Geotechnical Engineering

Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of deep
fill settlement
Waddell

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Geotechnical Engineering 166 August 2013 Issue GE4
Pages 343356 http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/geng.10.00018
Paper 1000018
Received 09/02/2010
Accepted 19/09/2011
Published online 05/07/2012
Keywords: field testing & monitoring/geotechnical engineering/land
reclamation
ICE Publishing: All rights reserved

Design, prediction and

monitoring of deep fill
settlement
Peter Waddell MEngSc
Principal Geotechnical Engineer, Coffey Geotechnics Pty Ltd, Lane Cove West, New South Wales, Australia

Creep settlement is an important aspect to consider where development is planned over deep compacted fill. This
paper presents a case study of an earthworks design for infilling a quarry pit with sandstone and shale derived
material and a comparison of predicted and monitored creep settlements. Laboratory testing was carried out during
filling to assess the creep characteristics of available infilling materials. Based on the laboratory testing the
influence of saturation on creep rates is discussed. Settlement monitoring points across the infilled quarry were
monitored for up to 455 days. Predicted creep rates based on the results of the testing are compared with
predictions based on monitoring. Monitored settlements within a few years of fill placement were variable and
substantially greater than predictions based on the laboratory testing. Longer term monitoring data indicates that
settlements are likely to be less than predictions based on laboratory testing. The results suggest that predictions
over 30 years based on laboratory testing are conservative and lie within the normal range of accuracy of
geotechnical predictions.
Shrink swell characteristics: limitations were placed on the
plasticity of the fill and the moisture content at which it was
placed, to limit the potential for changes in volume due to
variation in moisture content.
j Hydroconsolidation settlements: compacted fills can
experience large settlements that occur rapidly under constant
stress if the fill is compacted relatively dry of standard
optimum moisture content (SOMC) and/or at relatively low
density. To limit the potential for hydroconsolidation, a
relatively high degree of compaction and moisture content
relatively close to SOMC was specified in the design.
j Long-term creep settlements: owing to the thickness of the
fill, long-term settlements due to the self-weight of the fill
could impact on services and structures.
j

Notation
k
t


v
 v9
ratm

1.

constant based on either pre- or post-saturation strain

time (days)
creep strain rate per log cycle time (%)
creep strain (%)
applied total vertical stress (MPa)
effective vertical stress in units consistent with
atmospheric pressure
atmospheric pressure assumed to be 100 kPa

Case study background

The settlement design, laboratory testing and monitoring results

presented in this paper are from a project involving the infilling
of a former clay and shale quarry pit used to win materials for
brick making. The pit shown in the aerial photograph, Figure 1,
covers an area of about 15 ha and has been filled to depths
ranging from about 13 m to 26 m.
Filling was undertaken over a period of about 6 years with fill
sourced from tunnelling and basement excavations in the Sydney
region. The pit area is to be developed with the construction of
services, kerb and gutter and residential dwellings, typically
comprising two-storey brick buildings.

2.

Earthworks design

In the design of the earthworks it was recognised that the

volumetric stability of the fill would be an important consideration. The following elements of volumetric stability were considered.

Predominantly fresh sandstone and shale rock sources, providing

low-plasticity materials, were preferred to high-plasticity clays in
the fill design from the perspective of shrink swell and creep
characteristics. Two types of fill were defined.
Type 1 has a maximum plasticity index of 20% and
maximum percentage passing the 0.075 mm sieve of 30%.
j Type 2 has a maximum plasticity index of 30%.
j

A limit was placed on the amount and distribution of type 2 fill

in the profile. Type 2 fill was limited to a maximum thickness of
1 m before it had to be overlain by a similar or greater thickness
of type 1 fill. This layering was designed to reduce the risk of
relatively thick, lower quality fill pockets resulting in significant
343

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

Pit area during filling works

20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Scale: m
Aerial image source: Google Earth Pro 2010
Aerial image :
Sinclair Knight Merz 2010

Figure 1. Aerial view of former quarry pit during filling

differential settlements across areas of dissimilar fill types. In

reality, the bulk of the fill used in the pit was type 1, with the
earthworks contractors finding it convenient to manage a single
fill type. Some fill sourced from other parts of the site was type
2, but was often disposed of in areas where no structures were
proposed.
The fill compaction specified was a minimum of 98% standard
maximum dry density (SMDD) at moisture content within 1%
to +2% of SOMC. Field wet density was determined using a
nuclear density gauge in accordance with AS1289.5.8.1 (Standards Australia, 1995f) and SMDD and SOMC were determined
in accordance with AS1289.5.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1993).
Infilling of the pit was achieved by spreading and compacting fill
into maximum 300 mm thickness layers, generally using CAT815
and CAT825 pad foot compactors. Field density tests were carried
out on each compacted layer under a Level 1 monitoring and
testing regime as defined in AS3798 (Standards Australia,
1996a).
The objective of the earthworks design was to produce compacted
fill capable of supporting raft foundations, where a relatively
uniform thickness of fill existed beneath a residential lot.
Predictions of long-term creep made during the design of the
earthworks and before laboratory testing ranged from 30 mm to
95 mm for a 20 m fill thickness.
It was considered that settlement gradients should be flatter than
1:500 where the fill thickness was relatively uniform. AS2870
(Standards Australia, 1996b) Residential slabs and footings
344

indicates that articulated brick veneer construction on stiffened

rafts (the common building design for residential structures in
Sydney) should be able to tolerate settlement gradients of up to
1:400 and differential settlements of up to 30 mm.

3.

Prediction of creep rates

A programme of laboratory settlement testing was carried out in

a purpose-built rig to assess the long-term settlement characteristics of the typical fill being used on the site. This testing was
described by Waddell and Wong (2005). A purpose-built rig was
constructed to apply a vertical pressure of up to 400 kPa through
a lever arm system to 75 mm diameter samples. The test rig
shown in Figure 2 is similar to a conventional oedometer test
cell.
Samples of Hawkesbury sandstone, weathered Ashfield shale and
fresh Ashfield shale were pre-treated by repeated compaction
using the method in RTA T102 (NSW Roads and Traffic
Authority, 1999) to simulate the breakdown of rock fill that
occurs under compaction plant. The following tests were then
carried out

Atterberg limits determined in accordance with

AS1289.3.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1995a), AS1289.3.2.1
(Standards Australia, 1995b) and AS1289.3.3.1 (Standards
Australia, 1995c)
j linear shrinkage determined in accordance with
AS1289.3.4.1 (Standards Australia, 1995d)
j particle size distribution determined in accordance with
AS1289.3.6.1 (Standards Australia, 1995e)
j

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

material passing a 20 mm sieve for compaction into polyvinyl

chloride (PVC) test cells with 75 mm internal diameter and
150 mm high. The sides of the cell were perforated with 1 mm
diameter holes at about 25 mm spacing to allow saturation of the
samples by adding water to an outer PVC containment cell.
The samples were compacted to a target density of 98% SMDD
at moisture contents 1% dry of SOMC determined in accordance
with AS1289.5.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1993). The samples were
initially loaded dry (at compaction moisture content) and were
inundated to produce a saturated state after settlement reached a
linear trend.
The impact of side friction between the test samples and the cells
has not been considered in the analysis of results presented in this
paper. Penman and Charles (1976) indicate that in large-scale
floating ring oedometer tests, where the ratio of sample height to
diameter was 0.5, the impact of side friction is likely to be a
310% reduction in the applied vertical load. In the testing
programme, where a fixed ring was used and the ratio of sample
height to diameter was 2, the impact of side friction is likely to
be greater. However, a reduction in the ratio of sample height to
diameter is not necessarily desirable when testing relatively
coarse material. Parkin (1990) indicates that there are conflicting
requirements with respect to sample dimensions. Height to
diameter ratios should be kept small to reduce friction but need
to be larger to produce better seating conditions. Parkin (1990)
adds that in spite of the impacts of friction on oedometer tests
and measures required to alleviate frictional resistance, rockfill in
situ generally proves to be significantly stiffer than predicted
based on oedometer tests. It could be the case that differences
between tests and field particle sizes and grading have more
impact than friction on settlement characteristics.

Figure 2. Settlement test rig

standard compaction tests carried out in accordance with

AS1289.5.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1993).

The test results are summarised in Table 1.

The test results presented in Table 1 indicate that the sandstone
was a non-plastic silty, gravelly sand, the weathered shale was a
gravelly, sandy clay and the fresh shale was a silty, sandy gravel.

In Waddell and Wong (2005) the creep strain rate per log cycle
time relationship relative to total vertical stress was proposed for
three fill types, derived from sandstone, fresh shale and weathered
shale, described using Equation 1
1:

After pre-treatment the samples were sub-sampled to obtain

Sample

k v

Liquid limit:
%

Plasticity
index: %

Linear
shrinkage:
%

Passing
2.36 mm
sieve: %

Passing
0.075 mm
sieve: %

SMDD: t/m3

SOMC: %

22
40
25

NP
23
10

NP
10
4.5

58
52
30

19
35
13

2.03
1.94
2.13

8.9
13
7.5

Sandstone
Weathered shale
Fresh shale
Note: NP denotes non-plastic.

Table 1. Summary of laboratory test results on sandstone and

shale samples

345

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

where k was based on post-saturation strain and was calculated

based on the applied stress in MPa.

The weathered shale sample subject to a vertical stress of

400 kPa pre-saturation was unloaded to 250 kPa to simulate and
assess the impact of removal of a surcharge prior to saturation.
Hence, no post-saturation data are presented for a vertical stress
of 400 kPa.

In this paper, settlement data have been obtained from deep fill in
which a water table has established. The laboratory test data have
been re-examined to consider the impact of saturation on creep
behaviour. Average effective stress analysis, as is commonly
applied to saturated soils, has been used to examine both the
saturated and unsaturated zones within the fill. The expression for
creep strain rate per log cycle time has been revised and is
expressed as Equation 2
2:

k v9 =ratm

Based on the pre- and post-saturation strain trend line in Figures

3, 4 and 5, the creep strain rate per log cycle time, , was
calculated for each stress level. Creep rates are reported in the
literature by various authors as either stress dependent or
independent. Charles (1990) indicates that creep of heavily
compacted rock fills is stress dependent. Assuming a linear
relationship between creep and stress, Figure 6 shows creep strain

where k is selected from either pre- or post-saturation values

depending on the position of the groundwater table.

3:

Strain, : %

The applied stress has been divided by atmospheric pressure to

avoid the potential for errors in the calculation of creep strain
rate that could occur if a unit other than MPa was used for the
applied stress, as was adopted in Waddell and Wong (2005). The
creep strain over a particular time period can be calculated using
Equation 3

00028 log10(t) 00113

00016 log10(t) 0009

0
10

 log(t2 =t1 )

100
Time, t: days
200 kPa unsaturated

Figures 35 show plots of strain against time, pre-saturation and

post-saturation for the sandstone, fresh shale and weathered shale
derived fill types.

1000

200 kPa saturated

Figure 4. Creep strain fresh shale

00058 log10(t) 00207

Strain, : %

00041 log10(t) 0017

2

00023 log10(t) 00132

00018 log10(t) 00289

00014 log10(t) 00222

00014 log10(t) 00151

0
10

Figure 3. Creep strain sandstone

346

100
Time, t: days

1000

200 kPa post-saturation

300 kPa post-saturation

400 kPa post-saturation

200 kPa pre-saturation

300 kPa pre-saturation

400 kPa pre-saturation

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

8
7

00039 log10(t) 00508

00115 log10(t) 00348

Strain, : %

00081 log10(t) 00374

5
4

00108 log10(t) 00286

00097 log10(t) 00177

00055 log10(t) 00263

2
1
0
10

100
Time, t: days

1000

200 kPa pre-saturation

300 kPa pre-saturation

400 kPa unsaturated

200 kPa post-saturation

300 kPa post-saturation

250 kPa saturated

Figure 5. Creep strain weathered shale

Creep strain rate per log cycle time, : %

14

00034 v / atm

13
12
11
10
09

00027 v / atm

08
07
06
05
04

00014 v / atm

03

00008 v / atm

02

00005 v / atm

01
0
0

2
3
Effective vertical stress/atmospheric pressure

Sandstone pre-saturation
Fresh shale pre-saturation
Weathered shale pre-saturation

Sandstone post-saturation
Fresh shale post-saturation
Weathered shale post-saturation

Figure 6. Creep strain rate per log cycle time plotted against
effective vertical stress/atmospheric pressure

rate per log cycle time plotted against the effective vertical stress
divided by atmospheric pressure.

compacted fills from Charles and Watts (2001) expressed in the

format of Equation 2.

Figure 6 shows that the measured creep strain rates are dependent
on the vertical stress level. The slope of the trend line is k in
Equation 2 and ranges from 0.0005 to 0.0027 for the saturated
sandstone and shale samples tested. Table 2 shows creep rates for

Comparing the k values obtained from the laboratory testing

with those in Table 2 it can be seen that laboratory-derived
values range from an order of magnitude greater to about four
times the values reported by Charles and Watts (2001) based on
347

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

Material type

Nature of compaction

Sandy gravel
Mudstone
Sandstone/
mudstone
Stiff clay

Heavy vibrating roller

Heavy vibrating roller
Heavy vibrating roller

0.00004  v9 =ratm
0.00012  v9 =ratm
0.00013  v9 =ratm

Heavy dynamic
compaction

0.005

Based on these comparisons with creep values for both compacted and uncompacted fills in the literature, the laboratory test
results suggest that the sandstone and shale behaviour in the
laboratory tests lies somewhere between that of compacted stiff
clay and compacted rock fill.

Creep rate per log

cycle time,

Figure 6 illustrates the difference in the pre- and post-saturation

creep, with the strain rate trend lines flattening for the three
materials tested. The mechanism by which the creep rates have
reduced in the samples tested is beyond the scope of this paper.
However, the reduction may be attributed to slight swelling of the
particles resulting in impacts such as reduced void size, redistribution of particles and changes in permeability. No special
precautions were taken to prevent drying of the shale and
sandstone samples by way of the perforations in the test cells.
This is a potential shortcoming in the test methodology and may
have impacted on pre-saturation creep rates.

Table 2. Creep rates derived from values presented in Charles and

Watts (2001)

field monitoring. The value for stiff clay in Table 2 is of a

similar order of magnitude to the laboratory test results for the
shales.

No significant hydroconsolidation was observed as a result of the

samples being compacted to a high relative density and at
moisture content close to SOMC determined in accordance with
AS1289.5.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1993).

The creep strain rates based on the laboratory testing within the
range of stress levels tested are of a similar magnitude to the
value of 0.2% reported by Sowers et al. (1965) for rock fill dams
constructed from well sluiced (compacted) fill. The values are
less than the value of 1.05% reported by Sowers et al. (1965) for
poorly sluiced (compacted) fill and less than the range of
0.51% for uncompacted fill reported by Charles and Watts
(2001).

A relationship between pre- and post-saturation creep strain rates

and plasticity is proposed for the sedimentary rocks tested in the
laboratory, as illustrated in Figure 7, where creep strain rate
constant, k, is plotted against plasticity index (PI).

35 103

Strain rate constant, k

30 103
25 103
20 103
15 103
10 103
50 104
0
0

Pre-saturation

15
10
Plasticity index: %
Post-saturation

Figure 7. Creep strain rate constant, k, plotted against plasticity

index derived from sandstone, fresh shale and weathered shale
fill

348

Sandstone range

20

25

Shale range

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

The trends in Figure 7 may be consistent for shale and sandstone

but not for other materials. The present author has conducted
tests on argillite, which is a metamorphosed sedimentary rock
unlike the shale and sandstone from the Sydney region. In these
tests on argillite, the pre- and post-saturation creep rate trends
were
similar for a sample with a PI of 6% and containing 13%
material passing the 75 m sieve
j different for a sample with a PI of 4% and containing 19%
material passing the 75 m sieve.

4.

Settlement monitoring

4.1 Monitoring installations

Settlement monitoring points were installed across the infilled pit
after the completion of filling at the locations shown in Figure 8.
Contours of fill thickness and the locations of two piezometers
are also shown in Figure 8.

Thus, in fill derived from the same argillite rock source, a sample
with coarser grading and lower silt and clay (fines) content
exhibited no significant variation in pre- and post-saturation creep
rate. In contrast, a sample with higher fines content resulted in a
significantly lower post-saturation creep rate.
The source rock for the argillite sample was a higher strength
rock than the shale or sandstone, which may impact on the
behaviour of the argillite once it is broken down under compaction. This may explain the difference in the pre- and postsaturation creep behaviour of the argillite compared to the shale
and sandstone.

The settlement monitors consisted of 12 mm diameter steel

reinforcement rods, concreted into a pad at the base of a 2 m
deep hole augered in the fill and protruding about 1 m above the
ground surface. A PVC pipe was placed over the steel rod to
isolate the rod from the upper 1.5 m of the soil profile, thus
reducing the impact of near-surface shrinkswell movements on
the settlement monitoring results. The elevation of the monitoring
points was surveyed for periods of up to 455 days by a registered
surveyor using conventional survey techniques relative to site
bench marks that were located on natural ground outside the
infilled pit area. The accuracy of the survey levelling method was
of the order 1 mm.
4.2 Monitoring results
Settlements of up to 34 mm were measured over a period of 423
days in the north-west area of the pit. In other areas of the pit

6 260 300
Settlement monitoring point
Note: Fill thickness in metres

6 260 250
138

137
120

116
115
113

111

18

129

18

104

18

121

12
10

14 16
12

122

132

130

20
23
22
22
21

14
103
12
102

Piezometer no. 1

131

20

20

18

105A

6 260 050

133

127

16

106

123

134

108
107

6 260 100

20

128

110

20

124

112

109 126

135

22

22

6 260 150

114

136

16

125

24
22
20

117

22

6 260 200

118

119

101
13
Piezometer no. 2

6 260 000
321 300

321 350

321 400

321 450

321 500

321 550

321 600

321 650

321 700

Figure 8. Monitoring point locations and fill thickness contours

349

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

negligible settlement occurred over monitoring periods of up to

455 days. Figure 9 shows settlement contours for a 316 day
period when all monitoring points were being surveyed concurrently. During this period the maximum monitored settlement was
about 18 mm in the north-west area of the infilled pit, with
negligible settlement in other areas.

The nature of vertical load developing within the fill over a

period of many months as it is placed will result in early phase
settlement that occurs in a relatively elastic fashion. Where load
was applied instantaneously in the test samples, the early phase
settlement was generally complete within 2040 days. In the field
90 days elapsed between the end of filling and the commencement of monitoring. Linear settlement trends were monitored over
a period of up to 455 days. Therefore, the early phase settlement
was assumed complete in the field before the commencement of
monitoring. The fill was assumed to be within the creep phase
and linear trend lines have been drawn through the calculated
strains for the data sets over the monitoring period.

The settlement of 18 mm over 316 days produced a maximum

settlement gradient of about 1:1800 in the infilled pit. The
maximum settlement of 34 mm over 455 days would probably
produce a maximum gradient of about 1:1000, if data for all
points were available. If settlement is assumed to be linear with
log time, similar gradients should occur over a further log cycle
of time (10 years). Such gradients due to creep settlement
compare favourably with the limit of 1:400 in AS2870 (Standards
Australia, 1996b) for articulated brick veneer construction. The
further analysis of the settlement monitoring results presented
below suggests that total settlements will be less than predicted
assuming a linear trend with log time.

Based on the compaction test records, the fill was placed at

different rates and monitoring commenced at different times,
post-completion of filling. Figure 11 illustrates some typical
filling and monitoring histories and the results of monitoring
groundwater levels in the two piezometers.
Figures 9 and 10 show that monitored creep strains are relatively
variable across the infilled pit. Strains in the more recently filled
areas (such as monitoring point 115) were considerably higher
than the areas where filling was carried out early in the filling
period (such as monitoring point 20). A possible explanation for

Figure 10 shows strain plotted against elapsed time for a selection

of monitoring points across the infilled pit area. Creep strain was
assumed to commence from the time the fill reached half the final
bulk fill height at a particular monitoring point.

6 260 300
Settlement monitoring point
Note: Fill thickness contours in millimetres

6 260 250
138

137

113 114

125

8
4 111

6 260 150

128

0
129

10

109 126

2 127

110

23
22
21
Piezometer no. 1
20

103

104

132

130

108

106
105A

133

12

2
107
6 260 100

134

112

124

135

14 116
115

136

4
117

6 260 200

120

118
119

131

102

123
121

101

6 260 050
13

12
122

Piezometer no. 2

6 260 000
321 300

321 350

321 400

Figure 9. Settlement contours over a 316 day period

350

321 450

321 500

321 550

321 600

321 650

321 700

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

020
00026 log10(t) 00071

018
016
014

101

112
00048 log10(t) 00013
113

Strain, : %

012
115

010
00028 log10(t) 00076
008
006
004

135
00014log10(t) 00034
00018 log10(t) 00006
00012 log10(t) 00031

128

00007 log10(t) 00021

002

00021 log10(t) 00066

20

00001 log10(t) 00003

133

002
400

4000
Time, t: days

Figure 10. Strain plotted against time for selected monitoring

points

the variability in the monitored strain rates is provided where the

monitored and predicted strains are compared below.

5.

Predicted as opposed to monitored

settlements

5.1 Fill properties

To assess the similarity of the laboratory test samples to the fill
used in the pit, index and grading test results have been compared. Index and grading tests were carried out on samples from
each source site that supplied fill during the filling works to check
source sites for compliance with the fill engineering specification.
The samples were subject to pre-treatment by repeat compaction
using RTA Method T102 (NSW Roads and Traffic Authority,
1999) before testing. A summary of the median test results is
presented in Table 3 and the index and grading test results for the
laboratory samples are repeated in Table 4.
Comparing the results in Tables 3 and 4 it can be concluded that
the laboratory test samples were similar to the imported fill.
However, the laboratory test samples were sub-sampled to material passing the 20 mm sieve and the fill contained cobbles and
boulders, hence some scale and grading impacts are to be
expected.

The median values of PI from Table 3 are shown as dashed lines

on Figure 7 and have been used to select pre- and post-saturation
creep strain rates for the shale and sandstone presented in
Table 5.
The mix of shale and sandstone used to fill the pit was not
recorded during the filling works. Based on the current authors
knowledge of the site filling process, sandstone was the predominant fill type in the early phases of filling (eastern third of the
pit) and shale predominated in the latter stages of filling. This
assessment is supported by the relative proportion of shale and
sandstone source test results presented in Table 3.
However, this does not allow an accurate assessment of the
relative proportions of shale and sandstone in particular areas of
the infilled pit, as information on the relative volumes of material
sourced from each site was not readily available. For the
prediction of settlement, ratios of shale to sandstone have been
assumed to be

j
j

20:80 shale to sandstone in the period before 2005

80:20 shale to sandstone in the period including and after
2005.
351

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

100
Settlement
monitoring period

Filling period

Piezometer no. 1
95

Approximate elevation: m AHD

Piezometer no. 2
90

Area near SMP12

Area near SMP115

85
Area near SMP135
Piezometer monitoring
80

Area near SMP23

SMP12
75
SMP115

SMP135

3/06/10

3/12/09

3/06/09

3/12/08

3/06/08

4/12/07

4/06/07

4/12/06

4/06/06

4/12/05

4/06/05

4/12/04

4/06/04

5/12/03

5/06/03

5/12/02

5/06/02

70

SMP23

Date

Figure 11. Examples of filling and settlement monitoring histories

Material type

Date

Shale

Pre-2005
2005 and after
Pre-2005
2005 and after

Sandstone

Liquid limit:
%

Plasticity
index: %

Linear
shrinkage:
%

Passing
2.36 mm
sieve: %

Passing
0.075 mm
sieve: %

Proportion of
source sites: %

34
32
21
NP

15
13
3
NP

8.5
7
2.5

45
43
57
57

35
21
13
15

36
58
64
42

NP

Note: NP denotes non-plastic.

Table 3. Summary of median material properties from fill source

site samples

Material type

Liquid limit:
%

Plasticity index:
%

Linear shrinkage:
%

Passing 2.36 mm
sieve: %

Passing 0.075 mm
sieve: %

40
25
22

23
10
NP

10
4.5
NP

52
30
58

35
13
19

Weathered shale
Fresh shale
Sandstone
Note: NP denotes non-plastic.

Table 4. Summary of material properties of laboratory test

samples

352

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Fill type

Pre-2005 shale
All sandstone
Post-2005 shale

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

Creep strain rate

constant, k,
pre-saturation

Creep strain rate

constant, k,
post-saturation

0.0022
0.0014
0.0018

0.00125
0.0005
0.00125

Table 5. Assumed creep strain rate constants for settlement

predictions

5.2

Creep predictions compared with monitored

settlements
In Figure 10 a dashed line represents a predicted trend line based
on the selected strain rates, the fill thickness and the groundwater
conditions at monitoring point 115 (assumed 80:20 ratio of shale
to sandstone).
Examining the range of strain at the various monitoring points
illustrated in Figure 10 and the distribution of settlement across
the infilled pit illustrated in Figure 9, it is evident that measured
creep strain rates for the fill are
generally greater than or equal to the values predicted
assuming a linear trend line within about 1200 days of
reaching half fill height
j generally less than or equal to the values predicted assuming
a linear trend line in the period from 1200 to 1800 days of
reaching half fill height
j significantly less than predicted assuming a linear trend line
at greater than 1800 days from half fill height.
j

This suggests that there is a flattening trend in the creep phase

rather than a linear trend. Charles and Watts (2001) comment that
some researchers propose non-linear creep trends that would lead
to creep settlement eventually ending.
In the case study, there are a number of factors that could be
influencing the apparent non-linear trend including
j
j
j
j
j

the proximity of some of the monitoring points to the pit

walls, which may reduce the creep rate
changes in groundwater and moisture content within the fill
above the groundwater table
variability in the composition of the fill
filling history
the time that has elapsed between the end of filling and the
commencement of monitoring.

The filling history provides data spanning three log cycles of time
and the flattening trend with elapsed time is considered significant. The deeper fills generally exhibit the steeper strain trends
compared to the predicted trend line, suggesting that fill thickness

independent of elapsed time may also be significant in the creep

behaviour of deep fill.
To illustrate more clearly the strain trends that are inferred from
the data, Figure 12 shows a linear trend line over a 30 year period
based on the laboratory test results and the following trend lines
derived from the settlement monitoring
the maximum strain rate measured extending to 1200 days
(based on monitoring point 115)
j a strain rate half the rate of the linear trend line extending to
1800 days (based on monitoring point 112)
j a strain rate equal to the linear trend line from 1200 to 1800
days (based on monitoring point 135)
j a trend line based on one of the relatively flat trend lines
from 1800 days (based on monitoring point 20).
j

As the creep settlement post-completion of filling is of interest,

strains have been set to zero at the date of the completion of
filling (an average of 500 days after the fill reached half height in
the present case study).
If the trend lines based on the settlement monitoring in Figure 12
are considered upper and lower bounds, then predictions of creep
strain can be made for periods of interest, for example at
intervals of 2, 7 and 30 years post-completion of filling. Table 5
presents the predicted strains for shale to sandstone mix of 80:20,
with a groundwater table at half the fill depth. The settlements
corresponding to a 20 m fill thickness are also presented in Table
6 to give an appreciation of the order of magnitude of settlement
in a deep fill.
Settlements predicted based on monitoring trends within about 2
years of fill completion vary by 45208% from settlement based
on a linear trend with log time. In the intermediate term (7 years)
the range is 34127% and in the longer term (30 years) the total
post-end of filling settlement ranges from 23% to 77% of the
value predicted based on a linear trend with log time.
This analysis assumes that the groundwater table remains constant. The groundwater monitoring data indicate that groundwater
is rising and this could cause the overall fill creep rate to reduce
as more fill becomes saturated over time.

6.

Groundwater

The piezometer readings shown in Figure 11 indicate that

seepage from the surrounding shale bedrock is re-establishing a
groundwater table within the pit. During the monitoring period
the average groundwater elevation was about RL 85 m, compared
to the elevation in the base of the pit before filling, which was
about RL 72 m.
No assessment of hydroconsolidation was possible in this case
study as settlement monitoring was not carried out during filling.
However, as a groundwater table has established during the
353

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

040

2 years
000023 log10(t) 00019

028

Strain, : %

7 years
000262 log10(t) 00071

032

024

30 years

Trend line derived from

settlement monitoring

036

000262 log10(t) 00059

020
016

Trend line derived from

laboratory testing

000576 log10(t) 00155

012

000023 log10(t) 00001

008
004

Trend line derived from

settlement monitoring

000115 log10(t) 00031

0
500

5000
Time, t: days

Figure 12. Creep rate trend lines derived from laboratory testing
and settlement monitoring

Years post-filling

Assumed strain rate

Linear with log time

Upper bound based on
monitoring trends
Lower bound based on
monitoring trends
Linear with log time
Upper bound based on
monitoring trends
Lower bound based on
monitoring trends
Linear with log time
Upper bound based on
monitoring trends
Lower bound based on
monitoring trends

30

Creep strain, : %

Settlement for 20 m fill Ratio monitoring trend to

thickness: mm
linear trend

0.11
0.21

21
43

208%

0.046

45%

0.21
0.29

41
52

127%

0.07

14

34%

0.36
0.30

71
55

77%

0.08

17

23%

Table 6. Predicted strains and settlements compared to

monitoring trends

filling, hydroconsolidation is no longer a significant risk in the

saturated lower fill. Furthermore, the relatively high level of
compaction of the fill at moisture content close to standard
optimum should reduce the risk of hydroconsolidation resulting
from ongoing rises in groundwater or localised saturation due to
broken services.
354

7.

Conclusion

Based on a laboratory testing programme, creep strain rates have

been assessed for fill sourced from sedimentary rock. The addition
of a database of field data that can be correlated with the
laboratory testing offers further value for the assessment of fill
performance.

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

The controlled fill monitored in this case study exhibited variable

creep strains. Settlements within about 2 years of the completion
of filling could exceed predictions based on a single linear trend
line. The estimated settlement within 2 years post-filling for this
case study ranged from 45% to 208% of that predicted assuming
a single linear trend with log time. In the longer term (30 years),
the data indicate a flattening settlement trend. The total postfilling settlement should be less than is predicted, with an
estimated range for this case study of 2377% of the settlement
calculated using a single linear trend with log time.

REFERENCES

The data from this case study indicate that settlements of

2050 mm could occur for 20 m fill thickness over 30 years,
which is of a similar magnitude to shrinkswell movements of
expansive clays. If construction is not commenced until at least 2
years post-filling, the total settlements up to 30 years should be
less than 20 mm for a 20 m fill thickness. The suitability of
particular footing systems will depend on factors that impact on
differential settlement such as variability in material properties,
fill thickness, shrinkswell movement and building loads. The
data indicate creep settlement gradients should be significantly
less than the limit of 1:400 for articulated masonry veneer
structures supported on stiffened rafts.
This case study illustrates that knowledge of the filling history is
essential for settlement prediction in the early period post-fill
completion, particularly where creep behaviour deviates from a
linear trend with log time. If planning to construct over deep
engineered fill, the risk of settlements exceeding predictions in
the longer term does not appear to be significant, given the
settlement trends presented in this case study. The settlement data
show the benefits of allowing deep fill time (preferably up to 2
years post-filling) before commencement of construction.
The laboratory test data may be of use for assessments where fill
is sourced from sedimentary rock, similar in nature to the
sandstone and shale of the Sydney region and compacted to at
least 98% SMDD and moisture content near SOMC, determined
in accordance with AS1289.5.1.1 (Standards Australia, 1993).
Further testing would be of value to provide additional data to
test the relationship between pre- and post-saturation and plasticity index. Aspects of the test methodology should be developed
to consider the potential for drying of samples before saturation
and the impact of friction in the test cells.
Further long-term monitoring of filled sites would be of benefit to
assess whether the deviation from a linear creep rate with log
time is common and, if there is a deviation, at what point in time
does the trend line flatten.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Austral Brick Pty Ltd for allowing
the data on laboratory testing and site settlement monitoring to
be used in this paper.

Charles JA (1990) Laboratory compression test and the

deformation of rockfill structures. In Advances in Rockfill

Structures (Maranha das Neves E (ed.) for the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization, Scientific Affairs Division). Kluwer
Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Ch. 5, pp. 7396.
Charles JA and Watts KS (2001) Building on Fill: Geotechnical
Aspects, 2nd edn. Construction Research Communication,
Building Research Establishment (BRE), Watford, UK, BRE
report 424.
NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (1999) Pretreatment of Road
Construction Materials by Repeated Compaction. NSW Road
and Traffic Authority, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia,
RTA Test Method T102.
Parkin AK (1990) Rockfill modelling. In Advances in Rockfill
Structures (Maranha das Neves E (ed.) for the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization, Scientific Affairs Division). Kluwer
Academic, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Ch. 3, 3551.
Penman ADM and Charles JA (1976) The quality and suitability
of rockfill used in dam construction. In Proceedings of the
12th International Congress on Large Dams, Mexico City,
Mexico. vol. 1, pp. 533556.
Sowers GF, Williams RC and Wallace TS (1965) Compressibility of
broken rock and settlement of rockfills. Proceedings of the 6th
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Montreal, Canada, vol. 2, pp. 561565.
Standards Australia (1993) AS1289.5.1.1: Soil compaction and
density tests Determination of the dry density/moisture
content relation of a soil using standard compactive effort.
Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Standards Australia (1995a) AS1289.3.1.1: Methods of testing
soils for engineering purposes Soil classification tests
Determination of the liquid limit of a soil Four point
Casagrande method. Standards Australia, Sydney, New South
Wales, Australia.
Standards Australia (1995b) AS1289.3.2.1: Methods of testing
soils for engineering purposes Soil classification tests
Determination of the plastic limit of a soil Standard
method. Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Standards Australia (1995c) AS1289.3.3.1: Methods of testing
soils for engineering purposes Soil classification tests
Determination of the plasticity index of a soil Standard
method. Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Standards Australia (1995d) AS1289.3.4.1: Methods of testing
soils for engineering purposes Soil classification tests
Determination of the linear shrinkage of a soil Standard
Method. Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Standards Australia (1995e) AS1289.3.6.1: Methods of testing
soils for engineering purposes Soil classification tests
Determination of particle size distribution of a soil
Standard method of analysis by sieving. Standards Australia,
Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
355

Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 166 Issue GE4

Design, prediction and monitoring of

deep fill settlement
Waddell

Standards Australia (1995f) AS1289.5.8.1: Methods of testing

for commercial and residential developments. Standards

Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Standards Australia (1996b) AS2870: Residential slabs and
footings Construction. 1996, Standards Australia, Sydney,
New South Wales, Australia.
Waddell PJ and Wong PK (2005) Settlement characteristics of
deep engineered fills. Australian Geomechanics Journal
40(4): 5772.

soils for engineering purposes Soil compaction and

density tests Determination of the field density and
field moisture content of a soil using a nuclear surface
moisture density gauge Direct transmission mode.
Standards Australia, Sydney, New South Wales,
Australia.
Standards Australia (1996a) AS3798: Guidelines for earthworks

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

To discuss this paper, please email up to 500 words to the

editor at journals@ice.org.uk. Your contribution will be
forwarded to the author(s) for a reply and, if considered
appropriate by the editorial panel, will be published as a
discussion in a future issue of the journal.
Proceedings journals rely entirely on contributions sent in
by civil engineering professionals, academics and students.
Papers should be 20005000 words long (briefing papers
should be 10002000 words long), with adequate illustrations and references. You can submit your paper online via
www.icevirtuallibrary.com/content/journals, where you
will also find detailed author guidelines.
356