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CHAPTER 5

ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICS
INSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Learning mathematics means being able to explore, construct and think rather than
rote learning of rules and procedures. When students construct knowledge based on
personal experience, they are more likely to retain and use what they have learned.
This underlies teachers new role in providing experiences that help students to make
sense of mathematics and view and use it as a tool for reasoning and problem solving
(NCTM, 1989)
Recent Mathematics Curriculum is designed to provide students with knowledge, skills,
and the abilities needed for further education, work life, and daily living. Thus searching
requires changes in the ways children have traditionally been taught and evaluated.
Formerly, evaluation of student learning focused on factual content, and assessed by
using traditional strategies such as paper-and-pencil tests. However, to evaluate
students growth and development as critical and creative thinkers or independent
learners within mathematics and other areas of study, nontraditional strategies are
required. Teachers will rely on strategies such as observation, conferencing, oral and
written assignments, and performance assessment to gather information about student
progress.
Although the responsibility to establish student evaluation and reporting procedures
resides with the school principal and the teaching staff, the classroom teacher has
the daily responsibility for student evaluation. The teacher is at the forefront in
determining student progress using evaluative practices which include careful planning,
appropriate assessment strategies, and, most importantly, sound professional
decisions.

OUTCOMES
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
1. discuss the major emphasis in current assessment practice;
2. explain the importance of assessment of mathematics instruction; and
3. discuss the issues related to assessment of mathematics instruction.

5.1

ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION

What is assessment of mathematics instruction?

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Assessment is a process performed to gain an understanding of an individual learners

strengths and weaknesses in order to make appropriate educational decisions.
Educational assessment first began to be widely used in the 19th century in response
to the mass educational provision and the associated need to provide a ladder of
opportunity into expanding industrial economies of that era. Assessment became
important as there were pressing needs to find mechanism of selection that would be
both socially acceptable and identify the best candidates.
Hence assessment techniques appear to be fair and objective with high levels of
reliability. Reliability means assessment has to operate fairly and consistently. In
addition, we need to assess both what the students know and what they are capable
of doing with such knowledge. This has raised the emergent and urgent issue of
competency-based assessment. Therefore in order to achieve this and if we want
students to learn well, we have to match our assessment process accordingly.
Assessment starts with process of collecting data to gain an understanding of students
strengths and weaknesses. It ends with a description of frequently voiced concerns
about assessment and subsequent decision making.
The first major concern related assessment: Instruction

Early 1980s showed that assessment activities in school settings consisted of efforts to
assess learners. Yet school personnel often have difficulty developing instructional
recommendations based on characteristics of learners.

Recommendations by Englemann, Granzin, and Severson (1979): assessment begin

with instructional diagnosis to determine aspects of instruction that are inadequate, to
find out precisely how they are inadequate, and imply what must be done to correct their
inadequacy.

Therefore assessment consists of systematic analysis of instruction in terms of its

appropriateness for the learners.

Two dimensions are usually considered in instructional assessment. The two

dimensions are instructional challenge and instructional environment.
(a) Instructional Challenge:
For learning to be effective, it must be possible for the learner to master the information
being taught with reasonable effort.
(b) Instructional Environment:
For instruction to be effective, it involves more than appropriate curriculum. It is a complex
activity the outcomes of which depend on the interaction of many factors (classroom
management and learning management). This involves activity such as curriculum and
the learning outcomes of which depends on the interaction of many factors. Assessment
of instructional environment consists of systematically analyzing the extent to which
those factors that are known to make a difference in students learning are present in the
instruction that students receive. Since early 1970s, psychologist and educators have
learned much about the attributes of instruction that result in efficient and motivating
learning. Yet in many classrooms, instruction is not particularly effective, thus students
experience difficulty in learning.
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Dimensions of Instruction

Figure 5.1 shows the dimensions of instruction.

Dimensions of Instruction
x

Teachers understand and articulate teaching the achievement targets that their
students are to hit.

Teachers inform students about those learning goals in terms of that students
understand from the very beginning of the teaching and learning process.

Teachers are assessment literate and thus are able to transform those expectations
into assessment exercises and scoring procedures that accurately reflect student
achievement.

Teachers use classroom assessment to build students confidence in themselves

as learners, helping them take responsibility for their own learning and thus lay a
foundation for lifelong learning.

Principles of Assessment for Learning.

Classroom-assessment results are consistently translated into informative feedback

for students, providing them with specific insights on how to improve.

Teachers inform and review assessment results so that they remain in touch with,
and thus feel in charge of their own improvement over time.

Teachers continuously adjust instruction based on the results of classroom

assessments.

Students to be actively involved in communicating with their teachers and their

families about their achievement status and improvement.
Figure 5.1: The dimensions of instruction

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5.1.2

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Dimensions of Assessing Learners

Figure 5.2 shows the dimensions of assessing learners.

Dimensions of Assessing Learners

x

When students have received appropriate instruction but are still experiencing
academic or behavioral problems, what next to be done?

School personnel should begin to assemble existing information to document the

nature of the problem and to generate hypotheses about the problems likely cause.

5.1.3

Types of Information for Assessment

Figure 5.3 shows the types of information for assessment.

Types of Information for Assessment

x

Observation (nonsystematic/systematic).
x

Nonsystematic observation simply watches the learner in his or her

environment and notes the behavior or characteristics, and personal
interactions that seem significant.

Systematic observation the observer sets out to observe a specific

behavior or characteristic by measuring and counting frequency, duration,
amplitude, or latency of the behavior.

Recollection (interviews/rating scales).

x

Recalled observations and interpretations of behavior and events are

frequently used as an additional source of information.

This can be done by interviews or rating scales.

Testing (tests and test scores).

Professional judgments (various specialists).

Figure 5.3: Types of information for assessment

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5.2

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ASSESSMENT PRACTICE IN MATHEMATICS

In 1992 the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) has addressed

concern on assessment standards for school mathematics in assessing mathematical
performance of United States of Americas students. In relation, effectiveness of
mathematics instruction was also examined.
Figure 5.4 shows the assessment practice in mathematics.

Assessment Practice in Mathematics

Assessing students full mathematical power. This is in contrast with previous

emphasis on students knowledge of specific facts and isolated mathematical
skills.

Comparing students performance with established criteria or standards rather

than comparing with that of other students.

Giving support to teachers and credence to their informed judgment.

Providing students with multiple opportunities to demonstrate their full

mathematical power.

Aligning assessment with curriculum and instruction in contrast to treating

assessment as an independent entity.

Viewing students as active participants in the assessment process rather than

viewing students as objects of assessment.

Regarding assessment as continual and recursive whilst earlier assessment is

regarded as sporadic and conclusive.
Figure 5.4: Assessment practice in mathematics

Give an example of an opportunity provided to students to demonstrate

their mathematical knowledge.

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5.3

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IN WHAT WAYS CAN ASSESSMENT ENHANCE

INSTRUCTION

Lynn (1995) reported that a major impetus for performance assessment movement has
been the need to reconnect large-scale and classroom assessment to learning so that
assessment affects learning positively, thus enhancing instruction. Teachers were
found able to make better decisions about what a student needs to learn next and how
to teach that material in a manner that will maximize students learning when they are
better informed of the learning progress and difficulties faced by their students.
In connections to these, teachers use assessment result in making decisions pertaining
to:

Instructional placement decision decisions related to what students know and where
the student should be placed in the instructional sequence.

Formative evaluation decision information to monitor a students learning while an

instructional program is underway. This is related to questions as to what is the students
progress?, how quickly progress is made?, Is the new instructional program effective?

Diagnostic decisions which specific difficulties account for the students inadequate
progress so the teacher can remediate learning progress and design more effective
instructional plans.

5.3.1 Criteria for Assessment

Assessment should meet the seven criteria shown in Figure 5.5 if they are to be of
use in instructional decisions.

Criteria for Assessment

x

Important learning outcomes are measured.

Address all three purposes of assessment.

Provide clear descriptions of student performance that can be linked to

instructional actions.

Be compatible with a variety of instructional models.

Be easily administered, scored, and interpreted by teachers.

Communicate the goals of learning to teachers and students.

Generate accurate, meaningful information (that is reliable and valid).

Figure 5.5: Criteria for assessment

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Give an example on how learning outcomes are measured.

Lynn (1995) compared the three types of assessment namely performance

assessment, behavioral assessment, mastery learning, and curriculum-based
assessment. Does each of these assessments contribute to enhancing instruction?

5.3.2

Performance Assessment

Performance assessment is relatively new, undeveloped and yet to be studied

systematically. Performance assessment measures specific assessment of a
mathematics problem or task. The task reflect intended student learning outcome
relevant to the workplace and everyday life. Teachers should be able to connect the
required tasks meaningfully with specific instructional methods that can be realistically
managed in school settings.
Performance assessment can be used to formulate instructional placement or
formative evaluation decisions. Alternate forms of the problem could be included
covering the same mathematical concepts but yet appropriate for different level of
students ability. Performance assessment should provide clear description of students
intended learning performance based on the specified learning outcome. Performance
assessment may require large amounts of teacher time to design and administer
assessments and to evaluate student performance. In addition with the assessment
information teachers will have to generate many different plans for intervention
strategies which may be unmanageable in the classroom setting.
An example of a performance assessment tasks is provided in Example 5.1.
Example 5.1:
A group of five families on your block is going to have a garage sale in which
clothes, toys, and books will be sold. Your family has 12 items to sell and will
need 18 square feet to display these items; the Hamletts have 13 items and need
20 square feet; the Phillips, 7 items and 10 square feet; the Garcias, 15 items
and 15 square feet; the Nguyens, 10 items and 30 square feet. Rental tables
measure 6 feet by 2.5 feet and cost $6.00 a day. The garage where the sale
will be held is 20 feet by 30 feet. Newspaper advertising costs $11.00 for the
first 10 words and $1.50 for each additional word.
1.

How many tables will you need? Explain how you got this number.

2.

Draw a diagram showing how the tables can be arranged in the garage to allow
the customers to move about with at least 4 feet between tables.

3.

Write an ad for your sale that includes enough information.

4.

How much money do you have to earn from your sale for the families to break
even?

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In performance assessment, the students are made aware of the scoring system and
the criteria used to determine the scores. Their responses will be classified as
exemplary, competent, minimal, inadequate, or no attempt based on a rubric that
specifies the characteristics of responses in each of these categories.
This problem measures massed mathematical concepts that include addition,
multiplication, decimals, data analysis, perimeters, areas, spatial sense, graphic
representation, money, and communication about mathematics. Students can be given
about 50 minutes to complete either working individually or in small groups. The problem
is anchored in real-life and represents real applications of mathematics.

5.3.3

Behavioral Assessment

Behavioral assessment relies on direct observation and recording of target behaviors,

using repeated observation in the setting where the behaviors occur. Environmental
factors (i.e. the situations in which the behaviors occur) and their effects on the
behaviors are examined.
For example, if a teacher wanted to instruct a student in grocery shopping, she would
first analyze the tasks associated with grocery shopping, put them in order, and design
behavioral objectives that measure each tasks. Tasks might include creating a shopping
list, finding the item in the store, and finding the price of each item. The teacher would
then collect data on each task to identify those in which the student needed instruction.
The teacher would begin instruction at the point in the task sequence where the student
was unable to correctly complete the task. Once the student could correctly complete
a task, the teacher would move on to the next step, moving through the sequence until
all of the task were mastered.
Behavioral assessment meets some but not all of the criteria for assessment listed
above. It can inform the teacher about the students placement in the instructional
sequence and can help the teacher reach formative evaluation and diagnostics
decisions. It communicates clearly what the essential learning content is, and it is
feasible to administer, score, and interpret the learning behavior. In addition its repeated
measurements support the reliability of assessments. However, behavioral assessment
tends to focus on discrete tasks that do not necessarily add up to important outcomes.
It is limited to observable behaviors, and its small units of instruction can be difficult
for students to put together and apply to real life outcomes. It is limited to observable
behaviors, and its small units of instruction can be difficult for students to piece together
and apply to real-world outcomes. Additionally, the assessment system dictates a
behavioral approach to instruction, which can limit the teachers instructional options.

5.3.4

Mastery Learning

What are the limitations of mastery learning?

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How does the curriculum address a classroom of students with diverse

mathematical backgrounds? Are there problems and exercises for
students who need reinforcement? Are there problems and exercises for
students who would like to explore a concept in greater depth?
In mastery learning, a curriculum is broken down into a set of sub-skills, which are
then written into instructional objectives. To achieve each of the instructional objectives
a criterion-referenced test is designed and a performance criterion indicating mastery
of the sub-skills is specified. The teacher starts with a pretest, followed by teaching,
and a post-test on the materials taught. If the students does not demonstrate mastery,
the teacher will use corrective strategies until mastery of the sub-skills are acquired.
Then only the teacher can proceed to the next topic, unit or more complex tasks or
learning objectives.
Mastery learning provides information for instructional placement, formative
assessment and diagnostic assessment. It informs clearly to teachers and students
about what is important to teach and learn. However, mastery learning has its limitation
in which users cannot identify exactly what is being assessed and how to go about
interpreting the resulting information. In addition in the normal assessment dictates a
specific approach to instruction, hence leaving the teachers few instructional choices.

5.3.5

Classroom Assessment

Among tools of classroom assessment that are used by teachers are homework
assignments to evaluate learning. In addition, classroom observations are also used.
Test results are also indicators of effectiveness of teaching taking place in the
classrooms.
Teachers often make use of daily homework assignments to evaluate student learning.
This allows students to demonstrate the skills they have developed without the
constraints of a limited amount of time or resources that a testing situation often
involves. However, most teachers do not like to rely too heavily on homework scores,
since there is no guarantee that the work completed represents the students
understandings, rather than those of other students.
In addition, classroom observations are used by most teachers on an informal basis
to judge understanding and comprehension. This is often done during guided practice
sessions, where students are asked to work sample questions while the teacher
watches and helps those having difficulty. Observations are also made during
discussion sessions. Teachers judge students understanding on the basis of questions
students ask or explanations they provide. The biggest problem teachers faced with
this type of evaluation is accountability. Since the observations are usually informal,
criteria to judge performance are difficult to develop. There is no guarantee that students
will participate in discussions or ask questions when they do not understand a concept.
Interestingly, in the United States (US), teachers view test result as an indication of
the effectiveness of their teaching, most do not indict their teaching for poor students
performance on this measures, instead, they tend to externalize the problem of poor
students achievement by blaming factors external to themselves, such students ability,
discipline problems, and poor attention or attendances for students lack of achievement.

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This is not the case in Japan, where teachers are more likely to internalize the problem
and blame their own professional limitations for poor students achievement (McKnight,
1987). Given these differential teacher attributions and the substantial performance
differences between Japanese and American students, one wonders if the Japanese
teachers tend to ascribe the results of their informal students assessments during
mathematics lessons more to their teaching methods than do US teachers. If so, this
might implied that they take greater account of this data about student learning as they
make instructional decisions and this result in the differential student performance
previously mentioned.
The emphases of mathematics classroom instruction in Malaysia are shown in Figure
5.6.

Emphases of Mathematics Classroom Instruction

1.

Teaching and learning approaches that emphasizes on student-centered

teaching incorporating enjoyment during learning with effective teaching aids,
adapting to students learning styles and conducting formative evaluation to
get feedback from students.

2.

Use of technology resources such as calculators and computers.

3.

Problem solving in mathematics through problem-based teaching.

4.

Development of mathematical reasoning.

5.

Making connections in mathematics where teachers make concrete evidence

of connections between
a. mathematics and other different components /strands in mathematics,
b. mathematics in the classroom with real-life mathematics, and
c. mathematics in the classroom with other discipline such as science,
geography, etc.

6.

Communication in mathematics where students are given opportunities to

give opinions, ideas, and arguments using correct mathematical language and
terms.
Figure 5.6: Emphases of mathematics classroom instruction

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5.4

ASSESSMENT AND MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION

ASSESSMENT OF MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION

INSTRUCTION AND STUDENT LEARNING

Research by Carpenter, Fennema, Peterson and Chiang (1989) working in the area of
basic addition and subtraction in first-grade classrooms has shown that when teachers

are sensitized to how children learn,

are provided with information about student learning in specific content areas,

are encouraged continually to assess students knowledge and thinking, and

emphasized knowledge and solution methods that students construct.

then positive changes occur in their teaching practices and significant mathematical
learning occurs for their students.
In particular more time is spent on problem solving and about 50 % less time is spent
on practicing skills with no apparent loss in student ability to perform skill work. Another
noteworthy result is that teachers spend more time listening and students spend more
time responding. Students thinking also change; for example, they begin to lose any
preconceived notion that there is only one way to do a problem.
Studies by Cobb, Wood, and Yackel (1991) have shown that when teachers come to
regard student learning as social construction of knowledge, their teaching practices
changes and student interaction increases. From these interaction teachers gain
insight into the depth of students learning occurring. In addition, teachers gain insight
on the misconceptions that children develop and resolve in the process of learning.
Based on the two preceding research programs and other recent studies, there seems
to be significant value to teachers becoming aware of how students are thinking, and
then using this information in the decision making that is part of conducting lessons
and planning future lessons.
In order to facilitate such decision making, more formal assessments involving
observation, questioning and interviewing will be necessary. It is only through these
kinds of procedures that teachers can quickly acquire the information that is needed
for decision making in classrooms.
This type of information gathering provides a different perspective on evaluation than
the summative focus of current assessment schemes. This evades high reliance of
information from standardized achievement tests or criterion-referenced tests
developed at different levels.

5.5

TEACHER SELF-EVALUATION

How does self-evaluation help teachers?

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Teachers can refine their teaching skills through reflecting upon elements of their
instruction which includes evaluation. There are two levels of teacher self-evaluation:
reflection on day-to-day classroom instruction, and professional self-evaluation. The
following questions may assist teachers in reflecting on their classroom instruction to
evaluate student progress:

Was there sufficient probing of student knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes, and
processes?

Were the assessment techniques appropriate for the student information required?

Were the assessment conditions conducive to the best possible student performance?

Were the assessment techniques appropriate for the levels of student abilities? Were
considerations given to variations in gender, culture and language aspects?

Were the assessment techniques fair for the levels of student abilities? Give
considerations to variations in gender, culture and language aspects.

Was the range of information collected from students sufficient to make interpretations
and evaluate progress?

Were the results of the evaluation meaningfully reported to students, parents, and other
educators as appropriate?

Through reflection on questions like those above, teachers are able to improve their
strategies for student evaluation and hence instruction. It is important for teachers, as
professionals, to engage in self-evaluation. Teachers should take stock of their
professional capabilities, set improvement targets, and participate in professional
development activities. In addition to self-reflection, teachers can also address their
professional growth are by:

reflecting on their own teaching;

reading professional documents (e.g. articles, journals, and books);

attending workshops, conferences, and courses; and,

developing networks with other professionals in their fields.

5.6

ASSESSMENT POLICY

Every school should have a formal student assessment policy to facilitate

communication among teachers, parents, students, and the school board. The principal
and the school staff should be crucially involved in developing the school policy. By
their professional preparation and responsibility, they must take the lead in developing
the policy.

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Figure 5.7 shows the minimum aspects that should be incorporated in every school
policy on student evaluation.

Minimum Aspects in Student Assessment Policy

x

A statement of the school's vision or philosophy on the purposes behind the

evaluation of students.

A general description of the way in which students will be evaluated.

Specific requirements of all teachers in the school.

A grading policy.

A general description of how the school's evaluation policy and the student's
progress will be communicated to parents /guardians.

A step-by-step procedure whereby parents/guardians and students can discuss

reported student progress.

A protocol on what records will be kept at the school level and at the division level
including the length of time the raw information on student evaluation (e.g., data
sheets, portfolios) should be kept at the teacher level, at the school level, and at
the division level.

A formal description of teachers' authority in evaluating students.

Figure 5.7: The minimum aspects that should be incorporated in every

school policy on student evaluation

5.7

MANAGING TIME FOR ASSESSMENT

What timeframe would you give yourself when you assess a student?

As you work through the process of reflecting on your present student evaluation
program and move toward expanding your range of assessment techniques, the issue
of time management becomes crucial. As teachers begin to work together to develop
consistent approaches to student evaluation, consideration must be given to enabling
teachers to find time to plan for assessment, to develop instruments, to collect student
progress information, and to reflect on their practices. The following suggestions may
help.

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1.

Collaboration with colleagues is of tremendous value. It can reduce the time required to
develop items such as rating scales and checklists and also target proven assessment
techniques in your subject area. Examples of collaborative activities are discussed in
Figure 5.8.

2.

Peter Drucker, in his book The Effective Executive, warns that 79% of what we do is
dictated by habit, not by need. According to Drucker, two time-wasting habits that, once
eliminated, can free up time are perfectionism and inconsistency. Reflect on your current
assessment techniques and ones you intend to use to see if the habits of perfectionism
and inconsistency are present. Keep the following points in mind when dealing with
classroom assessment:

What assessment activities can be handled on a regular schedule?

How much does this particular assessment instrument or activity contribute?

Can I create master copies of assessment formats that can be completed as

needed?

Is there a time of the day that can be set aside consistently to be used for the
creating, organizing, and recording of assessment information?

3.

Share the task of evaluating student progress with your students. Include your students
in defining specific criteria for judging their work and their interactions with peers. Involve
them in making formative assessments of their own learning progress. Having them
keep an ongoing record of their progress gives the students part- ownership in determining
the extent of their progress. As well, it gives them an awareness of what is important in
assessing progress and provides them with some insights into their summative
evaluation. A standard self- assessment procedure for students across subject areas
makes this process easier.

4.

Varying your assessment techniques can save time. For example, marking open-ended
response items frequently places high time demands on a teacher. Collecting
assessment information using a wider range of assessment techniques such as
checklists and rating scales provides similar student assessment information with data
collection spread over a longer time period.

5.

Banks of test items or assignments that you have found valuable for a particular curriculum
can be constructed and saved. Good test items take time to construct. Over the course
of a year you will acquire a number of good items. To store these items you may wish to
utilize a computer or you may wish to use index cards filed according to topic. Coding
that indicates the cognitive level and item type may be added to the top of the card.

6.

Planning efficient methods of storing collected data is also an important time management
issue.

82

Anecdotal records can be maintained on individual index cards and arranged in

alphabetical order. Storage can be simplified by keeping the cards in a file box
similar to one used for recipes. Anecdotal records can also be kept on adhesive
memo strips and attached to the inside of a student folder. The teacher can carry a
block of removable self- stick notes with him or her and, as the opportunity arises,

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record observations on an aspect of students performance. These notes should

be dated and labelled with the students names so the teacher can transfer them to
a folder in which such student data are kept.

7.

Portfolios may take the form of envelopes, file folders, or binders. Teachers
may file work samples for students, or students themselves may be involved
in entering the selected work samples into whatever organizer the teacher
uses. Introducing students to the organizational procedure you use increases
their own repertoire of organizational skills.

Choose one or two assessment techniques that suit the learning objectives and
instructional methods of a curriculum and become efficient at using them. Teachers
sometimes feel they must change immediately. Remember, the most lasting and effective
change occurs over time.

Exercise 5.1
Discuss the current assessment practice.

SUMMARY
Assessment is the reflective link between what ought to be and what is, and therefore,
it is an essential part of the educational process. The main purposes for assessing
are to facilitate student learning and to improve instruction. By continuously evaluating
student progress, school programs, curriculum, and the effectiveness of instruction
and evaluation, these purposes will be realized.
As a teacher, you never really stop learning how to teach more effectively: trying new
approaches and modify old ones, learning how to meet the demands of new curricula,
adjust to the needs of each particular class and of each particular student. Student
evaluation, as a part of the teaching process, must become another one of those
aspects of teaching that you submit to continual review and reconsideration.
Although the responsibility to establish student evaluation and reporting procedures
resides with the school principal and the teaching staff, the classroom teacher has
the daily responsibility for student evaluation. The teacher is at the forefront in
determining student progress using evaluative practices which include careful planning,
appropriate assessment strategies, and, most importantly, sound professional
decisions.

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