Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cast irons generally contain more than 2% C and a variety of alloying elements. These
aregenerally classified by a rather simple and archaic system. Classificationis done on the basis
ofthe appearance of their fracture surface, their microstructure and properties. There has been
two
class of cast irons historically, one having a gray fracture appearance and other having a white
fracture appearance, named as gray cast iron and white cast iron respectively. Those irons
having both gray and white appearance are called mottled iron. It is interesting to note that these
names still apply today. Over the years, other cast irons have been evolved which have their
name derived from their mechanical property, such as malleable iron and ductile iron. More
recently compacted graphite iron and austempered ductile iron have been introduced. There are
four factors which lead to the different types of cast irons namely, the carbon content, the alloy,
the impurity content, the cooling rate and the heat treatment after casting. These parameters
control the composition as well as the form of parent matrix phase present.[2][3][14]
Cast irons can be broadly classified into these 5 categories.
1. Gray cast irons:
It is the most common type of cast iron found. It has a gray fracture surface due to high
volume of graphite flakes. Carbon in graphite form is more stable than carbide form.
During cooling if it is subjected to a controlled cooling rate and adequate alloying
addition then carbon gets precipitated out as graphite flakes. It has high Si content
because it promotes the formation of graphite during solidification. Gray cast irons have
negligible ductility but are useful because they can be easily casted to complex shapes
and are inexpensive. These also have very low impact resistance.
2. White cast iron:
Rapid solidification of gray iron results in white cast iron. It has white fracture surface.
Graphite flakes are not present in this type of cast irons rather; an iron carbide network is
present that gives a white fracture surface. The Si content is lower to minimize the
graphitizing effect. They are hard and have excellent abrasion resistance. But they also
have excessive brittleness and poor machinability. To enhance wear resistance generally
Mo, Cr, Ni are added to it.
3. Mottled iron:
This type of cast iron is not intentionally produced and results from a transition between
gray and white cast irons. It is not necessarily a desirable material.
4. Malleable cast iron:
It is produced by heat treatment of white cast iron in which the iron carbide network
decomposes or breaks down into temper carbon. This process is called malleablization
which involves two stages of annealing as the first stage of annealing and the second
stage of annealing. Because of the absence of hard and brittle carbide phase, iron
becomes malleable. Disadvantage of this type of cast iron is its limited section thickness
and prolonged annealing cycles.
5. Spheroidal graphite cast iron or ductile iron:
It is produced by adopting special alloy addition and proper cooling rates so that the
carbon can be converted to spherical forms which can be used in those fields where
carbon in flake form or temper form cant be used. The nodules are formed during
solidification and not during heat treatment. It can be of three types namely, ferritic,
pearlitic/ferritic, martensitic. It has excellent mechanical properties which can be
compared to steels.
There is a subclass of ductile iron named as Austempered ductile iron. It has the same
nodular or spherical graphite as in ductile iron but the matrix is a combination of bainite
and stabilized austenite. Austempering is necessary to get this type of cast iron structure.
Here graphite is present in compact form and shape of graphite is controlled by minor
alloying addition. Austemperd ductile irons have excellent mechanical properties such
has tensile strength, ductility and wear resistance.[2][3][14]
Graphitization
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be made to
dissociate or decompose. Thus, the true equilibrium diagram for iron and carbon is not that presented
in Fe-Fe3c phase diagram but rather as shown in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 extends to 100 wt% carbon
such that graphite is the carbon-rich phase, instead of cementite at 6.7 wt% C. This tendency to form
graphite is regulated by:
1-Composition: Graphite formation is promoted by the presence of silicon and to less degree
phosphorus, nickel and copper. If silicon content is lower than 1 wt% graphitization may not takes
place.
2-Cooling rate: Slower cooling rates during solidification favor graphitization. While higher rate of
cooling during solidification tends to favor the formation of cementite. This effect is illustrated by
casting a 'stepped bar' of cast iron of a suitable composition (Fig. 11.2). Here, the thin sections have
cooled so quickly that solidification of cementite has occurred, as indicated by the white fracture and
high Brinell values. The thicker sections, having cooled more slowly, are graphitic and consequently
softer.
3-Heattreatment 2
FIGURE 11.1 The true equilibrium iron carbon phase diagram with graphite instead of cementite
as a stable phase.
FIGURE 11.2 The effect of thickness of cross-section on the rate of cooling, and hence upon the
microstructure of a grey cast iron.
resulting structure will contain graphite flakes only. Then it is called grey cast iron, the fracture
surface may be dull and grey.
The important engineering properties of grey cat iron are;
1. High compressive strength.
2. Moderate tensile strength
3. Good wear resistance
4. High damping capacity
The shortcoming of grey iron is the brittleness du to the flake form of graphite which introduces
sharp notches at the edges. The most important applications of cast iron are machine beds, ingot
moulds, lamp spots and others.
3-Spheroidal-graphite (SG) Cast Iron
Also known as nodular cast iron or ductile cast iron. In SG cast iron the graphite flakes are replaced
by spherical particles of graphite as shown in Fig. 11.6, so that the sharp stress raisers are eliminated.
The formation of this spheroidal graphite is effected by adding small amounts of cerium or
magnesium to the molten iron just before casting.
manufacturing pearlitic malleable iron. In all three processes the original casting is of white iron,
which will be very brittle before heat-treatment.
a)Blackheart Malleable
Iron castings are manufactured from white iron of which the following composition is typical:
2.5%Carbon, 1.0%Silicon, 0.4%Manganese, 0.08% Sulphur and 0.1% Phosphorus. White iron castings
placed in white-iron boxes filling sand or small gravels to reduce the distortions and oxidation. The steps
of heat treatment can be summarized as following:
1. Heating the castings by slowly rate to between 850-950C and stabilized the temperature at this range
for long time depending on composition and geometry of casting. In this step, all eutectic cementite
transforms to graphite (temper carbon) .
2. Cooling the castings by slowly rate to the eutectoid temperature.
3. Cooling the castings by very slowly rate from the eutectoid temperature to 680C . At this step
austenite transforms to ferrite and temper carbon instead of pearlite, and diffusion process led to
compact the temper carbon particles in rosettes form.
So the final structure of blackheart malleable cast iron consisting of rosettes of temper carbon in a
matrix of ferrite as shown in figure 11.8. Blackheart malleable castings find particular application in
the automobile industries.
fracture present a steely white appearance; hence the name 'whiteheart'. Heavier sections will not be
completely decarburised, and so, whilst the outer layer is ferritic, the inner zone containing some
pearlite, and at the extreme core some nodules of temper carbon. Thin-sectioned components
requiring high ductility are often made in the form of white heart malleable castings. Examples
include fittings for gas, water, air and steam pipes; bicycle- and motorcycle-frame fittings, parts for
agricultural machinery and parts for textile machinery.
c) Pearlitic Malleable
The raw material similar in composition to that of blackheart malleable iron. Iron is used it is first
malleabilised. It is then reheated to 900C so that carbon will dissolve in the austenite present at that
temperature. Subsequent treatment consists air-cooling to produce a pearlitic matrix. The final
structure will consist of rosettes of temper carbon in a matrix of pearlite.
2-Austenitic irons
Austenitic irons usually contain between 10 and 30% nickel and up to 5% chromium. These are
corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant, non-magnetic alloys. Some of them are treated to produce
structures containing spheroidal instead of flake graphite Fig.11.10.
Graphitization
Cementite (Fe3C) is a metastable compound, and under some circumstances it can be made to
dissociate or decompose. Thus, the true equilibrium diagram for iron and carbon is not that presented
in Fe-Fe3c phase diagram but rather as shown in Figure 11.1. Figure 11.1 extends to 100 wt% carbon
such that graphite is the carbon-rich phase, instead of cementite at 6.7 wt% C. This tendency to form
graphite is regulated by:
1-Composition: Graphite formation is promoted by the presence of silicon and to less degree
phosphorus, nickel and copper. If silicon content is lower than 1 wt% graphitization may not takes
place.
2-Cooling rate: Slower cooling rates during solidification favor graphitization. While higher rate of
cooling during solidification tends to favor the formation of cementite. This effect is illustrated by
casting a 'stepped bar' of cast iron of a suitable composition (Fig. 11.2). Here, the thin sections have
cooled so quickly that solidification of cementite has occurred, as indicated by the white fracture and
high Brinell values. The thicker sections, having cooled more slowly, are graphitic and consequently
softer.
3-Heattreatment 2
FIGURE 11.1 The true equilibrium iron carbon phase diagram with graphite instead of cementite
as a stable phase.
FIGURE 11.2 The effect of thickness of cross-section on the rate of cooling, and hence upon the
microstructure of a grey cast iron.
resulting structure will contain graphite flakes only. Then it is called grey cast iron, the fracture
surface may be dull and grey.
The important engineering properties of grey cat iron are;
1. High compressive strength.
2. Moderate tensile strength
3. Good wear resistance
4. High damping capacity
The shortcoming of grey iron is the brittleness du to the flake form of graphite which introduces
sharp notches at the edges. The most important applications of cast iron are machine beds, ingot
moulds, lamp spots and others.
3-Spheroidal-graphite (SG) Cast Iron
Also known as nodular cast iron or ductile cast iron. In SG cast iron the graphite flakes are replaced
by spherical particles of graphite as shown in Fig. 11.6, so that the sharp stress raisers are eliminated.
The formation of this spheroidal graphite is effected by adding small amounts of cerium or
magnesium to the molten iron just before casting.
Iron is the fourth most abundant element on Earth and is one of the most widely disbursed
elements in the Earth's crust. In nature it is found in various compounds with oxygen, sulfur, or
more complicated ores such as carbonates and silicates (Table 1). Because iron is so
abundant, combines readily with other elements (such as manganese to form steel)
and requires relatively little energy to extract it from ore, it is one of the most attractive elements to use
for the prodCast
iron is a generic term used to designate a family of metals with a wide variety of
properties. All cast irons contain more than2% carbon and an appreciable amount of
silicon (usually 1-3%). The high carbonand silicon content means that they are
easily melted, have good fluidity in the liquidstate and have excellent pouring properties.
The basic types ofdifferentiated by their microstructure asopposed to their chemical analysis because the various types overlap
The metallurgy of cast iron is more complexthan its economics and, in fact, is oneof the more complex metallurgical systems[Fig
2]. Iron-carbon alloys with less than2% carbon are metastable; the true stablesystem being iron-graphite (Fe-C). Thegeneral term
cast iron includes pig iron,gray iron, malleable iron, chilled iron,white iron, and nodular or ductile iron.If an iron alloy exceeds
about 2% carbon,the carbon does not have to nucleatefrom decomposition of austenite, butinstead, it can form directly from
themeltby a eutectic reaction. Note that cementite(Fe3C) can still nucleate at the eutecticmore readily than graphite, but on
sufficiently
slow cooling, graphite itself is able
to form and grow.
Consider the solidification of a 3% carbon
cast iron (Fig. 3). At a rapid cooling
rate, dendrites of austenite form as the
manufacturing pearlitic malleable iron. In all three processes the original casting is of white iron,
which will be very brittle before heat-treatment.
a)Blackheart Malleable
Iron castings are manufactured from white iron of which the following composition is typical:
2.5%Carbon, 1.0%Silicon, 0.4%Manganese, 0.08% Sulphur and 0.1% Phosphorus. White iron castings
placed in white-iron boxes filling sand or small gravels to reduce the distortions and oxidation. The steps
of heat treatment can be summarized as following:
1. Heating the castings by slowly rate to between 850-950C and stabilized the temperature at this range
for long time depending on composition and geometry of casting. In this step, all eutectic cementite
transforms to graphite (temper carbon) .
2. Cooling the castings by slowly rate to the eutectoid temperature.
3. Cooling the castings by very slowly rate from the eutectoid temperature to 680C . At this step
austenite transforms to ferrite and temper carbon instead of pearlite, and diffusion process led to
compact the temper carbon particles in rosettes form.
So the final structure of blackheart malleable cast iron consisting of rosettes of temper carbon in a
matrix of ferrite as shown in figure 11.8. Blackheart malleable castings find particular application in
the automobile industries.
fracture present a steely white appearance; hence the name 'whiteheart'. Heavier sections will not be
completely decarburised, and so, whilst the outer layer is ferritic, the inner zone containing some
pearlite, and at the extreme core some nodules of temper carbon. Thin-sectioned components
requiring high ductility are often made in the form of white heart malleable castings. Examples
include fittings for gas, water, air and steam pipes; bicycle- and motorcycle-frame fittings, parts for
agricultural machinery and parts for textile machinery.
c) Pearlitic Malleable
The raw material similar in composition to that of blackheart malleable iron. Iron is used it is first
malleabilised. It is then reheated to 900C so that carbon will dissolve in the austenite present at that
temperature. Subsequent treatment consists air-cooling to produce a pearlitic matrix. The final
structure will consist of rosettes of temper carbon in a matrix of pearlite.
2-Austenitic irons
Austenitic irons usually contain between 10 and 30% nickel and up to 5% chromium. These are
corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant, non-magnetic alloys. Some of them are treated to produce
structures containing spheroidal instead of flake graphite Fig.11.10.