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3, APRIL 2008
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I. INTRODUCTION
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSI: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
generation system with a maximum output power under a particular environmental condition. However, the maximum power
point varies with irradiation and temperature, so that the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) at all atmospheric situations is a challenging problem. In the past decade, many MPPT
methods have been applied to PV generation systems for exacting maximum available powers from PV modules, e.g., incremental conductance method [4], perturbation and observation (P&O) method [27][29], and voltage-and current-based
method [30], [31], etc. The P&O method, which measures the
variations of power and voltage to judge the momentary region and change the reference voltage for operating close to
the maximum power point, is often used because of its simple
structure and fewer measured parameters [28], [29]. Although
the P&O method is easy to realize, the reference voltage still
varies periodically when the MPPT is reached, so that it may
cause oscillation phenomena around the maximum power point,
causing extra power losses. For this reason, an adaptive step-perturbation (ASP) method modified from the conventional P&O
method is proposed to obtain faster tracking response and stable
operation by perturbing the voltage of PV modules with an adaptive voltage step.
According to different irradiations, the output power of a PV
module is substantially changed. For example in Taiwan, the
direction with maximum average irradiations during one year
is the South, and the corresponding angle of inclination is 23.5
so that many PV modules are installed in this posture. However,
it could not capture maximum irradiations persistently by this
method so that the performance of the PV generation system
can not be improved effectively. Nowadays, many researchers
have focused on sun tracking investigations [32][35]. Conventional sun tracking strategies have light sensors equipped
on the terminals of PV plates. When the feedback signals from
light sensors are equal, it means that the PV plate directly faces
the sun and has the maximum irradiation at the corresponding
position. Unfortunately, the initial proofreading and correcting
of light sensors are time consuming and the devices properties are easily varied under different operational conditions. In
order to overcome the aforementioned drawbacks, this study
investigates an active sun tracking scheme without light sensors
via the property of open-circuit voltage of PV modules proportional to the corresponding irradiation, to follow the trail of the
sun.
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Generally speaking, the output power of PV modules is substantially changed according to different irradiations. To further
enhance the capability of the PV generation system, an active
sun tracker actuated by a synchronous motor is investigated on
the basis of the open-circuit voltage of a PV module, for maintaining the PV plate in the face of the sun in order to improve
the generation efficiency of the fixed-installation PV module,
and to lower the cost of conventional sun trackers with light sensors. Incidentally, it is unnecessary to modify the original circuit
framework of the grid-connected PV generation system because
of the sole requirement of the open-circuit voltage of PV modules in the active sun tracking scheme.
In this study, the PWM inverter control, the ASP method, and
the active sun tracking scheme are carried out using Turbo C language inserted into a system controller, i.e., a digital-signal-processor (DSP) development module. This development module
has: Texas Instruments TMS320LF2407A central processing
unit with an evaluation module (EVM), 16 channel 10-bit
analog-to-digital, 4 channel 12-bit digital-to-analog converters
and programmable I/O ports. The central processing unit has: a
40MIPS 16-bit fixed point DSP core, 16 PWM channels, four
general purpose timers and two encoder channels. The detailed
functions of the main components in the grid-connected PV
generation system are described in the following sections.
III. HIGH STEP-UP CONVERTER
The architecture of a high step-up converter introduced from
[17] is depicted in Fig. 2, where it contains seven parts: a PV
module input circuit, a primary-side circuit, a secondary-side
circuit, a passive regenerative snubber circuit, a filter circuit,
a dc output circuit, and a feedback control mechanism. In this
strategy, a coupled inductor with a lower-voltage-rated switch
is used for raising the voltage gain whether the switch is turned
on or turned off. Moreover, a passive regenerative snubber is
utilized for absorbing the energy of stray inductance so that the
switch duty cycle can be operated under a wide range; the re-
lated voltage gain is higher than that of other coupled-inductorbased converters. In addition, all devices in this scheme also
have voltage-clamped properties and their voltage stresses are
relatively smaller than the output voltage. Thus, it can select
low-voltage low-conduction-loss devices, and there are no reverse-recovery currents within the diodes in this circuit. Furthermore, the closed-loop control methodology is utilized to
overcome the voltage drift problem of the power source under
the load variations. As a result, this converter topology can increase the voltage gain of a conventional boost converter with
a single inductor, and deal with the problem of the leakage inductor and demagnetization of the transformer for a coupled-inductor-based converter.
The major symbol representations are summarized as follows.
and
denote dc input voltage and current, and
is an
and
input filter capacitor in the PV module input circuit.
represent individual inductors in the primary and secondary sides
, respectively. is a switch in the
of the coupled inductor
and
are the output voltage command
primary-side circuit;
and the trigger signal in the feedback control mechanism, respecand
denote a clamped capacitor, a clamped
tively.
diode and a rectifier diode in the passive regenerative snubber ciris a high-voltage capacitor in the secondary-side circuit.
cuit.
and
are the output diode and the filter capacitor in the
filter circuit, respectively.
and describe dc output voltage
and current, respectively, in the dc output circuit.
The coupled inductor in Fig. 2 is modeled as an ideal trans, and a leakage inductor
former, a magnetizing inductor
. The turns ratio
and coupling coefficient
of this
ideal transformer are defined as
(1)
(2)
where
and
are the winding turns in the primary and secondary sides, respectively. The voltages across the switch, the
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSI: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
(3)
(4)
where is the duty cycle of the switch
. Because the voltage
is less sensitive to the coupling coefficient
, (3)
gain
as
and (4) can be rewritten with
(5)
(6)
where
is the duty cycle of the switches
and
during
one switching period. Define the duty cycle and the power gain
and
, where
is a
as
sinusoidal control signal and
is the amplitude of a triangular
, then the dynamic equation of the PWM
carrier signal
inverter can be given by
(9)
By way of the Laplace transformation of (9), the equivalent dynamic model of the PWM inverter is depicted in Fig. 4, where
is the Laplace operator.
as the system state
By choosing the ac output current
as the control input, (9) can be
and the control signal
rearranged as
(10)
where
and
and
denote
and
the nominal values of and , respectively;
represent the system parameter variations;
is called the
lumped uncertainty and defined as
(11)
Here, the bound of the lumped uncertainty is assumed to be
given by
(12)
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is a given
B. ATSMC System
The objective of the PWM inverter control is to force the
to track a reference output current
system state
, which is designed by the ASP method introduced later.
An ATSMC system, as shown in Fig. 5, is introduced for the
current control of the PWM inverter, where the control error is
. Define a sliding surface [25]
chosen as
as
(13)
where
is the initial value of
and is a nonzero positive
constant.
The ATSMC system is divided into three main parts. The first
part addresses performance design. The objective is to specify
the desired performance in terms of the nominal model, and it
. Following the
is referred to as the baseline model design
baseline model design, the second part is the curbing controller
to totally eliminate the unpredictable perturbation
design
effect from the parameter variations and external disturbance
so that the baseline model design performance can be exactly
ensured. Finally, the third part is the adaptive observation deto estimate the upper bound of the lumped uncertainty
sign
for alleviating the chattering phenomenon caused by the inappropriate selection of a conservative constant control gain in
the curbing controller. The entire control methodologies of the
ATSMC system are summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 1: If the PWM inverter scheme shown in (10) is controlled by the three-part ATSMC system described by (14)(16)
with the adaptive observation design shown in (17), then the stability of the ATSMC system for the current control of the PWM
inverter can be guaranteed
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
where
is a positive constant.
Proof:
Consider
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSI: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
and
denote the variations of
, respectively. Define an ASP control law as
and
(18)
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goal of feedback control. The prototype with the following specifications is designed to illustrate the design procedure given in
Section III.
Switching frequency:
kHz
Coupled inductor:
H
H
Capacitor:
F
V
V
F
F
F
V
V
Switch:
V
Diode:
V
V
The experimental voltage and current responses of the high
are
step-up converter operating at 320 W-output power
depicted in Fig. 9. From Fig. 9(a), the switch voltage
is clamped at 34 V, which is much smaller than the output
V, and the curve of the switch current
voltage
is similar to a square wave so that it can further reduce the
conduction loss of the switch
. By observing Fig. 9(b) and
keeps about 30A; thus, only a
(c), the primary current
H. According to
smaller core capacity is necessary for
Fig. 9(d)(j), the reverse-recovery currents in all of the diodes
and ) can be alleviated effectively, and the voltages
(
and the high-voltage capacitor
of the clamped capacitor
are close to constant values. Therefore, it can alleviate
the reverse-recovery problem and exhibit the voltage-clamped
effect for further raising the conversion efficiency. From
Fig. 9(i), the selection of the output diode with 200-V blocking
voltage is enough in this application because the voltage of the
200 V)
output diode is limited below the output voltage (
at all times. Fig. 10 summarizes the experimental conversion
efficiency of the high step-up converter under different output
powers. As can be seen from this figure, the conversion efficiency at light powers is over 95% and the maximum efficiency
is over 96.5%, which is comparatively higher than conventional
converters with the same voltage gain.
By the same assumption of the maximum value of the switch
voltage to be clamped at 34 V in this study, the turns ratio is
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSI: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
200V
different step load changes are given to examine the load variation effect. In Fig. 12(a), the load is changed from light load
to heavy load; reversely, the load is changed from heavy load to
light load in Fig. 12(b); and in Fig. 12(c)(d) the load changed
from no load to heavy load and heavy load to no load, respectively. As can be seen from this figure, the control performance
of the ATSMC system for the PWM inverter is insensitive to
the abrupt load changes. Generally speaking, inverters may generate small dc voltages/currents due to somewhat asymmetric
gating. In conventional way, transformers are generally connected between inverter and power system to prevent these dc
currents from entering the power system. Due to the powerful
control ability of the proposed ATSMC system, a transformer
is omitted in this study to reduce the energy transformation loss
and lower manufacturing cost. If it is desirable to use a transformer for electric isolation under safety considerations, the proposed control strategies still can work well by additionally considering the turn ratio of the transformer.
C. Experimental Results of ASP Method
Figs. 1315 are the experimental results for the purpose of
verifying the effectiveness of the ASP method. The atmospheric
condition is the irradiation level 88 mW/cm and the module
temperature 53 C dated on the afternoon of November 6, 2005.
The control flowchart as shown in Fig. 6 is implemented via a
DSP with 0.166 ms time step and the parameters of the ASP
method are given as follows:
(20)
The experimental results of conventional P&O method with
fixed step perturbations 0.15 and 0.3 V are illustrated in Figs. 13
and 14, respectively. It is obvious that the smaller step perturbation (0.15 V) results in slower tracking response, but it has stable
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CIRCUITS AND SYSTEMSI: REGULAR PAPERS, VOL. 55, NO. 3, APRIL 2008
Fig. 16. Experimental results of grid-connected PV generation system with active sun tracker. (a) Nominal condition. (b) Shading condition.
settling time and overcomes the oscillation problem in the conventional P&O method for reducing extra power losses. Furthermore, the implementation of the active sun tracking scheme
on the basis of the open-circuit voltage of PV modules, is for
improving the generation efficiency of the fixed-installation PV
array, and lowering the cost of the conventional sun tracker
with light sensors. This system-integration research provides
designers with an alternative choice to convert the PV energy
efficiently, and it also can be extended easily to a large-scale PV
generation system.
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