Student Notes

Materials for
Aeronautical Engineering

Tristan Burg and Alan Crosky

School of Materials Science and Engineering
University of New South Wales
2001

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INTRODUCTION
The materials used for aircraft construction can be split into two broad categories;
airframe materials and engine materials, and these will be considered separately.
However, selection of materials for both applications is based on the design
constraints. These are defined by the mechanical, chemical and thermal property
requirements of each component. Typical design constraints include weight, stiffness,
strength, fatigue performance (high/low cycle), corrosion resistance and cost.
THE AIRFRAME
The airframe consists of components such as the: wing upper, wing lower, fuselage,
spars, frames, ribs, landing gear and control surfaces. Essentially, the airframe is
required to resist applied loads, provide an aerodynamic shape and protect passengers,
payload and equipment from the external environmental conditions. Each component
has different specific constraints, resulting in different material selection for each
component.
Wings
Overall, the wings are subjected to the most complex and highest levels of stress.
However, due to the nature of the wing loading the upper and lower wings are loaded
differently (compression and tension respectively) and thus will be treated separately.
Wing upper
The wing upper is loaded in bending and is under compression stresses. Thus, to resist
the applied stresses and minimise weight it requires high ratios of stiffness to density
and yield strength (compression) to density. The upper wing also requires good
resistance to stress corrosion cracking fracture.
Wing lower
The wing lower is loaded in bending and is under tension stresses. Thus to resist the
applied stresses and minimise weight, it requires high stiffness to density and yield
strength to density ratios. The lower wing also requires good resistance to stress
corrosion cracking fracture and good corrosion resistance. Due to the tensile nature of
the stresses it also requires good fatigue strength and low fatigue crack growth rates.
Fuselage
The fuselage carries the whole of the payload and is stressed under tension,
compression, torsion, bending and pressurisation forces. Most of these forces place
the fuselage under tension. Thus to minimise weight it requires high stiffness and
strength to density ratios. It requires good corrosion resistance and, due to the tensile
forces, requires high fatigue strength and low fatigue crack growth rates.
Spars, Frames and Ribs
These lie under the skin and are used to distribute loads, retain the aerodynamic
shape, and increase the buckling strength of the structure. These components are
loaded in bending and thus their requirements are similar to those of the wing upper
and lower.

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Landing Gears
The landing gears, as shown in Figure 1, are subjected to high static and cyclic
loading. Thus they must be stiff and strong enough to withstand this loading and have
acceptable fatigue and fracture resistance. The components must also be resistant to
stress corrosion cracking failure. In addition there is a volume constraint on the size of
the components.

Figure 1: Landing gears [1]

Control Surfaces
These consist of the rudder, elevators, ailerons and flaps and are, in general, lightly
loaded. Thus they require structural stiffness and light weight.
Skin materials
These require good corrosion resistance as they are under continuous atmospheric
exposure. In supersonic aircraft skin heating becomes an important factor and is most
pronounced on the nose and leading edges of the aircraft as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Skin heating across the airframe [2]

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The materials that best fit the discussed constraints, and are thus are used for airframe
construction, are aluminium, titanium, steels and composites. From Figure 3, it can be
seen that while aluminium is the most widely used material for civil transport
airframe construction, composites are increasing their role in airframe construction.
Military aircraft, with their higher performance requirements and higher budgets,
show an even greater use of composite materials in the airframe (see Figure 4).

1990

1995

Misc
12%

Misc
15%

CFC
21%

CFC
10%
Ti
10%

Al
65%

Al
55%

Ti
12%

Figure 3: Civil transport airframe construction materials 1990 & 1995

1990

1995
Misc
17%

Misc
14%

Al
31%

Al
44%
CFC
30%

CFC
40%

Ti
12%

Ti
12%

Figure 4: Military aircraft airframe construction materials

ALUMINIUM ALLOYS
Aluminium alloys have a low density (2.7g/cm3) and, while their tensile properties are
low compared to steels, they have excellent strength to weight ratios. They have
excellent thermal and electrical conductivity and have excellent resistance to
oxidation and corrosion. The chief limitation of aluminium alloys is their low melting
temperature (~660oC) that limits their maximum service temperature. However they
remain the major materials for civil airframe construction and are used for many
applications.

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Strengthening and Age Hardening

Aluminium alloys are strengthened in a number of ways including: solid solution
strengthening, cold working, dispersion strengthening and age-hardening. Age
hardening (otherwise known as precipitation hardening) is a process whereby a fine
precipitate structure is formed in the alloy matrix following an ageing heat treatment.
The most commonly used aluminium alloys for airframe construction are the age
hardening alloys in the 2XXX and 7XXX series, as shown in Figure 5. Examples of
the tempers given to the airframe alloys are shown in Figure 6.

2224

Figure 5: 2XXX and 7XXX series aluminium alloys used in civil transport aircraft
airframes
2XXX Series Aluminium Alloys
The 2XXX series aluminium alloys are alloyed with copper from 1.9 to 6.8% and
often contain additions of manganese, magnesium and zinc. Their precipitation
hardening has been widely studied and they are used for applications such as:
forgings, extrusions, liquefied gas storage, civil transport and supersonic aircraft.
These alloys have lower crack growth rates and thus have better fatigue performance

Figure 6: Aluminium airframe alloy tempers [1]

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than 7XXX series alloys. Therefore, these are used on the lower wings and fuselage
(see Figure 7). The alloys used are 2224, 2324 and 2524 (both modified versions of
2224). These alloys are often clad with 99.34% pure aluminium for increased
corrosion resistance. Compositions of these alloys are included in Table 1.

2224

Figure 7: 2XXX series alloys in the airframe

Table 1: Aluminium Airframe Alloy Compositions

Alloy
2618
2224
7050
7075
7150

Composition
Al 2.3Cu 1.6Mg
Al 4.4Cu 1.5Mg 0.6Mn
Al 6.2Zn 2.3Cu 2.2Mg
Al 5.6Zn 2.5Mg 1.6Cu
Al 6.4Zn 2.4Mg 2.2Cu

7XXX Series Aluminium Alloys

The Al-Zn-Mg system offers the greatest potential for age hardening (out of the
aluminium alloys) though copper is often added to improve stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) resistance (with the drawback of reducing weldability). SCC resistance
(discussed later) decreases with increasing Zn:Mg ratio as shown in Figure 19. The
SCC problems have been the biggest restriction upon the use of these alloys but they
have still been used in lightweight military bridges, railway carriages, and military
and civil aircraft. The use of 7XXX series alloys in the airframe is shown in Figure
20, with the most common alloys being 7075, 7010, 7055 and 7150. All these alloys
are in the overaged T7 temper as this temper provides the best resistance to
exfoliation corrosion and SCC.

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COMPOSITES
Composites consist of two or more materials combined to give a material with
properties distinct from the original constituents. Composites can be designed to
produce a material with desired combinations of properties such as stiffness, strength
and density. Typically, composites consist of a matrix material and a reinforcing
material. The matrix and fibre materials may be metals, ceramics or polymers, but the
composites used in airframe construction are fibre reinforced polymer matrix
composites. These have the advantages of :
1) high specific strength and stiffness
2) tailored directional properties
3) non-corroding in salt environments
4) excellent fatigue resistance
5) dimensional stability
6) reduced number of parts required (compared to metal components)
But they are susceptible to impact damage, moisture pick-up and lightning strikes,
have a relatively high cost, do not yield plastically in regions of high stress
concentration and are subject to random property variation due to the nature of
composite manufacturing.
The use of these advanced composites in airframe construction has increased
substantially over the past few decades as evidenced in Figures 3 and 4. They are used
as floor beams, doors, aerodynamic fairings and for control surfaces, such as the
rudders, elevators and ailerons, due to their low weight and high stiffness. These
applications can be seen in Figure 8

Figure 8: Composite applications in the Boeing 767 [3]

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Composite Properties
The properties of fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites depend on the volume
fractions of fibre, length of the fibres and the orientation of the fibres with respect to
the applied load. The fibres provide virtually all the load carrying characteristics of
the composite, most importantly strength and stiffness.
Fibres
Fibre materials for polymer matrix composites include (in order of increasing cost):
E-glass, aramid (eg., Kevlar), carbon, alumina, silicon carbide and boron.
The most widely used fibre reinforcement is E-glass, which is used as the
reinforcement in fiberglass. Glass reinforced composites are used in aircraft window
surrounds, storage compartments and flooring panels. However, the most common
fibre reinforcement for polymer composites in airframes is carbon fibre, and the
associated composites are known as carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP).
Carbon fibres are used because:
1) they have a good combination of strength, stiffness and cost which can be varied
according to the manufacturing route.
2) they retain their strength and stiffness at service temperatures
3) they show good chemical resistance at room temperature
4) their manufacturing process is well developed and relatively inexpensive.
Carbon fibres are available in continuous and chopped fibre forms, in diameters
ranging between 4 and 10m and are often classified according to their tensile
modulus as: standard, intermediate, high and ultrahigh modulus. However, carbon
fibres are difficult to handle and brittle and thus require a matrix material to be used
effectively. Additionally, due to the fact that they are a high resistance conductor,
CFRP parts must be fitted with copper lightning conductors to avoid explosion if
struck by lightning.
The Matrix
The purpose of the matrix is to support the fibres in the required position, transfer
load between the fibres, increase the toughness of the composite and protect the fibres
from damage. The properties of shear, compression and transverse tension are
dominated by the matrix properties. Matrix polymers can be thermoplastics or
thermosets. Thermoplastics are fully polymerized materials that are solid at room
temperature but may be melted and shaped at high temperature. Thermosetting resins
consist of a base and a curing agent. When mixed together they react to form a
heavily crosslinked solid resin that cannot be reshaped once set.
Traditionally the most common matrices are thermosets with the most common
matrix materials being either polyesters or vinyl esters, both used in fiberglass
products. However, the most common polymer matrix employed in airframe
construction is thermosetting epoxy resin. Epoxy resin is used because it has good
adhesion to fibres, good resistance to water and high mechanical properties.
Additionally, manufacture of epoxy based composites is well developed and well
understood. Second generation epoxies such as rubber toughened epoxy resin are
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currently being used as composite matrices to increase matrix toughness and to

compete with advanced thermoplastics.
POLYMERS
Polymers (plastics) are also used in parts of the airframe, namely the windows, lightly
stressed parts, interior trim and as electrical insulators. Windows require both
transparency and acceptable mechanical properties due to the pressurised nature of the
aircraft. Usually the window consists of three layers:
1) a glass load bearing layer
2) a back-up glass load carrying layer in case the first layer cracks
3) a plastic shield on the inside to prevent scratching by passengers. These plastic
shields are often acrylics (e.g. perspex) although polycarbonates are also used.

ENGINE MATERIALS
The materials used in the turbine engine are shown in Figure 9. The differences in
material are mainly related to the different operating temperatures. In the forward
section, where the temperature is low to medium, titanium parts are often used. In the
high temperature rear combustion areas, nickel based superalloys and some ceramics
are used. The outer casing experiences low temperatures and thus aluminium and
composites are suitable materials. The materials used are summarised in Table 2.

Composite
Aluminium
Titanium
Steel
Nickel
Kevlar

Figure 9: Turbine engine materials

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Table 4: Materials Used in the Gas Turbine Engine [1,4]

Component
Materials
Fan Blades
Superplastically formed titanium alloy
skin diffusion bonded to a titanium
honeycomb core
Compressor Vanes, Discs and Blades
With Increasing temperature the materials
change from titanium alloys to 12% Cr
steel to nickel based superalloys
Combustor
High temperatures means nickel based
superalloys are used
Turbine Blades Discs and Vanes
High temperatures means nickel based
superalloys are used
Shafts
The shafts are made of steel
Casings
Aluminium alloys and composites

OXIDATION
Oxidation involves material reacting with oxygen. It is also known as scaling or dry
corrosion. Most metals react with oxygen at room temperature. However the rate of
reaction at room temperature is low and the oxide layer that forms on the surface acts
as a barrier to further oxidation. For example, from thermodynamic data it is predicted
that aluminium will rapidly bulk oxidise in air. However, the rapid formation of a
natural oxide (alumina, Al2O3) film on the surface protects the aluminium from
further oxidation in most environments.
However, at high temperature the rate of material oxidation is rapid. The oxide film
grows at a parabolic rate consuming the base metal. This is the result of increased
diffusion rates, and the oxide layer decreasing in effectiveness as a barrier. Factors
that improve the effectiveness of the oxide barrier at high temperatures are a high
melting point and high electrical resistivity of the oxide layer. Thus Al2O3 and Cr2O3,
which have high melting points (low diffusion rates) and high resistivity, are effective
barriers to oxidation.
Another consideration is the volume of the oxide layer with respect to the base metal.
If the oxide has less volume than the metal from which it was formed, then it will
crack and expose new metal to the atmosphere. If the volume of the oxide is larger
than the metal from which it formed it will buckle and spall, Figure 10. Both these
situations lead to constant exposure of the atmosphere to unprotected metal and the
rates of oxidation will be high. Thus for high temperature oxidation resistance:
1) the protective oxide layer must have a high melting point and have low electrical
conductivity
2) the oxide volume must be similar to that of the metal from which it formed.
The problem with oxidation is that the formation of the oxide decreases the thickness
of the base metal. If oxidation is rapid then the metal structure will rapidly lose
thickness, and thus load carrying capability and will fail under service conditions.

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Figure 10: Breakdown of oxide films [5]

CORROSION
Corrosion control is of extreme importance to the aircraft industry because of its
potential impact on human safety and expensive aircraft structures. Thus, corrosion
resistance is a vitally important factor to consider when choosing aircraft materials.
Corrosion is experienced as aircraft may be in service for up to 30 years in exposure
to many varied environments: sub zero temperatures, high humidity, tropical
conditions, rain, salt spray, ice, UV radiation, atmospheric oxygen and pollutants. For
the airframe, corrosion in the form of stress corrosion cracking, pit, and crevice
corrosion are the most important factors. For engine components, high temperature
oxidation is the most important consideration due to the high temperature operating
conditions.
Corrosion resistance is often improved by adding a coating to the material to protect
the surface. For example; the anodising of aluminium promotes a thick alumina
coating on the surface of the material. This both protects the aluminium from the
atmosphere and corrosive chemicals. Chromate conversion coating of aluminium is a
similar technique widely used in aircraft structures, again to prevent corrosion. The
main types of aircraft corrosion are detailed below.
Surface Corrosion
Surface corrosion is a superficial, uniform corrosion that is only objectionable from
an aesthetic viewpoint. Dulling of a bright surface or discolouration are examples of
this. However, surface corrosion can be an indication of a protective barrier breakdown and thus should be examined closely to avoid the development of more serious
corrosion.
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
This is a process whereby a typically ductile alloy fails in a brittle manner when
subject to the simultaneous effects of a tensile surface stress and a corrosive
environment neither of which would cause major damage if acting alone. Where
alternating stresses are involved, it is known as corrosion fatigue. The cracks grow
from stress induced flaws (therefore a threshold stress is required) but may have
origins in features such as corrosion pits. The stress does not need to be applied
externally, but may be the result of residual manufacturing stresses or thermal
stresses. SCC is the major source of corrosion failure in thick aircraft structures such
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as thick plate and forgings. In aluminium alloys, the cracking is intergranular and only
occurs in alloys when appreciable amounts of solute elements such as Cu, Mg, Si, Zn
and Li are present after certain heat treatments are applied.
Titanium was considered immune to SCC for a long time though it has been shown to
be susceptible in specific environments. However, titanium SCC failures in service
are rare. Nevertheless, care must be taken during manufacture and overhaul of
titanium parts as some alloys are embrittled by common degreasing solvents (such as
organic chlorides).
Galvanic corrosion
This occurs when two different metals of different galvanic potential are in contact in
the presence of water (electrolyte). The more anodic material will corrode at an
accelerated rate resulting in a build up of corrosion product near the contact area.
Galvanic corrosion can be a problem for aluminium alloys as it is anodic to most
other structural metals. However, the occurrence of galvanic corrosion depends on
other than just the electrode potential. Impurity elements and alloying elements can
pose problems in aluminium alloys. At localised regions of high or low alloying
element concentration, localised regions of high and low corrosion resistance
(electrode potential) form. This leads to pitting type corrosion in the areas where the
corrosion resistance is lowest. In addition, segregation of certain elements can lead to
intergranular corrosion (where the corrosion follows the grain boundaries) and
exfoliation where corrosion products force surface layers and grains to delaminate.
Crevice corrosion
This is where local differences in electrolyte ionic concentrations on the metal surface
cause corrosion to occur. In the crevice or gap in a structure the electrolyte is deprived
of oxygen and thus oxidation reactions occur within the crevice. An example of this is
shown in Figure 11. Crevice corrosion often occurs at rivets and metal joints. Crevice
corrosion is the major corrosion problem with titanium alloys.

Figure 11: Crevice corrosion [6]

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Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a form of localised corrosion in which small pits form in the
material surface, see Figure 12. Pitting can occur due to chemical variations within
the base material or due to a crevice corrosion type effect in preexisting flaws. An
example of pitting corrosion occurs when a water droplet shields the underlying metal
from oxygen. It is most common in marine environments as Cl- ions locally attack
protective oxide layers. Titanium is stable in most corrosive environments but is
subject to pitting corrosion in halide containing aqueous solutions at high temperature.
Exfoliation
Exfoliation corrosion, shown in Figure 13, occurs in high strength aluminium alloys
where the grains have become elongated and flattened during processing. The
corrosion is intergranular (occurs along grain boundaries) and proceeds along planes
parallel to the surface. The corrosion products, which have greater volume than the
metal from which they formed, then cause delamination of the surface metal. This is
the main corrosion problem in airframe sheet materials.

Figure 12: Pitting corrosion [5]

Figure 13: Exfoliation corrosion [7]

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NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

The critical safety requirement of aircraft components means that they must be
regularly tested for flaws. To avoid damaging the components during testing
specialised non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques are used. The most common
non-destructive testing techniques are:
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
This is a simple method of testing for surface defects and may be used on complex
shapes. The piece to be tested is first cleaned and dried. Then the penetrant is applied
to the surface of the material. The penetrant is a highly wetting liquid capable of being
drawn into small cracks and is often brightly coloured or fluorescent to enable easy
detection. After a period of time to allow the liquid to be drawn into cracks, the excess
surface penetrant is removed. A thin film of absorbent material, the developer, is then
added to the surface. The developer draws the penetrant from defects back to the
surface where it can be seen and detected by visual inspection (Figure 14). However,
the technique does not detect sub-surface flaws and coatings can often prevent
detection.

Figure 14: Liquid penetrant inspection a) The penetrant is applied, b) Excess

penetrant is removed leaving penetrant in crack, c) Developer applied drawing
penetrant out an delineating the crack [8]
Magnetic Particle Inspection
This testing is based on the principle that the magnetic field around a magnetised
ferromagnetic material (such as steel) will be distorted in the vicinity of defects
(Figure 15A). To test the component it is first cleaned and then a magnetic field is
applied. Once magnetised, magnetic particles are applied to the component surface.
These are attracted to sites where the magnetic field is distorted and thus delineate the
flaws. Both surface and sub-surface flaws can be detected. The surface is then recleaned and de-magnetised. As flaws parallel to the magnetic field will not be
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detected it is important to test the material in a range of magnetic field orientations

(Figure 15B).
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection involves sending high frequency sound waves through a
material. The transmitted or reflected sound waves are monitored and interpreted
(Figure 16). The surface of the component is coated with a coupling agent to allow
transmission of the ultrasonic waves from a sending transducer. The sending
transducer emits the ultrasonic vibrations into the part while a receiving transducer
measures the reflected or transmitted vibrations, which are then displayed on an
oscilloscope. The received vibrations from a defect will appear different to those from
an unflawed part. If the receiver is on the same side of the component as the
transmitter then it measures the vibration echoes and is known as the pulse-echo
technique. If the transmitter and receiver are on different sides of the component the
receiver measures the transmitted vibrations and is known as the through transmission
technique. While ultrasonic inspection has high sensitivity to flaws and is a rapid
testing procedure, it can be difficult to use with complex shapes and extensive
operator training may be required.

A)

B)

Figure 15: A) Effect of defects on the induced magnetic field. B) Crack detection in
different magnetic field orientations [8]

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A)

B)

Figure 16: Ultrasonic testing A) transmission and echo, B) oscilloscope output [9]
5.4 Radiography
Radiography covers X-ray, gamma ray and neutron beam inspection. It involves
measuring the differential penetration and absorption of radiation through a material.
The radiation penetration is recorded on photographic film. The extent of exposure of
the film is proportional to the amount of radiation passing through the component
(Figure 17). By examining the exposure of the film it is possible to detect the
composition and thickness of the component as well as the presence of flaws (eg
cracks do not absorb radiation and thus in these regions the radiation has high
penetration). This is the most expensive NDT method, due to the expensive radiation
sources, film and processing. In addition it is difficult to apply to complex shapes and
safety precautions are necessary when dealing with radiation. However the technique
is good for examining the internal regions of a material.

Figure 17: X-ray radiography [9]

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Other Techniques
There are a range of other NDT techniques used in the aerospace industry, such as:
Eddy Current Inspection
This involves measuring the surface currents produced in conductive material when
brought near an alternating current coil. It is possible to detect surface and near
surface flaws with high speed and low cost. However the response is sensitive to a
number of variables so interpretation can be difficult and extensive training is
required.
Acoustic Emission Monitoring
This involves measuring the high frequency sounds emitted when a material deforms
or cracks. In critical components constant surveillance is possible to give warning of
impending danger. However, the technique can only detect growing flaws.
Thermography
This involves monitoring the temperature of a material as it undergoes a temperature
change. In the vicinity of flaws the rate of heat flow will be altered and thus the flaw
can be detected. Similar techniques are used to detect the presence of unwanted
water/ice in aircraft composite structures.

REFERENCES
1.

Flower, H.M. ed., High Performance Materials in Aerospace, Chapman & Hall, London,
1995

2.

Charles, J.A., Crane, F.A.A. & Furness, J.A.G., Selection and Use of Engineering Materials:
Third Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1997

3.

Niu, C-Y. M, Airframe Structural Design: Practical Design Information and Data on Aircraft
Structures, Conmilit Press Ltd, Hong Kong, 1988

4.

Sims, C.T., Stoloff, N.S. & Hagel, W.C. eds., Superalloys II, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1987

5.

Ashby, M.F. & Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to their Properties
and Applications, 2nd Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1997

6.

Callister, W.D., Jr, Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction: 5th Edition, John
Wiley and Sons Inc, New York, 2000

7.

Polmear, I.J., Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals, Arnold, London, 1995

8.

Degarmo, E.P., Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Macmillian Publishing Company,

New York, 1988

9.

Askeland, D.R., The Science and Engineering of Materials: Third SI Edition, Chapman and
Hall, London, 1996

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