Acid rain

Introduction
The first acid rain reportedly occurred in Manchester,
England during the Industrial Revolution. The term
acid rain was first coined by Robert Angus Smith in
1972. He was the first one to establish relation
between acid rain and air pollution. Gases like sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide are
released in the air due to the combustion of fossil
fuels. Theses gases combine with the rain water to
produce acid rain. The normal rain has a pH of 5
while acid rain has a pH less than 5; the lesser the
pH the more acidic is the water. Acid rain is very
harmful not only to humans but also to the flora and
fauna. The problem of acid rain is very common in
the industrialized countries. For your project, you can
take different topics ranging from the effects of acid
rain on the plants to the effects of acid rain on
metals.

"Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of

wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts
of nitric and sulfuric acids. The precursors, or
chemical forerunners, of acid rain formation result
from both natural sources, such as volcanoes and
decaying vegetation, and man-made sources,
primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel
combustion. In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all
SO2 and 1/4 of all NOx come from electric power
generation that relies on burning fossil fuels, like
coal. Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals
to form various acidic compounds. The result is a
mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. When
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released from
power plants and other sources, prevailing winds
blow these compounds across state and national
borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles.
Wet Deposition
Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. If
the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the
ground in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist. As this
acidic water flows over and through the ground, it
affects a variety of plants and animals. The strength
of the effects depends on several factors, including
how acidic the water is; the chemistry and buffering
capacity of the soils involved; and the types of fish,
trees, and other living things that rely on the water.

Dry Deposition
In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall
to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the
ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees. Dry
deposited gases and particles can be washed from
these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased
runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture
more acidic. About half of the acidity in the
atmosphere falls back to earth through dry
deposition.

Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation

that is unusually acidic, i.e. elevated levels of
hydrogen ions (low pH). It has harmful effects on
plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure. Acid rain
is mostly caused by emissions of compounds of
sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon which react with the
water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.
However, it can also be caused naturally by the
splitting of nitrogen compounds by the energy
produced by lightning strikes, or the release of sulfur
dioxide into the atmosphere by phenomena of
volcano eruptions.

Acid rain" is a popular term referring to the

deposition of wet (rain, snow, sleet, fog and
cloudwater, dew) and dry (acidifying particles and
gases) acidic components. A more accurate term is
“acid deposition”.

Distilled water, which contains no carbon dioxide,

has a neutral pH of 7. Liquids with a pH less than 7
are acidic, and those with a pH greater than 7 are
bases. “Clean” or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic
pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in
the air react together to form carbonic acid, a weak
acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain
also contains other chemicals.[1]

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) → H2CO3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low

concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions:

2 H2O (l) + H2CO3 (aq) CO32− (aq) + 2 H3O+ (aq)

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would

include additional acids to H2CO3.

History
Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have
increased.[2][3] In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the
first to show the relationship between acid rain and
atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England.[4]
Though acidic rain was discovered in 1852, it was not
until the late 1960s that scientists began widely
observing and studying the phenomenon. The term
"acid rain" was generated in 1972.[5] Canadian Harold
Harvey was among the first to research a "dead"
lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S
increased in the 1970s after the New York Times
promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook
Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad
deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to
result from it.[6][7]

Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well

below 2.4 have been reported in industrialized areas.
[2]
Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in
Europe, China,[8][9] Russia and areas down-wind from
them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to
generate heat and electricity.[10] The problem of acid
rain not only has increased with population and
industrial growth, but has become more widespread.
The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution
has contributed to the spread of acid rain by
releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation.
[11][12]
Often deposition occurs a considerable distance
downwind of the emissions, with mountainous
regions tending to receive the greatest deposition
(simply because of their higher rainfall). An example
of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the
local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia.[13]
History of acid rain in the United
States
In 1980, the U.S. Congress passed an Acid Deposition
Act. This Act established a 10-year research program
under the direction of the National Acidic
Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP). NAPAP
looked at the entire problem. It enlarged a network
of monitoring sites to determine how acidic the
precipitation actually was, and to determine long
term trends, and established a network for dry
deposition. It looked at the effects of acid rain and
funded research on the effects of acid precipitation
on freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, historical
buildings, monuments, and building materials. It also
funded extensive studies on atmospheric processes
and potential control programs.

In 1991, NAPAP provided its first assessment of acid

rain in the United States. It reported that 5% of New
England Lakes were acidic, with sulfates being the
most common problem. They noted that 2% of the
lakes could no longer support Brook Trout, and 6% of
the lakes were unsuitable for the survival of many
species of minnow. Subsequent Reports to Congress
have documented chemical changes in soil and
freshwater ecosystems, nitrogen saturation,
decreases in amounts of nutrients in soil, episodic
acidification, regional haze, and damage to historical
monuments.
Meanwhile, in 1990, the US Congress passed a series
of amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV of these
amendments established the Acid Rain Program, a
cap and trade system designed to control emissions
of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Title IV called
for a total reduction of about 10 million tons of SO2
emissions from power plants. It was implemented in
two phases. Phase I began in 1995, and limited sulfur
dioxide emissions from 110 of the largest power
plants to a combined total of 8.7 million tons of sulfur
dioxide. One power plant in New England
(Merrimack) was in Phase I. Four other plants
(Newington, Mount Tom, Brayton Point, and Salem
Harbor) were added under other provisions of the
program. Phase II began in 2000, and affects most of
the power plants in the country.

During the 1990s, research has continued. On March

10, 2005, EPA issued the Clean Air Interstate Rule
(CAIR). This rule provides states with a solution to
the problem of power plant pollution that drifts from
one state to another. CAIR will permanently cap
emissions of SO2 and NOx in the eastern United
States. When fully implemented, CAIR will reduce
SO2 emissions in 28 eastern states and the District of
Columbia by over 70 percent and NOx emissions by
over 60 percent from 2003 levels.[14]

Overall, the Program's cap and trade program has

been successful in achieving its goals. Since the
1990s, SO2 emissions have dropped 40%, and
according to the Pacific Research Institute, acid rain
levels have dropped 65% since 1976.[15][16]
In 2007, total SO2 emissions were 8.9 million tons,
achieving the program's long term goal ahead of the
2010 statutory deadline.[17]

The EPA estimates that by 2010, the overall costs of

complying with the program for businesses and
consumers will be $1 billion to $2 billion a year, only
one fourth of what was originally predicted.[15]

Emissions of chemicals leading to

acidification
The most important gas which leads to acidification
is sulfur dioxide. Emissions of nitrogen oxides which
are oxidized to form nitric acid are of increasing
importance due to stricter controls on emissions of
sulfur containing compounds. 70 Tg(S) per year in
the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion
and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from wildfires and 7-8 Tg(S)
per year from volcanoes.[18]

Natural phenomena
The principal natural phenomena that contribute
acid-producing gases to the atmosphere are
emissions from volcanoes and those from biological
processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in
the oceans. The major biological source of sulfur
containing compounds is dimethyl sulfide.

Acidic deposits have been detected in glacial ice

thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.
[11]

Human activity

The coal-fired Gavin Power Plant in Cheshire, Ohio

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen

compounds from human sources, such as electricity
generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Coal power
plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can
be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere
before they are converted to acids and deposited. In
the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke,
but this caused many problems locally; thus,
factories now have taller smoke funnels. However,
dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants
to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological
damage
Measuring Acid Rain
To learn more about measuring the pH of water and
soil, visit the Science Experiments page. This page
includes information on how to measure pH, how to
make a natural pH indicator, and more.

Acid rain is measured using a scale called “pH.” The

lower a substance's pH, the more acidic it is. See the
pH page for more information.

Pure water has a pH of 7.0. However, normal rain is

slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2)
dissolves into it forming weak carbonic acid, giving
the resulting mixture a pH of approximately 5.6 at
typical atmospheric concentrations of CO2. As of
2000, the most acidic rain falling in the U.S. has a pH
of about 4.3.

Two networks, both supported by EPA, monitor acid

rain’s pH and the chemicals that cause acid rain. The
National Atmospheric Deposition Program
measures wet deposition and developed maps of
rainfall pH (follow the link to the isopleth maps) and
other important precipitation chemistry
measurements.

The Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNET)

measures dry deposition. This EPA Web site features
information about the data collected, the measuring
sites, and the types of equipment used.
Effects of acid rain
Acid rain can affect the earth in many different ways.
Below you can see how soil, trees, lakes, buildings
and people are affected when acid rain falls on the
earth. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse
impacts on forests, freshwaters and soils, killing
insect and aquatic life-forms as well as causing
damage to buildings and having impacts on human
health.

Effects of acid rain on:

soil
Acid rain can damage soil by destroying many vital
substances and washing away the nutrients. Soils
naturally contain small amounts of poisonous
minerals such as mercury and aluminium. Normally
these minerals do not cause serious problems, but
when acid rain falls on the ground and the acidity of
the soil increases, chemical reactions occur allowing
the poisonous minerals to be taken up by the plant
roots. The trees and plants are then damaged and
any animals eating them will absorb the poisons,
which will stay in their bodies.

trees
The acid takes important minerals away from the
leaves and the soil. Without these minerals, trees
and plants cannot grow properly. Damaged trees
lose their leaves, have stunted growth and damaged
bark. This makes it easier for fungi and insects to
attack the tree, and as a result the tree may die.

Acid rain not only damages soil but can also affect
the trees directly. Pollutants can block or damage the
little pores on the leaves through which the plant
takes in the air it needs to survive.

The tree on the right is normal, while the tree on the

left is less dense. This is an effect of acid rain.

Lakes and water

As the lake becomes more acidic the fish find it more
difficult to reproduce successfully. It is not only the
acid in the water that kills them, but also poisonous
minerals like aluminium that are washed out of the
surrounding ground into the water. The birds that eat
the fish also begin to suffer as the harmful minerals
build up inside
 their bodies.

buildings
When sulphur pollutants fall on to buildings made
from limestone and sandstone they react with
minerals in the stone to form a powdery substance
that can be washed away by rain. Famous buildings
like the Statue of Liberty in New York, the Taj Mahal
in India and St. Paul's Cathedral in London have all
been damaged by this sort of air pollution.

Acid rain can also damage stained glass windows in

churches, railway lines and steel bridges. The acid
rain slowly eats away them all. Building materials
crumble away, metals are corroded, the colour of
paint is spoiled, leather is weakened and crusts form
on the surface of glass.
 Taj Mahal
in India

health
When we breath in air pollution, the very fine
particulates can easily enter our lungs, where they
can cause breathing problems, and over time even
lead to cancer. Drinking water is contaminated with
chemicals released by acid rain. Aluminium and lead
in water can be poisonous at high levels.

Scientists have suggested direct links to human

health.[28] Fine particles, a large fraction of which are
formed from the same gases as acid rain (sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have been shown to
cause illness and premature deaths such as cancer
and other diseases.[29] For more information on the
health effects of aerosols see particulate health
effects.

Prevention methods
Emissions trading
In this regulatory scheme, every current polluting facility is
given or may purchase on an open market an emissions
allowance for each unit of a designated pollutant it emits.
Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and
sell portions of their emissions allowances they no longer
need for their own operations, thereby recovering some of
the capital cost of their investment in such equipment. The
intention is to give operators economic incentives to install
pollution controls.

The first emissions trading market was established in the

United States by enactment of the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1990. The overall goal of the Acid Rain
Program established by the Act[33] is to achieve significant
environmental and public health benefits through reductions
in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
(NOx), the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal
at the lowest cost to society, the program employs both
regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air
pollution.

Technical solutions
In the United States, many coal-burning power plants
use Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to remove sulfur-
containing gases from their stack gases. An example
of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used
in the U.S. and many other countries. A wet scrubber
is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that
extracts hot smoke stack gases from a power plant
into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is
also injected into the tower to mix with the stack
gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present.
The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-
neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed
from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur
pollution into industrial sulfates.

In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical

companies as gypsum when the purity of calcium
sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill.
However, the effects of acid rain can last for
generations, as the effects of pH level change can
stimulate the continued leaching of undesirable
chemicals into otherwise pristine water sources,
killing off vulnerable insect and fish species and
blocking efforts to restore native life.

Automobile emissions control reduces emissions of

nitrogen oxides from motor vehicles.

International treaties
A number of international treaties on the long range
transport of atmospheric pollutants have been
agreed e.g. Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol
under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary
Air Pollution.

Look to the future

As emissions from the largest known sources of acid
deposition—power plants and automobiles—are
reduced, EPA scientists and their colleagues must
assess the reductions to make sure they are
achieving the results that Congress anticipated when
it created the Acid Rain Program in 1990. If these
assessments show that acid deposition is still
harming the environment, Congress may begin to
consider additional ways to reduce emissions that
cause acid deposition. It may consider additional
emission reductions from sources that have already
been controlled, or methods to reduce emissions
from other sources. Congress may also focus on
energy efficiency and alternative energy.
Implementation of cost-effective mechanisms to
reduce emissions and their impact on the
environment will continue to evolve.

Take action as individuals

It may seem like there is not much that one
individual can do to stop acid deposition. However,
like many environmental problems, acid deposition is
caused by the cumulative actions of millions of
individual people. Therefore, each individual can also
reduce their contribution to the problem and become
part of the solution. Individuals can contribute
directly by conserving energy, since energy
production causes the largest portion of the acid
deposition problem. For example, you can:

• Turn off lights, computers, and other appliances

when you're not using them.
• Use energy-efficient appliances: lighting, air
conditioners, heaters, refrigerators, washing
machines, etc. For more information, see EPA’s
ENERGY STAR Program .
• Only use electric appliances when you need
them.
• Keep your thermostat at 68°F in the winter and
72°F in the summer. You can turn it even lower
 in the winter and higher in the summer when
you are away from home.
• Insulate your home as best you can.
• Carpool, use public transportation, or better yet,
walk or bicycle whenever possible
• Buy vehicles with low NOx emissions, and
properly maintain your vehicle.
• Be well informed.

Conclusion
Hence we as individuals should do our own part in
tackling the various adverse effects of acid rain and
try to find various innovative ideas to reduce or
prevent acid rain.