas turbine technology which could now be used for commercial aircraft design. Turbine engines offered many advantages over reciprocating engines and airlines were interested.
Increased reliability, longer mean times between overhaul, higher airspeeds, ease of operation at high altitudes,
and a high power to engine weight ratio made turbine power very desirable. Aircraft such as Lockheed's Super
Constellation represented the practical limits of piston power technology and required frequent engine maintenance; therefore, air carriers turned to gas turbine engines for solutions. During the decade of the 50's, a gradual
transfer from piston power to gas turbine jets and turboprops started taking place. Old workhorses such as the
Douglas DC-3 and DC-7 gave way to the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.
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Figure 3-5. First flown in 1942, the Bell XP-59 was the first
American jet-powered aircraft.
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no moving parts. However, since a ramjet has no rotating compressor to draw air into the engine, a ramjet
must be moving forward at a high velocity before it
can produce thrust. Once air enters the engine, fuel is
injected and ignited to provide the heat needed to
accelerate the air and produce thrust. Because ramjets
must be moving forward to produce thrust, they are
limited in their use. At present, ramjets are used in
some military weapons delivery systems where the
vehicle is accelerated to a high initial velocity so the
ramjet can take over for sustained flight. [Figure 3-7]
PULSEJET
Pulsejet engines are similar to ramjets except that
the air intake duct is equipped with a series of shutter valves that are spring loaded to the open
posti-tion. Air drawn through the open valves
enters a combustion chamber where it is heated by
burning fuel. As the air within the combustion
chamber expands, the air pressure increases to the
point that the shutter valves are forced closed.
Once closed, the expanding air within the chamber
is forced rearward to produce thrust. A pulsejet is
typically considered more useful than a ramjet
because pulsejets will produce thrust prior to being
accelerated to a high forward speed. [Figure 3-8]
GAS TURBINE ENGINE
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Figure 3-8. (A) In the pulsejet engine, air is drawn into the
combustion chamber and mixed with fuel when the shutter
valves open. (B) As the fuel burns, the air pressure within
the chamber increases and forces the shutter valves to
close. Once closed, the expanding air within the engine
accelerates rearward through the exhaust nozzle to produce thrust.
TURBOJET ENGINES
A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a propeller is referred to as a turboprop engine.
Turboprop engines are similar in design to turbojet
engines except that the power produced by a turboprop engine is delivered to a reduction gear system
that spins a propeller. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower
speeds than the engine's operating rpm. Turboprop
engines are used extensively in business and commuter type aircraft because the combination of jet
power and propeller efficiency provides good performance characteristics at speeds between 300 and
400 miles per hour. In addition, most turboprop
engines provide the best specific fuel consumption
of any gas turbine engine. [Figure 3-9]
TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
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Figure 3-10. (A) A forward-fan turbofan engine uses a relatively large diameter ducted fan that produces thrust and provides
intake air to the compressor. (B) An aft-fan turbofan engine has a fan mounted on the aft turbine. This arrangement is rarely
used, since an aft fan cannot contribute to air compression at the inlet.
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There are seven basic sections within every gas turbine engine. They are the
ENGINE COMPONENTS
All gas turbine engines consist of the same basic components. However, the nomenclature used to describe each
component does vary among manufacturers.
Nomenclature differences are reflected in applicable
maintenance manuals. The following discussion uses
the terminology that is most commonly used in industry.
1. air inlet.
2. compressor section.
3. combustion section.
4. turbine section.
5. exhaust section.
6. accessory section.
7. systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel
supply, and auxiliary purposes, such as antiicing, cooling, and pressurization.
Additional terms you often hear include hot section
and cold section. A turbine engine's hot section
includes the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections. The cold section, on the other hand, includes
the air inlet duct and the compressor section.
[Figure 3-14]
AIR INLET DUCTS
The air inlet duct on a turbojet engine is normally
considered to be a part of the airframe rather than
the engine. However, understanding the function of
an air inlet duct and its importance to engine performance make it a necessary part of any discussion
on gas turbine engine design and construction.
The air inlet to a turbine engine has several functions, one of which is to recover as much of the total
pressure of the free airstream as possible and deliver
this pressure to the compressor. This is known as
ram recovery or pressure recovery. In addition to
recovering and maintaining the pressure of the free
airstream, many inlets are shaped to raise the air
Figure 3-14. The basic components of a gas turbine engine include the air inlet, compressor, combustors, turbines, and exhaust.
The air inlet and compressor section is sometimes referred to as an engine's cold section, while the combustors, turbines, and
exhaust are sometimes referred to as an engine's hot section.
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Figure 3-18. The Hawker-Siddeley ou i "Nimrod" was developed from the de Havilland Comet airframe and utilizes
wing mounted air inlets that are aerodynamicaliy shaped to
reduce drag.
WING-MOUNTED INLETS
Figure 3-19. The single-enframe miei: uuu takes full advantage of ram effect much like engine-mounted air inlets.
Although the aircraft is aerodynamicaliy clean, the length of
the duct makes it slightly less efficient than
engine-mounted types.
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A typical subsonic air inlet consists of a fixed geometry duct whose diameter progressively increases
from front to back. This divergent shape works like
a venturi in that as the intake air spreads out, the
velocity of the air decreases and the pressure
increases. This added pressure contributes significantly to engine efficiency once the aircraft reaches
its design cruising speed. At this speed, the compressor reaches its optimum aerodynamic efficiency
and produces the most compression for the best fuel
economy. It is at this design cruise speed that the
inlet, compressor, combustor, turbine, and exhaust
duct are designed to match each other as a unit. If
any section mismatches any other because of damage, contamination, or ambient conditions, engine
performance suffers. For additional information on
subsonic air inlets, refer to the discussion on turbine
engine induction systems in Section B of Chapter 5.
SUPERSONIC INLETS
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Figure 3-22. The sand and dust separator pictured is typical for the turbine powered helicopter. The venturi in the air inlet accelerates the air and sand so the sand has too much inertia to make the turn leading to the engine
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Figure 3-23. When a pilot actuates this type of sand separator, a small vane extends into the airstream. The inertia of the sand and
ice particles after they pass through the venturi carries them past the air intake and discharges them overboard.
COMPRESSOR SECTION
As discussed earlier, a gas turbine engine takes in a
quantity of air, adds energy to it, then discharges the
air to produce thrust. Based on this, the more air
that is forced into an engine, the more thrust the
engine can produce. The component that forces air
into the engine is the compressor. To be effective, a
modern compressor must increase the intake air
pressure 20 to 30 times above the ambient air pressure and move the air at a velocity of 400 to 500 feet
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Figure 3-28. The turning vanes in a compressor manifold help direct the compressor outlet air to the combustion section.(90)
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removal of one of the halves for inspection or maintenance of both rotor blades and stator vanes. The
compressor case also provides a means of extracting
bleed air for ancillary functions.
Some disadvantages of axial flow compressors are
relatively high weight and high starting power
requirements. Also, the low pressure rise per stage of
1.25:1 requires many stages to achieve high compressor pressure ratios. Furthermore, axial flow compressors are expensive and difficult to manufacture.(
)
Figure 3-29. In an axial compressor, airflow velocity is maintained nearly constant while air pressure increases as the
airflow proceeds through each stage of compression.
The task of an axial compressor is to raise air pressure rather than air velocity. Therefore, each compressor stage raises the pressure of the incoming air
while the air's velocity is alternately increased then
decreased as airflow proceeds through the compressor. The rotor blades slightly accelerate the airflow,
then the stator vanes diffuse the air, slowing it and
increasing the pressure. The overall result is
increased air pressure and relatively constant air
velocity from compressor inlet to outlet. [Figure 3-29]
As air passes from the front of an axial flow com
pressor to the rear, the space between the rotor shaft
and the stator casing gradually decreases. This
shape is necessary to maintain a constant air veloc
ity as air density increases with each stage of com
pression. To accomplish the convergent shape, each
stage of blades and vanes is smaller than the one
preceding it.[Figure3-30]
The case on most axial flow compressors is horizontally divided into two halves, allowing the
Figure 3-31. Compressor rotor blades are twisted to compensate for blade velocity variations along the length of the blade.
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Axial flow compressors typically have 10 to 18 compression stages, and in the turbofan engine, the fan
is considered to be the first stage rotor. The base, or
root of a rotor blade often fits loosely into the rotor
disk. This loose fit allows for easy assembly and
vibration damping. As the compressor rotor rotates,
centrifugal force keeps the blades in their correct
position, and the airstream over each blade provides
a shock absorbing or cushioning effect. Rotor blade
roots are designed with a number of different shapes
such as a bulb, fir tree, or dovetail. To prevent a
blade from backing out of its slot, most methods of
blade attachment use a pin and a lock tab or locker
to secure the coupling. [Figure 3-32]
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the airflow and eliminate any swirling motion or turbulence. The straightened airflow then proceeds to the
diffuser to prepare the air mass for combustion.
MULTIPLE-SPOOL COMPRESSORS
Figure 3-35. In a single-spool compressor, there is only one compressor unit that is connected by a shaft to the turbine section.
Rear stages operate at a fraction of capacity while FWD stage overload..Not respond quickly to abrupt control input change
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Figure 3-36. In a dual-spool axial flow engine, the low pressure compressor is driven by the low pressure turbine while the high
pressure turbine drives the high pressure compressor. Splitting the compressor creates two rotating groups, each with considerably less mass than a single-spool compressor. The smaller mass allows the compressors to respond more quickly to power lever
inputs and perform better at high altitudes. In addition, a smaller starter can be used since it turns less mass.(small mass allow
compressor to respond quickly and easy to turn for starting)N2 speed is held relatively constant by FCU Governor
N2 speed up or slow down by ALT and FLT maneuvering
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Figure 3-37. The triple-spool compressors used on many turbofan engines allow each compressor section to reach its optimum
speed for varying power requirements and flight conditions.(compressor stall turbulence air in inlet abrupt FLT
maneuver abnormal acceltin or decell
direction or damage on comp .turbine blade or vane)
pulsating or fluttering sound
Fluction RPM EGT raise
Air velocity and compressor rotational velocity combine vector which define the AOA(angel of attack)
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COMBINATION COMPRESSORS
final or highest pressure stage often requires cooling, since compression can heat the air to temperatures in excess of 650 degrees Fahrenheit.
Bleeding air from the compressor does cause a small
but noticeable drop in engine power. Sometimes
power loss can be detected by observing the engine
pressure ratio (EPR) indicator. For example, selecting the engine inlet anti-ice function causes a drop
in EPR and engine rpm if the engine power lever is
left in a fixed position. Exhaust gas temperature
(EGT) readings may shift noticeably as well.
DIFFUSER
Figure 3-38. The Garrett TFE731 engine has a two-stage compressor that uses an axial flow compressor for the low pressure stage
and a single stage centrifugal compressor for the high pressure stage.
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A typical ignition source for gas turbine engines is
the high-energy capacitor discharge system, consisting of an exciter unit, two high-tension cables,
and two spark igniters. This ignition system produces 60 to 100 sparks per minute, resulting in a
ball of fire at the igniter electrodes. Some of these
systems produce enough energy to shoot sparks several inches, so care must be taken to avoid a lethal
shock during maintenance tests.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important
task of draining the unburned fuel after engine
shutdown. Draining accumulated fuel reduces the
possibility of exceeding tailpipe or turbine inlet
temperature limits due to an engine fire after shutdown. In addition, draining the unburned fuel
helps to prevent gum deposits in the fuel manifold,
nozzles, and combustion chambers which are
caused by fuel residue.
To accomplish the task of efficiently burning the
fuel/air mixture a combustion chamber must
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Figure 3-40. As air flows into the combustion section it separates into primary and secondary flows. The primary flow is used to
support combustion while the secondary flow cools the hot gases before they enter the turbine section.
The multiple-can type combustion chamber consists of a series of individual combustor cans
which act as individual burner units. This type of
combustion chamber is well suited to centrifugal
compressor engines because of the way compressor
discharge air is equally divided at the diffuser.
Each can is constructed with a perforated stainless
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igniters similar to the type found in multiple-can
combustors.
In a conventional annular combustor, airflow enters
at the front and is discharged at the rear with primary and secondary airflow much the same as in
the multiple-can design. However, unlike the can
type combustors, an annular combuster must be
removed as a single unit for repair or replacement.
This usually involves complete separation of the
engine at a major flange. [Figure 3-42]
Some annular combustors are designed so the airflow can reverse direction. These reverse-flow combustors serve the same function as the conventional
flow type, except the air flows around the chamber
and enters from the rear. This results in the combustion gases flowing in the opposite direction of
the normal airflow through the engine. This idea
was first employed by Whittle in his early designs.
ANNULAR TYPE
Figure 3-42. An annular combustor has the highest efficiency for its weight of any combustor design. However,
the engine must be disassembled to repair or replace an
annular combustor. Also, the shallow curvature makes this
combustor more susceptible to warping.
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In a typical reverse-flow annular combustor, the turbine wheels are inside the combustor area rather
than downstream, as with the conventional flow
designs. This allows for a shorter and lighter engine
that uses the hot gases to preheat the compressor
discharge air. These factors help make up for the
loss of efficiency caused by the gases having to
reverse their direction as they pass through the combustor. [Figure 3-43]
CAN-ANNULAR TYPE
Can-annular combustion sections represent a combination of the multiple-can combustor and the
annular type combustor. The can-annular combustor was invented by Pratt & Whitney and consists of
a removable steel shroud that encircles the entire
combustion section. Inside the shroud, or casing,
are multiple burner cans assembled radially around
the engine axis with bullet-shaped perforated liners.
A fuel nozzle cluster is attached to the forward end
of each burner can and pre-swirl vanes are placed
around each fuel nozzle. The pre-swirl vanes
enhance the combustion process by promoting a
thorough mixing of fuel and air and slowing the
axial air velocity in the burner can. Flame propagation tubes connect the individual liners and two
igniter plugs are used for initiating combustion. An
individual can and liner is removed and installed as
one unit for maintenance. This design combines the
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TURBINE STATOR
CASE
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Figure 3-47. When vanes are riveted or welded into segmented shrouds, the gaps between shroud segments
allow for thermal expansion.
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Figure 3-48. The loose fit of a fir tree base allows the
base of a turbine blade to expand as it heats to operating temperature.
Figure 3-49. In an impulse turbine system, the turbine nozzle vanes form a series of converging ducts that increase
the velocity of the exhaust gases. The impulse turbine
blades then extract energy from the gases as the blades
redirect the flow of high velocity gases.
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One of the most common ways of cooling the components in the turbine section is to use engine bleed
air. For example, turbine disks absorb heat from hot
gases passing near their rim and from the blades
through conduction. Because of this, disk rim temperatures are normally well above the temperature
of the disk portion nearest the shaft. To limit the
effect of these temperature variations, cooling air is
directed over each side of the disk.
To sufficiently cool turbine nozzle vanes and turbine blades, compressor bleed air is typically
directed in through the hollow blades and out
through holes in the tip, leading edge, and trailing
edge. This type of cooling is known as convection
cooling or film cooling. [Figure 3-53]
Figure 3-52. Shrouded blades form a band around the turbine wheel perimeter which helps reduce blade vibration
and increase efficiency.
COOLING
EXHAUST SECTION
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Figure 3-53. An internally cooled blade receives cooling air at the root and expels the air at the tip or through holes in the leading
and trailing edges.
gases leave the engine. An exhaust section is comprised of several components including the exhaust
cone, exhaust duct or tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle.
[Figure 3-54]
EXHAUST CONE
Figure 3-54. A typical exhaust section has an exhaust cone, tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone is considered the rearmost component of a typical gas turbine engine. The tailpipe and exhaust nozzle are usually classified as airframe components.
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Figure 3-55. The exhaust cone is the rearmost engine component. It straightens and smooths the exhaust gas to
extract the greatest possible thrust.
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Figure 3-56. On some high bypass engines, cold bypass air mixes with hot exhaust gases after the gases exit the engine. Other
high bypass engines use a common or integrated exhaust nozzle that partially mixes the gas streams internally.
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Figure 3-59. With a typical waist mounted accessory section, a radial shaft geared to the main engine shaft transfers
power to the drive pads through an intermediate gearbox.
ENGINE STATION NUMBERING
Engine manufacturers usually assign station numbers to several points along a turbine engine's gas
path. These numbered locations are similar to fuselage stations, and provide a technician with a
means of rapidly locating certain engine areas during maintenance. Station numbers also establish
locations for taking pressure and temperature readings. For example, engine pressure ratio, or EPR,
compares air pressure at the engine inlet with air
Figure 3-60. Engine station numbers provide a standard means of identifying points along an engine's gas path.
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Figure 3-62. The curves on the two graphs shown here represent the maximum decibel levels aircraft are allowed to
produce during the takeoff and approach phases of flight.
Below each curve are the decibel levels produced by different aircraft.
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Generally, ball and roller bearings are used to support an engine's main rotor shaft. Both ball and
roller bearing assemblies are encased in strong
housings with inner and outer races that provide
support, and hold lubricating oil. These type bearings are preferable because they
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TURBOPROP ENGINES
A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine that
drives a propeller to produce thrust. Turboprops,
like all gas turbine engines, have a compressor
section, combustion section, turbine section, and
exhaust section. These sections carry out the same
functions as if they were installed in a turbojet
engine. However, a turboprop engine is designed
with a few differences. For example, the turbine of
a turboprop engine extracts up to 85 percent of
the engine's total power output to drive the
propeller. To do this, most turboprop engines
utilize multiple stage turbines. In addition, the
turbine blades in a turboprop engine are designed
to extract more energy from the exhaust gases
than the blades found in a turbojet engine.
In addition to the turbine used to drive the compressor and accessories, most turboprop engines use
a free turbine to drive a propeller. The free turbine
is an independent turbine that is not mechanically
connected to the main turbine. This free turbine, or
power turbine, is placed in the exhaust stream
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Figure 3-65. Propellers driven by a free turbine rotate independently of the compressor turbine.
TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
Turboshaft engines are gas turbine engines that
operate something other than a propeller by delivering power to a shaft. Turboshaft engines are
similar to turboprop engines, and in some
instances, both use the same design. Like
turboprops, turboshaft engines use almost all the
energy in the
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Figure 3-66. The Garrett GTCP-85-98D APU assembly provides on-board aircraft electrical and pneumatic power for
ground operations.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION CYCLE
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Like the piston engine, a gas turbine engine is a
form of heat engine that converts the chemical
energy of fuel into heat energy. Once converted, the
heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure that
is converted into kinetic energy in the form of a high
velocity stream of air. The kinetic energy is then
converted into mechanical energy when the
expanding gases rotate a series of turbine wheels
that drive a compressor and accessories. In the case
of turboprop or turboshaft engines, the expanding
gases may also drive a second power turbine which
drives a propeller or gearbox.
Figure 3-67. In a gas turbine engine, air is taken in through an air inlet, compressed in the compressor, mixed with fuel and ignited in
the combustors, then exhausted through the turbines and exhaust nozzle. This allows a gas turbine engine to perform the same
functions as a cylinder and piston in a reciprocating engine except that, in a turbine engine, the events happen continuously.
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PRODUCING THRUST
If you recall from Section A, a gas turbine engine
produces thrust based on Newton's third law of
motion which states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. In a turbojet engine,
the acceleration of a mass of air by the engine is the
action while forward movement is the reaction.
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
As air passes through a gas turbine engine its velocity and pressure must change in order to produce
thrust. For example, in the compressor section, static air pressure must be increased while velocity
remains relatively constant. In addition, after combustion, gas velocity must be increased dramatically
to rotate the turbine. The most common way of
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THRUST CALCULATIONS
Given:
F=MxA
Where:
F = force
M = mass
A = acceleration
To calculate the acceleration of a given air mass
through a gas turbine engine, you must know the
difference between the speed of the exiting jet
exhaust and the intake air. In addition, once the
acceleration is known, it must be compared to a
constant. The most widely used constant when discussing acceleration is the gravitational constant. If
you recall from your study of physics, the acceleration of gravity is 32.2 feet per second per second, or
32.2 feet per second2. Once you apply this to the
previous formula, the formula for calculating the
amount of force required to accelerate a given mass
of air looks like this:
= 2,018.6 pounds
In this example, one engine produces
2,018.6 pounds of gross thrust. However,
during flight, the engine will be moving
forward, greatly reducing the velocity
change across the engine. Consider the
same aircraft in the previous example flying at 500
miles per hour (734 feet per second). Its net thrust
can be calculated using the basic formula, as
follows:
Ms = 50 pounds per second
Va = 734 feet per second
V2 = 1,300 feet per second
Given:
F=Mx(V2-V1)/g=50x(1300-734)/32.2
Where:
F
= engine thrust in pounds
Ms = mass airflow through the engine
V2 = air velocity at the exhaust
Va = forward velocity of the engine
g = acceleration of gravity which is 32.2 feet per
second2
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Figure 3-71. Compressor and turbine efficiency near 90 percent is necessary to reach thermal efficiencies above 20 percent.
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ALTITUDE
As altitude increases, air pressure drops. Air at standard temperature at sea level exerts a pressure of
14.69 pounds per square inch. However, this pressure decreases as the altitude increases.
Approximately one-half of the air in the atmosphere
is below 18,000 feet. Therefore, the pressure at
18,000 feet is about 7.34 psi, or half that at sea level.
Above 18,000 feet, air pressure continues to drop,
but at a higher rate. At 20,000 feet, standard air pressure drops to 6.75 pounds per square inch, and at
30,000 feet it is only 4.36 pounds per square inch.
TEMPERATURE
Figure 3-73. Air density decreases with altitude, and, therefore, as an aircraft climbs, engine thrust decreases.
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AIRSPEED
FAN EFFICIENCY