Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By
D.CHANDRASHEKAR (08241A0263)
M.DAVID LIVINGSTONE (08241A0264)
D.POORNA CHANDRA RAO (08241A0281)
CH.VISWANATH (08241A02B8)
V.HIMA BINDU
Assistant Professor
~i~
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER that
is being submitted by M.DAVID LIVINGSTONE (08241A0264), D.CHANDRASHEKAR
(08241A0263), CH.VISWANATH (08241A02B8), D.POORNA CHANDRA RAO
(08241A0281) in partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering to the Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University is a record of bonafide work carried out by him under my guidance
and supervision. The results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any
other University or Institute for the award of any graduation degree.
Mr.P.M.Sarma
HOD, EEE
GRIET, Hyderabad
Assistant Professor.
GRIET, Hyderabad
(Internal Guide)
~ ii ~
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This is to place on record my appreciation and deep gratitude to the persons without
whose support this project would never seen the light of day.
Finally I express my sincere gratitude to all the members of faculty and my friends
who contributed their valuable advice and helped to complete the project
successfully.
D.CHANDRASHEKAR (08241A0263)
M.DAVID LIVINGSTONE (08241A0264)
D.POORNA CHANDRA RAO (08241A0281)
CH.VISWANATH (08241A02B8)
~ iii ~
ABSTRACT
A method to obtain flow rate of a fluid is by employing hot wire anemometer.
Firstly, we designed and simulated the circuit using the software multisim for
getting error voltage and amplify it to get sufficient voltage.
Since the transformer used in hardware is not present in software,
we used a transformer which gives same output in secondary, with different
source. Once desired output was obtained that is required outputs are obtained
we proceeded for the hardware part
Hardware circuit has the power circuit where ac to dc voltage is
obtained, two Wheatstone bridges having three arm normal resistances and
fourth arm having metal oxide resistor that is thermistor and few op amps for
amplification . Thermistor was vigorously tested for resistance change before
placing it on the circuit board. Desired output was obtained with necessary
changes in the original circuit.
Anemometers can be divided into two classes: those that measure the
wind's speed, and those that measure the wind's pressure; but as there is a close
connection between the pressure and the speed, an anemometer designed for
one will give information about both.
Anemometers are mostly preferred for their wide frequency response,
miniaturization which helps in their use in inaccessible areas
~ iv ~
CONTENTS
SN
TITLE
a)
Acknowledgement
Page
No.
iii
b)
Abstract
iv
c)
List of Figures
viii
d)
List of Tables
ix
1.
Introduction
2.
AC-to-DC Converter
2.1 Definition
2.2 Usage
2.3 Conversion methods
2.3.1 The half wave rectifier
2.3.2 The full wave rectifier
2.3.3 The full wave bridge rectifier
2
2
2
2
2
3
4
3.
6
6
6
6
8
9
9
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
17
18
18
19
19
20
4.
~v~
21
21
5.
Wheatstone bridge
5.1 Characteristic
5.2 Thermistor in Wheatstone bridge
22
22
24
6.
Amplification circuit
6.1 Introduction
6.2 LM 324
6.3 Amplifiers used
6.3.1 Non-inverting amplifier
6.3.2 Differential amplifier
6.3.3 Voltage follower
25
25
26
27
27
28
29
31
31
31
31
31
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
33
33
33
34
34
34
8.
Hardware implementation
8.1 Circuit specification
8.2 Circuit description
8.2.1 Starting Power Supply
8.2.2 Wheatstone bridge
8.2.3 Normal and differential amplifier circuit
8.2.4 Total Circuit
8.3 Hardware output
37
37
37
37
37
38
38
38
9.
40
41
~ vi ~
Appendix-A
Appendix-B
Appendix-C
Appendix-D
42
43
44
45
~ vii ~
LIST OF FIGURES
1. Fig 2.1(a) Half wave rectifier waveforms
2.Fig 2.1(b) half wave rectifier
3. Fig 2.2(a) Full wave rectifier waveforms
4. Fig 2.2(b) Full wave rectifier
5. Fig 2.3 Bridge rectifier
6. Fig 3.1 Capacitor filter operation
7. Fig 3.2 Voltage regulators
8. Fig 3.3 Voltage regulator operation
9. Fig 3.4 output of power circuit
10. Fig 4.1 R/T characteristic
11. Fig 4.2 Voltage/current characteristic
12. Fig 4.3 heat /current characteristic
13. Fig.4.4 Constant current and voltage source
14. Fig.4.5 Self heating effect in constant voltage and current source
15. Fig 4.6 temperature/thermal time constant
16. Fig 4.7 thermal time constant measurement apparatus
17. Fig 5.1 Wheatstone bridge
18. Fig 6.1 OP-AMP
19. Fig 6.2 LM 324
20. Fig 6.3 inverting amplifier
21. Fig 6.4 Differential amplifier
22. Fig 6.5 Voltage follower
23. Fig.7.1 Power circuit
24. Fig.7.2 Dc bridges
25. Fig.7.3 Amplification circuit
26. Fig.7.4 Differential amplifier
27. Fig.7.5 Total circuit
28. Fig.7.6 (a) Dc voltages
29. Fig.7.6 (b) Simulation output
30. Fig.8.1 Power supply board
31. Fig.8.2 Wheatstone bridge
32. Fig.8.3 Amplifier circuits
33. Fig.8.4 Total circuit
34. Fig.8.5 (a) Dc outputs
35. Fig.8.5 (b) with air output
36. Fig.8.5(c) Without air output
~ viii ~
LIST OF TABLES
1. Table-6.1 pin description
~ ix ~
1. INTRODUCTION
Hot wire anemometers generally use a very fine wire (on the order of several micrometers) or
heat sensitive components such as thermistors, electrically heated up to some temperature
above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire has a cooling effect on the wire. As the
electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal, a
relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the flow speed. The
technique depends on the convective heat loss to the surrounding fluid from an electrically
heated sensing element or probe.
Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as
CCA (Constant-Current Anemometer), CVA (Constant-Voltage Anemometer) and CTA
(Constant-Temperature Anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the
result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable
(current, voltage or temperature) constant.
Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the
velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to
a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the
pulse is sent again.
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response
and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost
universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid
velocity fluctuations are of interest and is the most common method used to measure
instantaneous fluid velocity. basic principles of the technique are relatively straightforward
and the probes are difficult to damage if reasonable care is taken. Most sensors are operated
in the constant temperature mode
Cylindrical sensors (hot wires and hot films) are most commonly used to measure the fluid
velocity while flush sensors (hot films) are employed to measure the wall shear stress. Hotwire sensors are, as the name implies, made from short lengths of resistance wire and are
circular in section. Hot-film sensors consist of a thin layer of conducting material that has
been deposited on a non-conducting substrate. Hot-film sensors may also be cylindrical but
may also take other forms, such as those that are flush-mounted.
Hot-wire anemometers have been used for many years in the study of laminar, transitional
and turbulent boundary layer flows and much of our current understanding of the physics of
boundary layer transition has come solely from hot-wire measurements. Thermal
anemometers are also ideally suited to the measurement of unsteady flows such as those that
arise behind rotating blade rows when the flow is viewed in the stationary frame of reference.
~1~
2. AC-TO-DC CONVERTER
2.1 DEFINITION
An AC-to-DC converter is an electronic circuit which converts a source of alternating
current (AC) to source of direct current (DC), often called as rectifier. It is a class of power
converter.
2.2 USAGE
Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies
and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles
other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of radio
signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence
of flame
These are also important for portable electronic devices such as cellular phones and laptop
computers, which are supplied with power from ac supplies primarily. Such electronic
devices often contain several sub-circuits, each with its own voltage level requirement
different from that supplied by the battery or an external supply (sometimes higher or lower
than the supply voltage). AC to DC converters makes them to operate by converting AC to
DC by having some additional circuits.
~2~
~3~
This rectifier configuration, like the half-wave rectifier, calls for one of the transformer's
secondary leads to be grounded. In this case, however, it is the center connection, generally
known as the center tap on the secondary winding.
~4~
other will always be close to ground, through a forward-biased diode. This is not usually a
problem in modern circuits.
Fig 2.3
Bridge rectifier
To understand how the bridge rectifier can pass current to a load in only one direction,
consider the figure to the right. Here we have placed a simple resistor as the load, and we
have numbered the four diodes so we can identify them individually.
During the positive half-cycle, shown in red, the top end of the transformer winding is
positive with respect to the bottom half. Therefore, the transformer pushes electrons from its
bottom end, through D3 which is forward biased, and through the load resistor in the
direction shown by the red arrows. Electrons then continue through the forward-biased D2,
and from there to the top of the transformer winding. This forms a complete circuit, so
current can indeed flow. At the same time, D1 and D4 are reverse biased, so they do not
conduct any current.
During the negative half-cycle, the top end of the transformer winding is negative. Now, D1
and D4 are forward biased, and D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Therefore, electrons move
through D1, the resistor, and D4 in the direction shown by the blue arrows. As with the
positive half-cycle, electrons move through the resistor from left to right.
In this manner, the diodes keep switching the transformer connections to the resistor so that
current always flows in only one direction through the resistor. We can replace the resistor
with any other circuit, including more power supply circuitry (such as the filter), and still see
the same behavior from the bridge rectifier.
~5~
3.2 FILTERS
Though filters are employed with both capacitors and inductors exist, in most of the normal
applications capacitors are preferred to inductors. It is because of high cost and bulkiness of
the inductor .In this project, Capacitor is enough to get the desired output neglecting minute
harmonics.
~6~
For you to have a better understanding of the effect that filtering has on E avg, a comparison of
a rectifier circuit with a filter and one without a filter is illustrated in views A and B of figure
. The output waveforms in figure represent the unfiltered and filtered outputs of the half-wave
rectifier circuit. Current pulses flow through the load resistance (R L) each time a diode
conducts. The dashed line indicates the average value of output voltage. For the half-wave
rectifier, Eavg is less than half (or approximately 0.318) of the peak output voltage. This value
is still much less than that of the applied voltage. With no capacitor connected across the
output of the rectifier circuit, the waveform in view A has a large pulsating component
(ripple) compared with the average or dc component. When a capacitor is connected across
the output (view B), the average value of output voltage (Eavg) is increased due to the filtering
action of capacitor C.
The value of the capacitor is fairly large (several microfarads), thus it presents a relatively
low reactance to the pulsating current and it stores a substantial charge.
The rate of charge for the capacitor is limited only by the resistance of the conducting diode
which is relatively low. Therefore, the RC charge time of the circuit is relatively short. As a
result, when the pulsating voltage is first applied to the circuit, the capacitor charges rapidly
and almost reaches the peak value of the rectified voltage within the first few cycles. The
capacitor attempts to charge to the peak value of the rectified voltage anytime a diode is
conducting, and tends to retain its charge when the rectifier output falls to zero. (The
capacitor cannot discharge immediately.) The capacitor slowly discharges through the load
resistance (RL) during the time the rectifier is nonconducting.
The rate of discharge of the capacitor is determined by the value of capacitance and the value
of the load resistance. If the capacitance and load-resistance values are large, the RC
discharge time for the circuit is relatively long.
A comparison of the waveforms shown in figure(view A and view B) illustrates that the
addition of C to the circuit results in an increase in the average of the output voltage (E avg)
and a reduction in the amplitude of the ripple component (E r) which is normally present
across the load resistance.
Now, let's consider a complete cycle of operation using a half-wave rectifier, a capacitive
filter (C), and a load resistor (RL). As shown in view A of figure, the capacitive filter (C) is
assumed to be large enough to ensure a small reactance to the pulsating rectified current. The
resistance of RL is assumed to be much greater than the reactance of Cat the input frequency.
When the circuit is energized, the diode conducts on the positive half cycle and current flows
through the circuit, allowing C to charge. C will charge to approximately the peak value of
the input voltage. (The charge is less than the peak value because of the voltage drop across
the diode (D1)). In view A of the figure, the charge on C is indicated by the heavy solid line
on the waveform. As illustrated in view B, the diode cannot conduct on the negative half
cycle because the anode of D1 is negative with respect to the cathode. During this interval, C
discharges through the load resistor (RL). The discharge of C produces the downward slope as
indicated by the solid line on the waveform in view B. In contrast to the abrupt fall of the
applied ac voltage from peak value to zero, the voltage across C (and thus across RL) during
the discharge period gradually decreases until the time of the next half cycle of rectifier
operation. Keep in mind that for good filtering, the filter capacitor should charge up as fast as
possible and discharge as little as possible.
~7~
Since practical values of C and RL ensure a more or less gradual decrease of the discharge
voltage, a substantial charge remains on the capacitor at the time of the next half cycle of
operation. As a result, no current can flow through the diode until the rising ac input voltage
at the anode of the diode exceeds the voltage on the charge remaining on C. The charge on C
is the cathode potential of the diode. When the potential on the anode exceeds the potential
on the cathode (the charge on C), the diode again conducts and C begins to charge to
approximately the peak value of the applied voltage.
After the capacitor has charged to its peak value, the diode will cut off and the capacitor will
start to discharge. Since the fall of the ac input voltage on the anode is considerably more
rapid than the decrease on the capacitor voltage, the cathode quickly become more positive
than the anode, and the diode ceases to conduct .
Another thing to keep in mind is that the ripple component (E r) of the output voltage is an ac
voltage and the average output voltage (E avg) is the dc component of the output. Since the
filter capacitor offers relatively low impedance to ac, the majority of the ac component flows
through the filter capacitor. The ac component is therefore bypassed (shunted) around the
load resistance, and the entire dc component (or Eavg) flows through the load resistance. The
largest possible capacitor will provide the best filtering.
Remember, also, that the load resistance is an important consideration. If load resistance is
made small, the load current increases, and the average value of output voltage (Eavg)
decreases. The RC discharge time constant is a direct function of the value of the load
resistance; therefore, the rate of capacitor voltage discharge is a direct function of the current
through the load. The greater the load current, the more rapid the discharge of the capacitor,
and the lower the average value of output voltage. For this reason, the simple capacitive filter
is seldom used with rectifier circuits that must supply a relatively large load current. Using
the simple capacitive filter in conjunction with a full-wave or bridge rectifier provides
improved filtering because the increased ripple frequency decreases the capacitive reactance
of the filter capacitor.
~8~
In the project we use linear regulators, as they offer high accuracy and reliability.
~9~
with the regulator's voltage. For maximum voltage regulation, adding a capacitor in parallel
between the common leg and the output is usually recommended. Typically a 0.1MF
capacitor is used. This eliminates any high frequency AC voltage that could otherwise
combine with the output voltage. See below circuit diagram which represents a typical use of
a voltage regulator.
~ 10 ~
4 .THERMISTOR
4.1 Definition
As defined by IEC 60539, NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) thermistors are
thermally sensitive semiconductor resistors which show a decrease in resistance as
temperature increases. With -2%/K to -6%/K, the negative temperature coefficients of
resistance are about ten times greater than those of metals and about five times greater than
those of silicon temperature sensors.
Changes in the resistance of the NTC thermistor can be brought about either externally by a
change in ambient temperature or internally by self-heating resulting from a current
flowing through the device. All practical applications are based on this behavior.
NTC thermistors are made of polycrystalline mixed oxide ceramics. The conduction
mechanisms in this material are quite complex, i.e. either extrinsic or intrinsic conduction
may occur. In many cases NTC thermistors have a spinal structure and then show valence
conduction effects.
4.2 Manufacture
EPCOS thermistors are produced from carefully selected and tested raw materials. The
starting materials are different oxides of metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel,
copper and zinc, to which chemically stabilizing oxides may be added to achieve better
reproducibility and stability of the thermistor characteristics.
The oxides are milled to a powdery mass, mixed with a plastic binder and then compressed
into the desired shape. Standard shapes are:
Disks: The thermistor material is compressed under very high pressure on pelleting
Machines to produce round, flat pieces.
Wafers: The ceramic material is compression-molded or drawn and then cut to the
Required shape
The blanks are then sintered at high temperatures (between 1000C and 1400C) to produce
the polycrystalline thermistor body. Disks are contacted by baking a silver paste onto the
flat surfaces. Depending on the application, the thermistors are fitted with leads or tab
connectors, coated or additionally incorporated in different kinds of housing. Finally the
thermistors are subjected to a special aging process to ensure high stability of the electrical
values. Otherwise the NTC resistance would possibly change even at room temperature due
to solid-state reactions in the polycrystalline material.
SMD NTC thermistors are produced in ceramic multilayer technology with and without
inner electrodes.
Flow charts in the quality section of this book show the individual processing steps in
detail. The charts also illustrate the extensive quality assurance measures taken during
manufacture to guarantee the constantly high quality level of our thermistor
4.3 Characteristics
A current flowing through a thermistor may cause sufficient heating to raise the
thermistor's temperature above the ambient. As the effects of self-heating are not always
negligible (or may even be intended), a distinction has to be made between the
~ 11 ~
The actual characteristic of an NTC thermistor can be roughly described by the exponential
relation. This approach, however, is only suitable for describing a restricted range around
the rated temperature or resistance with sufficient accuracy.
For practical applications a more precise description of the real R/T curve is required.
Either more complicated approaches (e.g. the Steinhart-Hart equation) are used or the
resistance/temperature relation is given in tabulated form. Following the application notes
section you will find tables for real R/T curves. These standardized curves have been
experimentally determined with utmost accuracy over the whole specified temperature
range at a sufficient number of measuring points. They are also available for temperature
increments of 1 degree.
4.3.1.2 B value
The B value is determined by the ceramic material and represents the slope of the R/T
curve. It can be expressed from formula (1):
Formula 2 indicates that the rated B value is defined by two temperatures and can be
generalized as:
~ 12 ~
The B value for a particular NTC thermistor can be determined by measuring the resistance
at T1 and T2 and inserting these resistance values into the appropriate equation (formula 4).
B values for common NTC materials range from 2000 through 5000 K. Figure 4.1
illustrates the dependence of the R/T characteristic on the B value.
~ 13 ~
4.3.1.4 Tolerance
The rated resistance RR and the B value are subject to manufacturing tolerances. Due to
this tolerance of the B value, an increase in resistance spread must be expected for
temperatures that lie above or below the rated temperature T R. For practical examples
concerning this topic see chapter "Standardized R/T characteristics".
4.3.1.4.1 Resistance tolerance
The resistance tolerance for an NTC thermistor is specified for one temperature point,
which is usually 25C. Upon customer request other temperatures than those specified in
the data sheets are possible.
Generally, the resistance tolerance can be expressed by the following relation:
In this formula RB denotes the resistance tolerance resulting from the spread of the B
value.
For practical usage of (formula 6) the partial derivatives can be calculated from the
exponential model given in (formula 1), which leads to
As can be seen from this equation, the resistance tolerance at a certain temperature is
influenced by two variables: the manufacturing tolerance of the rated resistance and the
variation of the B value.
4.3.1.4.2 Temperature tolerance
By means of (formula 5) the temperature tolerance can be calculated for small temperature
intervals.
~ 14 ~
For practical application we recommend that the standardized R/T curves (see chapter
"Standardized R/T characteristics") be used; the temperature steps tabulated there are small
enough to permit calculation by the approximation formula given above.
4.3.1.5 Zero-power measurement
Zero-power resistance is the resistance value measured at a given temperature T with the
electrical load kept so small that there is no noticeable change in the resistance value if the
load is further decreased. At too high a measuring load the test results will be distorted by
the self-heating effect.
~ 15 ~
This is the so called parametric description of the voltage/current curve with R (T) being
the temperature dependent NTC resistance. With the aid of the above equations these
curves can be calculated for different ambient temperatures.
By plotting the voltage values obtained at constant temperature as a function of current one
obtains the voltage/current characteristic of the NTC thermistor.
~ 16 ~
exclusively determined by the ambient temperature. Use of this curve section is made when
NTC thermistors are employed as temperature sensors. (dV/dI = R = constant)
2. The section of non-linear rise up to maximum voltage where resistance already begins
to drop. (R > dV/dI > 0)
3. At maximum voltage the incremental resistance is zero. (dV/dI = 0)
4. The falling-edge section where the decrease in resistance is greater than the relative
increase in current. This curve section in the operating area of NTC thermistors when a
self-heating effect is desired (e.g. inrush current limiters, liquid level sensors). (dV/dI <
0)
4.3.2 .2 Self-heating of NTC temperature sensors
All considerations in this section refer to the NTC B57861S0103F045 as an example, whose
rated resistance is RR = 10 k 1.0% and whose B value is B = 3988 K 0.3%. The selfheating effect as a function of applied current is plotted logarithmically in figure 3 for
different ambient temperatures.
The self-heating effect of both cases is compared in figure 5. The constant current is 200
A and the constant voltage is 5 V. In the case of constant voltage the self-heating effect is
shown for three different series resistors (RS = 5 k , RS = 10 k and RS = 20 k ).
~ 17 ~
For measuring th the thermistor is loaded such that the V/I ratio corresponds to the
resistance value measured at T2 = 85C.
Designing an NTC thermistor into a circuit will always produce some kind of increase in its
body temperature that leads to falsification of the measured result in a temperature sensor
application. To keep this small, make sure the applied power is as low as possible. No
general details can be given for optimal wiring in a specific application because our
products have a wide bandwidth of both resistance and thermal conductivity. Simulation
with PSpice may be found helpful. Please note that all figures for the thermal
characteristics of our NTC thermistors refer to still air. As soon as other ambient conditions
apply (e.g. agitated air) or once a component obtained from EPCOS is subsequently
prepared, the thermal characteristics illustrated in our library are no longer valid.
4.3.2.4 Behavior in different media
As shown by the equations (formula 12a) and (formula 12b) the voltage/current curve is
influenced not only by the NTC resistance R (T) but also by the dissipation factor th. The
dissipation factor, in turn, depends on size, shape and leads of the device as well as on the
medium surrounding the thermistor.
~ 18 ~
The voltage/current curves specified in the data sheets apply to still air. In agitated air or in
a liquid the dissipation factor increases and the V/I curve shifts towards higher values of
voltage and current. The opposite applies when the thermistor is suspended in a vacuum.
The voltage/current curve thus indicates by which medium the thermistor is surrounded.
This means that NTC thermistors can be used for sensing the flow rate of gases or liquids,
for vacuum measurement or for gas analysis.
4.3.2.5 Maximum power P25
P25 is the maximum power an NTC thermistor is capable of handling at 25C ambient
temperature. When the maximum power P25 is applied to the NTC thermistor, it
operates in the self heating regime.
4.3.2.6 Thermal time constant a
Thermal time constant a can be a crucial parameter when selecting a temperature
sensor to match an application. The thermal time constant (thermal response time) of a
temperature sensor is mainly influenced by:
Its design (e.g. sensor element, material used to assemble the sensor element in the sensor
case, connection technology, housing), its mounting configuration (e.g. immersed, surfacemounted), the environment it will be exposed to (e.g. air flow, inactive air, fluid).
When a temperature sensor with temperature T1 is immersed in a medium (air, water) with
temperature T2, the change in temperature of the sensor as a function of time follows to a
first approximation an exponential law:
After the thermal time constant a the temperature change of the sensor is 1- 1/e = 63.2%
of the temperature difference T1 - T2, this means T ( a) = T1 + (T2- T1). (1- 1/e).
~ 19 ~
~ 20 ~
The relationship between heat capacity, dissipation factor and thermal cooling time constant
is expressed by:
~ 21 ~
5. WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
5.1 CHARACTERISTIC
A Wheatstone bridge is generally an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical
resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer.
~ 22 ~
Initially, the bridge is balanced, which implies that the output voltage V g is zero. This is
because the resistors are chosen in such a way that the ratio of R 1:R3 is equal to the ratio
R2:Rx. As a result, the voltage at terminals B and D is equal. If there is a change in any of the
resistances, the output voltage Vg is no longer zero, due to an imbalance in the bridge.
First, a brief mathematical calculation of the functioning of the Wheatstone bridge is useful.
The voltage drop in the arms AB and AD is given by:
The equations are obtained by using the current-divider rule to determine the current flowing
through arms ABC and ADC of the bridge, I ABC and IADC, respectively. The output voltage
Vgcan then be obtained from the:
Simplifying gives
This equation shows that if the ratio R1:R3 is equal to the ratio R2: Rx, then Vg will be zero.
Any change in the values of any of the resistances will disturb this balance and the output
voltage will no longer be zero.
~ 23 ~
In the project, above circuit is implemented twice with same component values. two bridges
are enclosed in a special box with one thermistor fixed and other which can be enclosed in
fluid flowing tube
One bridge is given +12 volts where as other bridge is given with -12 volts. As a result
voltage difference in one case is positive and other is negative.
~ 24 ~
6. AMPLIFICATION CIRCUIT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Generally, an amplifier, or simply amp, is a device for increasing the power of a signal by use
of an external energy source. In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic
amplifier, in which the input "signal" is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications,
amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used in PA systems to make the human voice louder or play
recorded music. Amplifiers may be classified according to the input (source) they are
designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform with an electric guitar), the device
they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier), the frequency range of the signals
(Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example), whether they invert the signal (inverting
amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers), or the type of device used in the amplification
(valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers, etc.).
A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another (for example, a
light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a sensor.
However, none of these amplify power.
Though an amplifier can be realized through transistors and other stuff, operational amplifiers
are mostly preferred due to their very good characteristics and their compactness as well.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
~ 25 ~
gain) are set by external components with little dependence on temperature changes and
manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array
of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a few
cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational
amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small
quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more complex
integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include
the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the
instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar
to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would
destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more
op-amps and a resistive feedback network).
6.2 LM 324
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Pin Description:
Pin
No
Function
Name
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Output 1
Input 1Input 1+
Vcc
Input 2+
Input 2Output 2
Output 3
Input 3Input 3+
Ground
Input 4+
Input 4Output 4
Fig 6.3
An inverting amplifier inverts and scales the input signal. As long as the op-amp gain is very
large, the amplifier gain is determined by two stable external resistors (the feedback resistor
Rf and the input resistor Rin) and not by op-amp parameters which are highly temperature
dependent. In particular, the RinRf resistor network acts as an electronic seesaw (i.e., a class1 lever) where the inverting (i.e., ) input of the operational amplifier is like a fulcrum about
which the seesaw pivots. That is, because the operational amplifier is in a negative-feedback
configuration, its internal high gain effectively fixes the inverting (i.e., ) input at the same
0 V (ground) voltage of the non-inverting (i.e., +) input, which is similar to the stiff
mechanical support provided by the fulcrum of the seesaw. Continuing the analogy,
~ 27 ~
Just as the movement of one end of the seesaw is opposite the movement of the other
end of the seesaw, positive movement away from 0 V at the input of the RinRf
network is matched by negative movement away from 0 V at the output of the
network; thus, the amplifier is said to be inverting.
In the seesaw analogy, the mechanical moment or torque from the force on one side of
the fulcrum is balanced exactly by the force on the other side of the fulcrum;
consequently, asymmetric lengths in the seesaw allow for small forces on one side of
the seesaw to generate large forces on the other side of the seesaw. In the inverting
amplifier, electrical current, like torque, is conserved across the RinRf network and
relative differences between the Rin and Rf resistors allow small voltages on one side
of the network to generate large voltages (with opposite sign) on the other side of the
network. Thus, the device amplifies (and inverts) the input voltage. However, in this
analogy, it is the reciprocals of the resistances (i.e., the conductances or admittances)
that play the role of lengths in the seesaw.
.
So the voltage gain of the amplifier is
where the negative sign is a
convention indicating that the output is negated. For example, if Rf is 10 k and Rin is 1 k,
then the gain is 10 k/1 k, or 10 (or 10 V/V).Moreover, the input impedance of the
device is
because the operational amplifier's inverting (i.e., ) input is a virtual ground.
In a real operational amplifier, the current into its two inputs is small but non-zero (e.g., due
to input bias currents). The current into the inverting (i.e., ) input of the operational
amplifier is drawn across the Rin and Rf resistors in parallel, which appears like a small
parasitic voltage difference between the inverting (i.e., ) and non-inverting (i.e., +) inputs of
the operational amplifier. To mitigate this practical problem, a third resistor of value
can be added between the non-inverting (i.e., +) input and
the true ground. This resistor does not affect the idealized operation of the device because no
current enters the ideal non-inverting input. However, in the practical case, if input currents
are roughly equivalent, the voltage added at the inverting input will match the voltage at the
non-inverting input, and so this common-mode signal will be ignored by the operational
amplifier (which operates on differences between its inputs).
~ 28 ~
The differential input impedance Zin (i.e., the impedance between the two input pins) is
approximately R1 + R2. The input currents vary with the operating point of the circuit.
Consequently, if the two sources feeding this circuit have appreciable output impedance, then
non-linearities can appear in the output. An instrumentation amplifier mitigates these
problems.
Under the condition that the Rf/R1 = Rg/R2, the output expression becomes:
where
is the differential gain of the circuit.
Moreover, the amplifier synthesized with this choice of parameters has good
common-mode rejection in theory because components of the signals that have
V1 = V2 are not expressed on the output. Although this property is described here with
resistances, it is a more general property of the impedances in the circuit. So, for
example, if a compensation capacitor is added across any resistor (e.g., to improve
phase margin and ensure closed-loop stability of the operational amplifier), similar
changes need to be made in the rest of the circuit to maintain the ratio balance.
Otherwise, high-frequency components common to both V1 and V2 can express
themselves on the output. Additionally, because of leakage or bias currents in a real
operational amplifier, it is usually desirable for the impedance looking out each input
to the operational amplifier to be equal to the impedance looking out of the other
input of the operational amplifier. Otherwise, the same current into each operational
amplifier input will generate a parasitic differential signal and thus a parasitic output
component. Consequently, choosing R1 = R2 and Rf = Rg is common in practice.
In the special case when Rf/R1 = Rg/R2, as before, and Rf = R1, the differential gain
A = 1, and the circuit is a differential follower with:
~ 29 ~
(
(Realistically, the differential input impedance of the op-amp itself, 1 M to 1 T)
Due to the strong (i.e., unity gain) feedback and certain non-ideal characteristics of real
operational amplifiers, this feedback system is prone to have poor stability margins.
Consequently, the system may be unstable when connected to sufficiently capacitive loads. In
these cases, a lag compensation network (e.g., connecting the load to the voltage follower
through a resistor) can be used to restore stability. The manufacturer data sheet for the
operational amplifier may provide guidance for the selection of components in external
compensation networks. Alternatively, another operational amplifier can be chosen that has
more appropriate internal compensation.
~ 30 ~
~ 31 ~
AC to DC conversion
DC to DC switch mode power supply topologies
DC to AC for motor drive and renewable energy
Rectifiers, inverters, and power switches
PWM and motor drives
Bioinstrumentation
Student Design
Mechatronics and Control Design
~ 32 ~
Fig 7.1
As there is no presence of required transformer in multisim, a transformer which gives same
required dc with different voltage source is used.
7.3.2 Dc bridges
Fig 7.2
Fig 7.3
~ 33 ~
Fig 7.4
Fig 7.5
~ 34 ~
regulate the voltage level at constant .so the output obtained is a pure dc 0f +15 volts and -15
volts without any ripple content.
~ 35 ~
The outputs obtained are then given to differential amplifier. The resistances
connected to amplifier define the amplification.
The circuit simulation is done with varying a resistor precision value to 10 %,
Which introduces sufficient error in the circuit.
~ 36 ~
8. HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION
8.1 CIRCUIT SPECIFICATION
This section covers a simple hot wire anemometer
Input: 230 volts Ac.
Output: approximately 0.1 to 1 volts
Protection: None
~ 37 ~
~ 38 ~
The above figure shows dc voltage obtained from power circuit ,which is used for biasing as
well as input supply.
~ 39 ~
~ 40 ~
9.REFERENCES
1. U.A.Bakshi, Electronic Devices and circuits: Converters.
2. A.k.sawhney, Measurements and Instrumentation
3. M.D.Singh /Khanchandani, Power Electronics, Tata-McGraw-Hill publications.
4. Wikipedia.org
5.www.datasheetcatalog.org,TL494,<http://www.datasheetcatalog.org/datasheet/texasinstrum
-ents/tl494.pdf >
~ 41 ~
APPENDIX-A
~ 42 ~
APPENDIX-B
~ 43 ~
APPENDIX-C
~ 44 ~
APPENDIX-D
Device Features
Resistance values from 100 Ohms to 9.8 M Ohms
Epoxy Coating
Typical Dissipation Constant = 2mw/C in still air
Typical time constant in still air = 10 Seconds
#28 AWG tin/lead plated copper leads
Interchangeable tolerances available
~ 45 ~