Physics - Unit 1 - 10

Learning
Learning
UNIT I Matter Outcomes
Outcomes
and Measurement Suggested Teaching
Suggested TeachingActivities
Activities Online Resources
Online Resources Other resources
Other resources
1(f)
4(e)
2(a)
6(c) Recognise
Explain
State what
thatand
the
isweights,
meant
significance
use the by
and speedof Wherever
Emphasise
Pupils
At
• thissteering-wheel,
the are
level possible
probably
that
the lever-arm
limitconduct
familiar
of proportionality
balances
the
withcoursethesecomparewith
ideas
and the conventional
from
unknown
elastic
ordinary
limit SI Units:
Lever-arm
Speed
Elastic and
limit:
balances:
velocity: Emphasise that units follow
conventions
therefore
and
the term
velocity,
"limit
masses,
and ofsymbols
may be symbols
weights/forces
situations,
can
• be assumed
door and but
handles, SIemphasise
with
units.
to bethe Make
the
weight
that
same.
pupilswhat
of afamiliar
known
they already
with
mass. theThis
know
moreiscan http://physics.nist.qov/c
http://edinfo.securesites
http://www.glenbrook.k
http:Ilwww.ac.wwu.edul the quantity; density is
Recommended Prior Knowledge
contained in
compared
proportionality"using
Signs,
for
a balance.
Symbols
an elastic common
equivalent
be
• put into
taps, prefixes:
to
equation
comparing micro-
form: masses
(p),
v=milli-
d/tand
since
(m), thatW=
kilo-
the
mg.(k),
unit
Would
mega-
of uu/Units/units.html
net/math
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-vawter/PhysicsNetlTo
science/mas mass/volume and the unit of
Little prior knowledge is required
and Systematics, Association here, although
(M). pupils will need to have encountered the idea of a graph and how, in physics, it is used to represent
density is thequantities
mass and the
solid. suchetc.a follows
speed
• balancefrom be accurate
the equation: on thekm/h Moon? or mis. s weiqht.htm
pics/SHM/HookesLaw.h
ss/lDKin/UILId.html
relationships for between
Science them.
Education, Most of
1995. the other ideas are of the sort that many pupils will be familiar with at some level, although precise definitions
unit/volume may
unit.well be
Avoid encountered
4(f)
5(f) Describe how to measure Spring balances
Explain that that measure
in physics it isthe weight
importantmassand to deduce
separate the
speed tml
here for theDescribe
first and
time. qualitatively the Emphasise the centre of is a single point Centre of mass: Consider the effect of heavy
negativeon index
6(d) mass
Calculate
effect of theweight
extensions by using
position for
ofan the massT
Use
and
through assuming
= kx
velocity.
whichor mg that
the g =Use
= entire
kx. 10weight
N/kg.
these Is ofthis
an aobject
equations validto explain
can be taken Proportionality:
http://www.ciwerty.co.za chassis the units, e.g.of
stability use
appropriate
elastic solid balances.
using assumption
proportionality.
Speed ignores on the
Also
the Moon?
use
direction more domestic
travelled but examples:
the formal the http://www.themath pag m/s rather than ms-1.
centre of mass on the stability to act. /puzzles/mass/cofmcok buses or the results of heavy
4(a)
4(g) State thathow
Describe
proportionality,mass to isusea measure
a Explain
Pupils
price
distinction that
ofwill
fruit in
learn physics
a the
between how to mass
amount
scalardo this is most
different
purchased,
and vector readilyfrom
wages
quantities weight.
byearned
actually
can waita Mass:
Measuring cylinders:
e.com/ARITH/proportio This unchanging quantity is
Context of
of
simple
the amount
objects.
of substance in Pupils accept that as an object is moved around the Earth
e.htm
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sc
loads on the roofs of narrow
called the mass and is
2(b) measuring cylinder
Calculate average speed to doing it.
hoursa worked. In bothgradient
cases, there canchanged
be different http://www.saburchill.co
nality.htm
This unit introduces
a body. pupils to the ideas of Use
measurement
it is the
board
same andwhose observation
object, made of
can
which
the
be
sameare so
molecules
to
fundamental in the to all or:
aspects of physics. From
hools/qcsebitesize/phys the veryminibuses.
beginning,
measured pupils should
in kilograms. It is be
measure
using the volume
distance of a
travelled/time constants of proportionality. m/chemistry/chapters/c
encouraged to beorguided in theirofunderstanding investigate
ofpupils
the the that stability ofhasrectilinear blocks ofand wood (short Physicshttp://www.phy.ntnu.ed
5(a) liquid
taken.
Describe solid.
the moment a same
Get
Pupils are subject
order toand
likely to by
measure what
besomething
the volume,
familiar been
withaboutmass measured
childrenit remains
and ofdensity
unequal observed.
constant.
of hapOO2lis not
Moments: a question of opinion
ics/forces/massandqrav
html Use or education.
the quantity
traditionalone is usually
weighing
and
This wide
common ispupils
the or tallsuch
amount
liquids
and thin),
of matter
as cooking
use cones
or "stuff"
oil,words itand
orange
inverted
contains. cones u.tw/java/blocklblock.ht
ityrevi.shtml interested and
in when buying,
6(a) force
State in terms
that of its
a force mayturning weights
Allow balancing on
to contribute see-saws.
as many Ask how itasisjuice
done.
possible etc. here:
Use http://www.explorelearn
Change in shape/size: machines balances and
produce
effect anda change
relate this in size
to and (sawn
the bottom
• twist, off to of balance),
the meniscus use stemmed
for such glasses
liquids (this andis thick
the top ml
http://www.factmonster.
inq.com/index.cfm?met say, fruit or vegetables.
the steelyard, the chemical
Outline
4(b) State that mass bottomed glasses (empty and containing itwater).
shape
everyday body.of a body
of aexamples. Explain
of
•
Use most
stretch, that
a metreof the massliquid).
rule determines
and some small how difficultbalanced
masses is to change
on a com/ce6/sci/A0819139.
hod=cResource.dspDet balance and so on. Use
In5(e)
this unit Describe
pupils should
resists how learn
change to
from to state
determine
its make many Use of the
the
Measure aedge
motionsimple,
variety
the aof
ofvolumebasic
thick
body measurements
of card
(e.g.
boltstoor and thin
speed which
itwood
pebbles up); are
laminas:
and
it vital
determines
coins tothesubsequentCentres
triangles,
(use units. They should
of gravity ofbe able Cut
to distinguish
out a with between
mapwhich
of thethe weight and
country
• compress,
knife to verify the principle of moments. Then use it !1!Iii
ail&ResourcelD=41 examples
mass and so therealise
positionthat physics
of the centre of will sometimes make
squares, distinctions
rectangles, which
pentagons, are not important in ordinary life. Other quantities are also introduced oronrevised: density,
of rest or motion. inertia
more
•
to than
shrink, of the
determine one body.
the if the volume
unknown mass ofstar
is small) byshapes,
a small can. L-shapes,
immersing in laminas:
or: printed
pupils are to thick
likely to becard. Find
familiar.
speed/velocity,
4(c) Stateforce,
mass that and
of a aplane moment
lamina. field
gravitational of a force. 0-shapes,
•The
water.
Pupils concept
distort,readily rings of and
accepta force field
squares
that as anis covered
with
object square and
journeys so
holes. are: proportionality,
around the equilibrium, centre of mass
http://www.mathematisc
Weight:
http:Ilwww.walter- theand graphs.
centre It should
of gravity. be
Is this
emphasised, is from
a region thisinstage
whichon, a massthat numerical Does
Solar
Work answers
• contort,immersion
System,
up through must thein include
oil give
force
larger (unitthe
objects 6)appropriate
a different value?unit.
of attraction
and measure tothethe nearest
mass of http://en.wikipedia.org/
fendt.de/phl4e/lever.ht
hools/ks3bitesize/scien accurate?
4(h) Describe
experiences howa to determine
force due to Emphasise
planet
a pupil changes that with
balancing volume
on the and
planet's
a plank. mass
Measure are properties
proximity the mass and mass.ofofthe
an Density:
wiki/Weight
basteleien.de/geocentr
rn
ce/physics/forcesi 1.s
the density ofattraction.
gravitational a liquid, of a object.
rule
• by They
expand placing vary from object
a weight at onetoend objectandeven when the
balancing they are http://www.nyu.edu/paq
e.htm
regularly shaped solid and of On
rof the
wholeEarthsame thismaterial.
arrangement force isatapproximately
a point between IONthe forweight
every and the Gravity:
es/mathmol/modules/w
an irregularly
Learning shaped solid
Outcomes kilogram
• etc. centre
rule's
Suggested of the of object's mass.
mass.
Teaching Activities Emphasise that it varies http://cseplO.phys.utk.e
ater/density
html
Online intro.html
Resources Other resources
5(d) which sinks
Describe how in to
water
verify (volume
the according
Let
Density, to heightis
pupilshowever,
suggest above
their own
a property sea-level
examples:
of the (the actual
car
material valuefoam
crashes,
from is
which du/astrl6l/lect/history/n
1(d) Describe how to measure a Pupils should use all the instruments in 1(d) regularly Measuring: Make pupils familiar with SI
by displacement).
principle rubber,
between
the motorcycle
substance 9.79 N/kg is made. crash
and helmets.
9.83 N/kg). ewtongrav.html
variety ofoflengths
moments.
with during
At this
the course.
stage an
Calculate
appropriate
the volume
"definition" of
of aNewton
the
wooden is
lath http://school.discovery. units even in the normal
6(b)
4(i)
5(b) Plot,
Make draw and
calculations
State the principle of interpret
using the These
Calculate experiments
the volume can of be performed
wooden
State the principle using weight not mass: m1gx1 = m2gx2 blocks, by the
metal pupils
bars, and Hooke's law:
appropriate
extension-load
formula accuracy
graphs using
for an (-50
"the cm
weight
themselves.
glass x -10
prisms. of cmaverage
an x -1 cm)apple" and use - use the a correct
fruit or instrument
vegetable com/lessonplans/progra
http://www.darvill.clara. course of their lives. Distances
moments for a body in
tapes, rules,
densitysolid
elastic
equilibrium. micrometers
= mass/volume.
and describe the for
thateach dimension.
the pupils will be Explain
most familiar that accuracy
with. The comes actual from ms/lengths/
net/enforcemot/springs. in km and so on.
5(c) and,
Make calipers
associated
calculationsusing
experimental
usinga vernier the measurements
definition
Stretch
Use is encountered
the springs,
principle rubber notbands
of moments the
in unit calculator.
and
to 8. stripsthe
define Use
of calipers
polythene
moment of-with
a Using
htm calipers:
Torque (moment):
4(d) as necessary.
Calculate
procedure.
moment ofthe weight
a force = from
forcethex inside
Calculate
glue
forceaand diameter,
piece pupils'
of wood
emphasise outside
weights.to the diameter
For
it measures other
bottom theof andthedepth
planets
turning oreffect
strip on gauge
and the of afacility.
attach http://members.shaw.ca
http://hyperphysics.phy-
equation:
perpendicular distance from Moon,
the
force. use values
weights
Consider to it. other
Use
everyday than
springs ION/kg.
examples:in parallel and in series. /ron.blondNern.APPLE
astr.gsu.edulhbaseltorg
weight = mass x gravitational Compare the gradients of the extension-load graphs. T/
the pivot and the principle of • spanners, html
field strength. Using a micrometer:
moments. • wrenches,
0 opening tins with screwdrivers and spoons, http://www.upscale.utor
onto. ca/PVB/Harrison/
Micrometer/Micrometer.
html
1(e) Describe how to measure a Use a stopclock or stopwatch to time pendulums or
variety of time intervals using oscillating weights or other pupils running upstairs or in
clocks and stopwatches. races. Calculate speeds and work done and power
expended.
UNIT 2 Waves Learning
Learning
Learning
Learning
and Their Outcomes
Outcomes
Outcomes
Outcomes
Uses Suggested
Suggested
Suggested
Suggested Teaching
Teaching
Teaching
Teaching Activities
Activities
Activities
Activities OnlineResources
Online
Online
Online Resources
Resources
Resources Otherresources
Other
Other
Other resources
resources
resources
14(i)
14(b)
16(h) Describe
television
Describe experiments
an
how experiment
the reflectionto to of •
Thecompression,
Explain
Refer law tothat
may
methodswhen ainvolving
be modelled ray emerges infiring
3D usingfrom
gunsglass rods
or simply into
or air,
rulers the
to
observing http://www.bbc.co.uk/sc
Total
Law
Long internal
of reflection:
reflection:
sight: Pass a ray
image point. into the curved
16(c) show
sound
State total
communications,
illustrate may
the internal
the law of
produce
approximate reflection.
reflection.
an echo.range emergent
This
•
represent
someone
Use atopic
rarefaction, angle
theprovides
claps
loudspeaker is
rays
the larger
and
two
and idealthan
the
pieces the
normal
a signal of angle
material woodandfor
generator at which
the pupil
together deskto testit
top
from strikes
projects.toa act The
the http://www.phy.ntnu.edu
The electromagnetic
hools/qcsebitesize/physi
http://www.qlenbrook.kl
Sound and the ear: face
(2)
The Itof isa usual
actual semi-circular
to use glass
frequency the
rangetop
Recommended (2)audiblePrior Knowledge
microwaves: satellite pupils
the
•
few
as surface.
displacement.canrange
a kilometres
mirror. Inresearch
dueaway course, these
(these areas
it emerges
rely on themselves
the at speed
900 toofthe and
lightlower then talk .tw/iava/liqhtlflashLiqht.h
spectrum:
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2. il.us/cibssci/phys/mme
il.us/gbssci/phys/Class point
block, offrom
into an the object
side faceas the
of a
of
Pupils oughttelevision
to have encounteredfrequencies. frequency
unit I before starting this unit. of
Inlarger the
addition pupils'
theythan hearing.
will need http://www.plenbrook.kl varies person to person
and telephone, to the
face.
being If veryrest
the angleof the
much at class
which itabout
indeed strikes what
the that ofsome
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surface have concept
increases,
sound). found. of what
There is meant
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it need
glass
but ablock
not or
point
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tank
range ofexactly
every water.
of 20 -*
at this
stage.
16(e) PupilsDescribe
(3)should
infra-red:be
a able
direct to
household use a protractor
method for and
is
then a
Sound to
huge
the drawemergent
travels simple
amount much ofdiagrams
angleinformation
faster exceeds
in neatly.
solids Words
published
90° and and it such
on
liquids.passesthe asinternet
When audible,
back a pitch, vibration, reflection,
qov/docs/science/know
Speed of sound in medium, vacuum,
other
Move theecho,
point ray. timbre,
on
There pre-natal,
the comes
object a
14(d)
13(c) State
Define thatthe for reflection,
terms speed, the Observe
Define that
the terms. there are many
Atseparately rays
this stagedefined for
speed by whichand the angle
velocity of
can be Diffuse and
Wave formula:
dia/waves/edl.html regular Use000
20 theHz formula
is usually to deduce
taken for
magnification,
15(a) lens
Describe
electrical
the andthe spectrum
dispersion
appliances,
determination of are
the of likely to beintoused
Best
and
hammerthethe without
shownglass. inThis
difficulty
strikes being
practiceislikely
is
athelong using
reflection
length toof aincidence
be glass/water
not
of refraction.
keeping
metal itNote the
prism
accurate
railings, teacher.
and
Refraction
two and a one
sounds Prisms:
ll/emspectrum.html
materials: also
point produces
at which noan image.
light at all
angle
frequency, of incidence wavelength is equal andto reflection
treated as equals
essentially anglethe same thing. but the correct
that the reflection:
http://www.qcse.com/wa the
a speed
person ofofnormal
radio waves
hearing.
14(n) light
Define as
television
speed the
of
the angle ofandillustrated
term
controllers
sound linear
in
reflection by
air the
and
and ray-box,
Scale
out of
relevant,
are
lies diagrams
the
heard:
in the same torch
glass
one or
will
is slit
now
through
planeonlyin a
be
the
as theblind/curtain.
impossible.accurate
railings;
normal if
one
andLight
drawnthrough
the is split
carefully.
the
incidentwaves)up air.
ray. http://webphysics.ph.ms
or:
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16(g) amplitude
Explain
action
magnification how
onin light the
and ofdoa calculations
loudness
glass
draw scale and frequency
Use
according
Start a microphone
with the
isits
to the
object
number
andtwo
wavelength.
and CR0.
the
oflenswaves
to andshow (not
findhow complete
thebe theimage trace yes/wave speed.htm
Loudness:
state.edu/iavamirror/ipmj from the published
14(h) intruder
Define
make
use
using
the
thisthe alarms,
terms
necessary critical
constructions, angle Emphasise
Emphasise
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thethat
point
factall
in
that
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unit time.areconditions
measured
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must between
is not
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Context and pitch
diagrams
prism.
(4) total of sound
to
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fibres
reflection. relate
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start
before with with
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object
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image amplitude.
and find the Relate
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light
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those
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values
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colours longitudinal
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the the units Use
in
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numerical
leads vibrations
to theorder of
may
traditional a loudspeaker
include
seven this
colours to
unit explain
at
of almost
the that any thestage. Sound
Rainbows: waves:
14(c) of the speeds
Describe
magnification
nature
spectrum of
(5) ultra-violet:
liquids
find theand and
of sound intoair,
an experiment
sound (converging
waves
explain
solids.
position sunbeds,
and how and the
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spectrum/rainbow.
light seems
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examples such as two mirrors
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fluorescent
describe
Describeare
characteristics the tubes
compression
related
factors and
of antowhich and
optical angle.
Compare
the mirror.this
extent
Emphasise
the of
that
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eye a along
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the orsame notespring
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14(o)
Outline Describe
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frequency/wavelength.
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springs. can
bends be best".
given only incomplete
Usenot an infra-redor unlabelled
detector diagrams
(e.g. aa Magnifying
tm#wavelenqth
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The
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influence
image
lens
unit begins as
(6)sound
of
mirror.
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byaintroducing
X-rays:
Describe magnifying
the
quality
hospital
waves
by a plane
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(timbre)
glass
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how and of waveand
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ripple
instruments
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Explain
tank camera,
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a medium emphasis
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experiment
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Transverse waves
UNIT 3 Atoms and Radioactivity
Pupils will have heard about atoms and electrons but are very unlikely to have a very clear idea of what they are. It would be helpful if pupils had already encountered atoms as
building-bricks in chemistry and had some conception of just how small they are. Similarly, pupils will have met electric charge in more domestic circumstances but this
quantity is not properly encountered until the next unit and teachers should be aware that, for pupils, it is not necessarily a fully understood branch of the subject. Element,
ionising and random are words which might well be used freely by the teacher whilst remaining something of a mystery to the pupils. The word radioactive will have been
encountered mostly in negative and dangerous contexts. Furthermore, some pupils will not realise that the Sun is just an ordinary star and this ought to be stated specifically in
the final sections.
Context
This unit deals with the structure of ordinary matter and as a result it presents ideas which are vital in many scientific contexts ranging from engineering and materials science
to pharmacology. The ideas included will be fundamental to many other sections of the syllabus and if the numerical order of units is not followed, the first parts of this unit
must be dealt with at an early stage.
Outline
The first half of this unit describes the structure of an atom and the evidence for the nuclear theory. Pupils learn about the three constituent particles which make up atoms and
their arrangement within it. Terms like isotope will be explained. The second half deals with radioactivity and the properties of alpha-, beta- and gammaradiation. The fission of
large atoms and the fusion of hydrogen atoms in stars will be explained and, then, some elementary mathematics is needed for the definition of half-life and is used in
calculations.
Learning Outcomes Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
27(a) Describe the structure of the Pupils have probably heard of atoms and that there are Electrons: Electrons occur in:
atom in terms of nucleus and roughly 90 different types which combine to make all http://www.sciencemuseum.or electrical conduction in
electrons. substances. They have probably heard about electrons. ci.uklon-line/electron/index.asp gases and electrical
State that these particles are small objects which carry and thermal conduction
negative charge. They are important in: ionisation Atomic Structure: in metals (unit 5). Some
(chemistry), electrostatics (unit 4), current electricity (unit http://www.purchon.com/chemi of these effects are
4), electrolysis (chemistry), beta-emission (26(a)) and stry/atoms.htm found in all substances.
thermionic emission (unit 10). There are electrons in all Electrons are
atoms. fundamental particles.
27(b) Describe how the Geiger- Describe the experiment. Three possible results: Geiger-Marsden Experiment: Emphasise the extreme
Marsden alpha scattering (1) Nearly all alpha particles pass straight through. The http://www.schoolscience.co.u inequality in the
experiment provides evidence atom is almost entirely empty space. klcontentl4/physics/particles/p distribution of matter
for the nuclear atom. (2) A few particles are deflected through noticeable articlesdiscover2.html within the atom.
angles. There is something in the foil. -99.95% of the mass is
(3) A very few particles rebound through very large Nucleus: concentrated in 1012
angles. There is something in the foil which is very www.physicslab.co.uk % of the volume. Use a
small, very dense and repels alpha particles (positive), local comparison, e.g.
a pea in a local football
stadium.
27(c) Describe the composition of Since the electrons are negative and easy to remove The nuclear atom: The helium nucleus is
the nucleus in terms of (electrostatics, ionisation, thermionic emission), they must http://www.lancs.ac.ukluq/coo four times more
protons and neutrons. be in the outer orbits and keep atoms apart. The nucleus kedl/rutherford.htm massive than that of
is the dense and positive centre of the atom. State that the hydrogen but has only
nucleus is made up of positive and neutral particles of twice the charge. The
very similar mass. These are protons and neutrons. neutral particles
keeping the two protons
apart also have mass.
27(d) Define the terms proton The proton number determines the number of electrons in
number (atomic number), Z the neutral atom and so it determines the chemical
and nucleon number (mass properties of that substance. It is the atomic number.
number), A. All carbon atoms have 6 protons and all atoms with 6
protons are carbon and so on. The nucleon number
determines the mass of the nucleus and is sometimes
called the mass number. Avoid the term "neutron number".
27(f) Define the term isotope. Two atoms with the same proton number may have a Isotopes: Emphasise that the
different number of neutrons. They have the same http://www.southwest.com.au/ proton number alone
chemical properties but are not identical. They are -ifuller/chemistrv/isotopes.htm determines the
different isotopes of the same atom. or: chemical properties
'2C and 13 C are
http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.cisu.edu/hbase/nuclear/nu identical
chemically (or
cnot.html use another example).
27(g) Explain, using nuclide
12C and 13 C are both
notation, how one element isotopes of carbon.
may have a number of Use the nuclide
isotopes. notation here before
radioactivity is
mentioned.
26(k) Describe how radioactive Explain dangers of nuclear radiation, include: burns, Radioactive safety: Emphasise that alpha-,
materials are handled, used sickness, biological cell damage, cancer, cell mutation. http://www.cicse.com/radio/saf beta- and gamma-
and stored in a safe way. Rules include: use the minimum activity, keep your ety.htm radiation do not make
distance, and insert protective layers. It is essential to other materials
state the rules and to obey them. radioactive when they
are absorbed.
26(a) Describe the detection of Where possible, bring radioactive samples near to a GM Detecting Radiation: State that some
alpha-particles, beta-particles tube or a spark counter. Use an old, luminous watch or http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ substances cause the
and gamma-rays by altimeter or suitable rocks if educational samples are not cicsebitesize/physics/radioactiv exposure of nearby
appropriate methods. available. Such substances are emitting something. The ity/detectinqradiationrev2.shtm photographic plates -
radiations can also be detected by a variety of devices. I this was how
Only one method of detection needs to be learnt by the radioactivity was
pupils. discovered. Describe
the tracks in a cloud
chamber.
26(c) State for radioactive Where possible use a mixed source and show that there Radiation properties: Tabulate the properties
emissions, their nature, are three types of emission which have distinct properties: http://www.physics.isu.edu/rad of the three types of
relative ionising effects and (1) heavily ionising but easily absorbed, inf/properties.htm radiation. Include:
relative penetrating powers. (2) less ionising but less easily absorbed, • particle/wave,
(3) weakly ionising but difficult to absorb completely. • charge,
• mass,
• ionising strength,
• penetration
strength,
• nature,
• behaviour in
electric and
magnetic fields.
26(d) Describe the deflection of
radioactive emissions in
electric fields and magnetic
fields.
26(b) State and explain the random Measure the count-rate from a source (background Random emission: Life assurance works
emission of radioactivity in radiation will do). Notice that it varies about an average http://www.physicsdaily.com/p on a similar basis.
direction and time. value. Emphasise that whilst random events are utterly hysics/Random Individual deaths are
unpredictable individually, on a sufficiently large scale, the unpredictable but with a
behaviour is very accurately predictable (half-life ideas or: large enough number of
lead pupils to imagine that the number of atoms falls in http://serc.carleton.edu/guants customers, the likely
some manner such as this: 160 -* 80 -* 40 -* 20 -* 10 -* kills/activities/PennyDecay.htm number of deaths in a
what happens now? With numbers this small, of course, I given time varies very
the behaviour is unpredictable). little.
26(e) Explain what is meant by Pupils should know that radioactive decay is the random Radioactive decay: Consider only two types
radioactive decay. emission of alpha-, beta- or gamma-radiation from http:Ilwww.walter- of radioactive decay:
unstable nuclei. The emissions are unaffected by fendt.de/ph11 e/lawdecay.htm alpha and beta. Then
temperature, pressure and chemical combination, explain that these may
Radioactive series: occur on their own, or
http://www.walter- with gamma.
fendt.de/ph 11 e/decayseries.ht
27(e) Explain the term nuclide and When explaining this notation, make it clear that the Nuclide notation: Emphasise that after
use the notation X to element X determines what the number Z is and vice http://www.iqhs.edin.sch.uklm the emission of an
versa. E.g. if Z = 7, then X is always an N (nitrogen). athscience/chemistrynotes/topi alpha- or beta-particle,

construct equations where
radioactive decay leads to The equation for the alpha decay of, say, 238 U is fairly c3.html the nucleus may
changes in the composition of straightforward. Emphasise that in beta emission a rearrange itself and
emit an electromagnetic
the nucleus, nuclear reaction occurs first: n -* p + e. Hence, the wave (gamma-ray). No
superscript and subscript, in e, are present to balance particle is emitted.
the equation. A beta-particle is not made of -1 proton. Notation such as
confuses pupils.
26(f)1 Explain the processes of State that 236 U is explosively radioactive. Bombarding Fission: The chain reaction can
fission. 92 http:Ilhyperphysics.phy- be modelled with a
235 astr.qsu.edu/hbase/nucene/fis vertical array of
92 j with neutrons may produce this isotope which may
lead to a chain reaction. Do not explain fission and fusion sion.html horizontal matches.
together. The terms are very similar but the processes Light the lowest match
are essentially the reverse of each other. but it is too far away
from the ones above to
ignite them. If a second
array of matches
interpenetrates the first,
distances are reduced
and they can all ignite
from the bottom
upwards
26(g) Describe with the aid of a A nuclear power station is like a standard steam turbine Nuclear power stations:
block diagram one type of station powered by coal, oil or gas. It is simply that the http://www.nucleartourist.com
fission reactor for use in a mechanism for boiling the water is different.
power station.
26(m) Discuss the origins and effect Measure the count-rate in the laboratory. It is never zero. Background radiation: Pupils find it difficult to
of background radiation. Two sources: http://www.darvill.clara.net/nuc understand that risky
• natural background radiation - rocks and space rad/sources.htm procedures are used in
• manmade exposure - medical diagnosis (include X- or: hospitals until it is
rays but emphasise that they are not nuclear in http://www.ansto.ciov.au/edu/n pointed out that most
origin), medical treatment, power stations, military uclear age/nuclear age biol.h medical procedures
tests, flying, travel to areas with higher levels and so tm involve some risk but
on. that the treatment is
There are small risks with all levels of exposure and the less hazardous than the
risk increases with the absorbed dose. Even the highest disease.
natural levels seem to pose few health risks.
26(i) Explain what is meant by the Quote a specific example: 1 kg of 238j contains -2.5x1 024 Half-life: Emphasise that the
92
term half-life. 7. http://hyperphysics.phy- constant time for
atoms and has an activity of-1.2x10 Bq. 2 kg made of
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/hal halving does not
-5.OxlO atoms and has an activity of-2.4x10 Bq etc. fli.html depend on the start
Therefore A a N. Draw the graph of N -* t. As the value or: point. It also takes one
of N falls so does the rate at which it is falling. This graph http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ half-life to fall from 80%
has the familiar property of halving in a certain constant gcsebitesize/physics/radioactiv to 40% or from 96% to
time. ity/radioactivedecayandhalflifer 48%. Consequently in
evi.shtml half-life experiments,
the clock can be started
at any convenient
value.
26(j) Make calculations based on Carry out a standard school laboratory determination of Half-life calculations: Plot height of water in a
half-life which might involve half-life or show videos/DVDs of such experiments. Pupils http://www.darvill.clara.net/nuc burette -* time after
information in tables or shown plot the graph and calculate the answer. Paint one face of rad/hlife.htm opening tap (this does
by decay curves, a large number of small cubes a distinct colour. Model not give a particularly
decay by throwing the cubes from a beaker on to the desk good curve but the
and removing those which land with the painted face height does decrease
upwards. Repeat many times. Plot number of cubes left -* at a decreasing rate).
number of the throw. Carry out calculations. Only use
whole numbers of half-lives but problems which require a
background count correction should be included. Half-lives
encompass a very wide range of values: billions of years
to milliseconds
26(l) Discuss the way in which the There are many examples but these include: Uses of radiation: There are so many
type of radiation emitted and • Alpha emitters are used to deliver radiation locally in http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ examples that it is
the half-life determine the use medical procedures (e.g. to a tumour inside the brain) qcsebitesize/physics/radioactiv important to make it
for the material, and in smoke detectors. ity/radioactivedecayandhalflifer clear why a certain
• Beta emitters are used when determining the evi.shtml procedure needs the
thickness of paper as it is manufactured and the level particular properties of
of fruit juice in a carton. the radiation chosen
• Gamma emitters are used when radiation has to and why the others
leave the human body to be detected for diagnosis or would not be effective.
when treating internal organs from outside. The half-
life must be long enough for the procedure to be
accurate but not so long that is constitutes a health
hazard.
26(n) Discuss the dating of objects Emphasise that 14C is continuously produced in the upper Radiocarbon dating: The process has to be
by the use of 14C. and http://www.c14datinq.com corrected for
into
atmosphere
living things through
passes
photosynthesis and digestion; it only occurs in things fluctuations in the
which were once alive including: wood, bones, seeds. prevailing level of 14 C.
Pupils can be unsure about which things were This is done using
once alive. the
Its half-live is -5730y and after about 20000y, tree rings of
the dating ancient
is less accurate as little 14 C is left. redwood trees -
dendrochronology.
26(1) Explain the processes of Emphasise that the Sun and all stars have burnt for too Nuclear fusion: Emphasise that both
2
fusion. long and given off too much energy for their power source http://www.iet.efda.org/paqes/ the fusion of small
to be chemical. It is now known that it is powered by four content/fusioni html nuclei and the fission of
hydrogen atoms merging into one helium atom. This or: large ones release
process is highly exothermic. Pupils should know that H + http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu energy. A different rule
H -* He + energy clear fusion applies at the two ends
of the periodic table.
26(h) Discuss theories of star Stars are formed when clouds of gas and dust collapse Star formation:
formation and their energy under gravity, the temperature increases until the http:Ilwww.qcse.comleblstarl.
production by fusion. hydrogen nuclei can fuse. Stars are in balance when the htm
pressure caused by the fusion reaction balances that
UNIT 4 Moving Charges
Pupils will need to have encountered electrons and should know where they are to be found in the atom. Pupils are likely to have some basic understanding of electrostatic charging and this will be
useful in coming to grips with electric charge in a more general manner. That charge comes in two distinct types which may cancel out is also worth explaining as, frequently, it is just assumed to be
true. It would be useful if pupils had encountered the idea of electric current in some domestic or more elementary way before it is properly defined here.
Context
This very substantial unit is an absolutely essential preliminary for the topics which are met in units 7 and 10. Electricity is a major constituent of any physics course and it is here that the most
fundamental ideas are initially explained. Pupils do not find these ideas easy or self-evident and so this unit needs to be tackled with particular care.
Outline
The early sections deal with electrostatic charge and some situations in which it is found. The fundamental link between charge and electrons is made explicit at this stage. The electric field can be
treated as another field of force and the idea of force lines can be introduced quite naturally with it. The distinction between conductors and insulators is drawn and this leads directly into the
relationship between charge and current. The ampere is defined in some imprecise way at this point. This opens up the topic of electrical circuits and all the fundamental ideas follow from the concept of
an electric current. E.m.f. and p.d. are introduced, and power and resistance are defined here. Pupils will also become very familiar with circuit diagrams and the symbols for many essential conducting
components. This is a large and important unit and it should not be rushed.

18(a) Describe experiments to Use a rubbed, insulating rod to deflect a trickle of water, Theatre of Electricity: Use a Van de Graaf
show electrostatic charging make hair stand on end, pick up dust and small pieces of http:Ilwww.mos.orcilslnltoelt generator to show
by friction, paper. Rub a balloon and it sticks to the wall. oe.html electrostatic effects. This
high voltage device
Recall that clothing sticks to your back on dry days, that Van de Graaf Generator: must only be used by a
walking on nylon carpets, leaving cars and touching TV http://www.howstuffworks.co qualified operator and
screens causes small electric shocks. A tingling m/vdg.htm under conditions of the
sensation
is felt before lightning storms. strictest safety.
Use local examples with which the pupil will be familiar as
climate has an effect.
18(d) State that unlike charges These effects are most easily shown by balancing The Gold-Leaf Electroscope: Use a gold-leaf
attract and that like charges charged rods on a lens or watch glass. http://www.glenbrook.k12.il. electroscope to show
repel. us/qbssci/phys/mmedia/esta repulsion of the leaf.
tics/esn.html
18(c) State that there are positive Use several different charged rods. There are only two Types of Charge: Set up a series circuit
and negative charges and types of behaviour and only two types of charge. http://www.bbc.co.uk/school with an EHT supply, two
that charge is measured in s/cicsebitesize/physics/electr separated metal plates
coulombs. Use two rods of different materials together to show a icity/electriccharqeandcurren and a very sensitive
reduced effect. trev4.shtml galvano-meter or
coulombmeter.
One type of charge cancels the other and so they may be
called positive and negative. A table-tennis ball (with a
conducting coating)
shuttles between the two
plates and a reading is
recorded.
The high voltage EHT
supply must only be
used by a qualified
operator and under
conditions of the
strictest safety.
18(b) Explain that charging of solids State this as a fact. Pupils have probably heard of Charging by friction: A can containing a duster
involves a movement of electrons (even if unit 3 has not been taught) and know http://www.plenbrook. k12.il. is on a gold-leaf
electrons. they are negative. us/qbssci/phys/Class/estatic electroscope. Take a
s/u812a.html nylon rod from the can
Emphasise that the negative charges move and that which rubs against the
positive objects have lost electrons. duster. The leaf deflects.
Reinsert the rod. The
deflection collapses.
18(e) Describe an electric field as a Emphasise the idea that actions occur near to a charged Electric field:
region in which an electric object: pick up small pieces of paper, dust on polished http://hyperphysics.phy-
charge experiences a force. glass, clothing sticks to back, and crackling near overhead astr.cisu.edu/hbase/electric/
power cables. elefie.html
18(f) State the direction of lines of Plot field patterns with EHT supply, electrodes and Plotting field patterns: Pupils can become adept
force and describe simple semolina grains in cooking oil. The high voltage EHT http://www.physicslab.co.ukl at drawing electrostatic
field patterns, supply must only be used by a qualified operator and Efield.htm fields.
under conditions of the strictest safety. Electric Fields: Give them a few rules:
http://www.colorado.edu/phy • Field lines do not cross.
Avoid comparing electric and magnetic fields at this early sics/2000/waves particles/w 9 Field line leave
stage, it confuses. avpart3.html conductors at right
angles.
• Arrows point from + to -
Try: ball to ball, plate to
plate, ball to plate, cloud
to city skyline/trees/cars.
18(g) Describe the separation of Two metal balls on insulating stands are touching. Bring a Electrostatic Induction:
charges by induction, rod near to one ball. Separate the balls and check the http://www.physics.ncsu.edu
charges using a gold-leaf electroscope. Charge a gold- /courses/py208/2O8animatio
leaf electroscope itself by induction. ns/induction.html
18(h) Describe the differences Use a low voltage d.c. circuit with a lamp to test common Conductors and insulators: Notice that wood does
between electrical conductors materials. http://www.ndt- not conduct a current but
and insulators and state ed.orci/EducationResources/ does discharge an
examples of each. Try to discharge a gold-leaf electroscope through these HighSchool/Electricity/condu electroscope. Never use
common materials. Can the charge pass through people? ctorsinsulators.htm a wooden object to
Do not try to pass electric currents through rescue someone who
people. is
being electrocuted.
Pupils will see that the best conductors are
metals.
18(i) State what is meant by Standing on a rubber sheet or plastic bag and
repeat.
"earthing" a charged
object.
18(j) Describe examples where Spark hazard: Lightning: Conductors solve
these
charging could be a problem (1) On oil tankers sailors wear special conducting http://www.fi.edu/weather/lici problems, e.g.
e.g. lightning, shoes. htning/lightninci.html • slightly conducting
(2) Aeroplanes and filling station tanks are electrically aeroplane tyres
connected to the tanker when being filled with fuel. discharge landing
(3) Small shocks in cars or large carpeted shops. planes slowly
• lightning conductors.
18(k) Describe examples where Explain how these devices work. Pupils can be given Photocopier:
charging is helpful e.g. sheets with printed diagrams of different stages in the http://home.maine.rr.com/ra
photocopier and electrostatic procedure and can label or complete them. ndylinscott/copier. htm
precipitator.
Concentrate on the charge placed on the photosensitive Electrostatic Precipitator:
drum surface and how light enables it to be removed. http://www.eas.asu.edu/-hol
bert/wise/electrostaticprecip.
In a photocopier, a mirror image is formed twice which htn
restores the original pattern. This is an interesting
occurrence in its own right. Use as the image something Electrostatic Spraying:
which lacks left/right and top/bottom symmetry, e.g. a http://www.spraytec.com/arti
large letter F, L or R. cles/Electrostatic.htm
or:
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiku
Uses of static electricity %
28GCSE science%29
19(a) State that a current is a flow Refer to the shuttling ball experiment. Set up a series Electric Current:
of charge and that current is circuit with an ammeter, large resistance and a http://hyperphysics.phy-
measured in amperes. coulombmeter. Plot charge -* time. astr.cisu.edu/hbase/electric/
Use a larger current. elecur.html
or:
Emphasise that a current is a "loop flow" of charge which http://www.sunblock99.orci.u
is the mechanism for energy (not properly defined until k/sb99/people/DMackay/ele
unit 6) transfer. The bicycle chain is a reasonably good ctricity.html
analogy for a current. Use the word current rather than or:
amperage. http://www.schoolscience.co
u k/content/3/physics/circu its
/circhl pci3.html
20(b) State that the current at every Allow pupils to predict how current varies at different
point in a series circuit is the places in a series circuit.
same, and use this in
calculations. Then allow them to test their predictions.
20(d) State that the current from the Measure the current in different branches of parallel
source is the sum of the circuits. Currents split but the total remains the same.
currents in the separate Change the resistance of some branches.
branches of a parallel circuit.
Compare with water in supply pipes.
19(b) Do calculations using the At this stage it is easier to define the ampere as the Current and charge: Explain that a charged
equation coulomb/second rather than the more accurate reverse. http://www.bbc.co.uk/school battery stores a certain
charge = current x time. s/gcsebitesize/physics/electr amount of charge. It can
Some pupils find rearranging equations hard, even though icity/electriccharqeandcurren supply 20A for 2 h or I OA
in more everyday examples - e.g. 50 krrvli for 2 h, trev5.shtml for 4 h etc. A flat battery
distance travelled = 100 km - there seems to be no cannot supply charge.
problem.
19(c) Describe the use of an This will be covered as pupils use ammeters in different Using a multimeter:
ammeter with different experiments. Pupils should know how to use the http://www.doctronics.co.uk/
ranges. ammeters they deal with. meter.htm
19(d) Explain that electromotive First explain that e.m.f. is the property of a source of Definition of electrical Heat water in a
force (e.m.f.) is measured by electrical energy, include: cells, generators. If a circuit is quantities: polystyrene cup with a
the energy dissipated by a left on for twice as long it transfers twice as much energy http://monopole.ph.gmw.ac. low voltage (this word is
source in driving a unit (unit 5). Hence energy/charge is a constant. uk/-thomas/emf/handout6.P hard to avoid) immersion
charge around a complete DF heater. Plot temperature
circuit. -* time; this is equivalent
to energy -* charge.
19(e) State that e.m.f. is work There are a variety of analogies possible for this difficult E.m.f and p.d: Coal lorries travel in a
done/charge. idea: The Coulomb Brothers carry sacks of joules around http://www.patana.ac.th/pare continuous loop from the
the circuit. They drop the joules off at the appliance and nts/curriculum/Physics K4/u coal mine to the power
return with an empty sack. nits/DJFPhO35.html station and travel back
empty. There is a fixed
amount of energy per
lorry.
19(f) State that the volt is given by There is a fixed number of joules/coulomb.
J/C.
19(g) Calculate the total e.m.f. Carry out the measurement with a voltmeter. Consider Cells in series and parallel:
where several sources are car batteries (6 x 2.OV) and PP9s (6 x 1.5V). Keep a PP9 http://www.batteryuniversity.
arranged in series and which has been sawn in half and show the six layers. com/partone-24.htm
discuss how this is used in
the design of batteries.
19(h) Discuss the advantage of Refer back to 20(d). Charge up a model lead-acid cell for Several cells in parallel:
making a battery from several a few minutes. Discharge it through a torch lamp and time http://www.allaboutcircuits.c
equal voltage sources of how long it takes. om/vol 6/chpt 3/3.html
e.m.f. arranged in parallel.
Repeat with two lead cells in parallel, each of which was
charged for the same time and with the same current as
the previous cell.
19(i) State that the potential This can be done by referring back to the definition of Potential difference:
difference across a circuit e.m.f. The p.d. however, is concerned with where the http://www.reqentsprep.org/
component is measured in energy ends up, not where it comes from. Reqents/physics/phys03/ap
volts. otdif/default.htm
19(j) State that the p.d. across a
component in a circuit is
given by the work done in the
component/charge passed
through the component.
19(k) Describe the use of a Pupils learn how to use the meters to which they have Using a multimeter:
voltmeter with different access by carrying out their own experiments. http://www.doctronics.co.uk/
ranges. meter.htm
19(l) State that resistance = Ohm's Law:
p.d./current and use the http://www.walter-
equation fendt.de/ph 11 e/ohmslaw.ht
resistance = voltage/current ff1
in calculations.
19(m) Describe an experiment to Perform the experiment for a metal/carbon conductor, plot Current and voltage:
measure the resistance of a V -* I. Measure the gradient. State "This is a 50V/A http://iersey.uoregon.edu/vla
metallic conductor using a conductor" or whatever it is. b/Voltacie/
voltmeter and an ammeter
and make the necessary Repeat with other values and plot on the same axes.
calculations. "These are 20V/A or 10 V/A conductors." This value tells
us how hard it is to send a current through the conductor.
The 50V/A is offers more resistance than the IOV/A.
Resistance is measured in WA - also called the ohm, 0.
19(q) Describe the effect of Plot V - I for a tungsten filament bulb. Why is it not a Temperature dependence of Use an ohmmeter to
temperature increase on the straight line? resistance: measure the resistance of
resistance of a resistor and a http://www.patana.ac.thlpare a small low voltage bulb
filament lamp and draw the Why is it harder to send a current through the filament nts/curriculum/Physics K4/u (e.g. 6V) heated up in a
respective sketch graphs of when it is hot (temperature is not covered until unit 6 but nits/DJFPhO35.html water bath or sprayed
current/voltage, pupils are likely to be aware of elementary kinetic theory)? with a cooling spray.
It requires a little time for
the bulbs filament to
reach any temperature
outside.
19(n) Discuss the temperature When filament bulbs blow, why is it when they are
limitations on Ohm's Law. switched on? The current surge occurs because the
resistance is low when they are switched on.
19(o) Use quantitatively the Plot V - I for wires of different lengths and compare Dependence on length and Use conducting putty
proportionality between gradients. Or use an ohmmeter. Use a poor conductor area: which can be extruded
resistance and the length and with a significant resistance for a short length. Plot R -* x. http://www.reqentsprep.org/ into cylinders of different
the cross-sectional area of a Repeat for different cross-sectional areas. Reqents/physics/physO3/bre cross-sectional areas and
wire. sist/default.htm different lengths.
19(p) Calculate the net effect of a Plot V - I for parallel and series combinations. Resistors in parallel and Measure the resistance of
number of resistors in series Emphasise: series: networks made of n
and parallel. • "A thick wire is just many thin ones laid side by side" http://schools.matter.org.uk/ parallel branches of n
"A long wire is just many short ones laid end to Content/Resistors/Default.ht resistors. How hot do the
end"
rn resistors get?
19(r) Describe the operation of a Measure R at different light intensities for an L.D.R. It is LDRs:
light-dependent resistor. difficult to measure the intensity easily or accurately but http://www.doctronics.co.uk/l
definite fractions of a standard intensity can be use by dr sensors.htm
letting the light pass through a variable aperture, e.g. cut or:
ever bigger holes in a piece of cardboard. http://www.antonine-
education.co.uk/Physics A2
/Options/Module 9/Topic 6/
TOPIC 6.HTM
20(a) Draw circuit diagrams with: These symbols are best learnt gradually in the course of Circuit symbols: Rectifying diodes do not
power sources (cell, battery describing experiments or when pupils write them up. It is http://www.gcse.com/circuit feature largely elsewhere
or a.c. mains), not a good idea to produce a sheet containing all the symbols.htm in this syllabus and it
switches (closed and open), symbols at the beginning of this section; this generates might be sensible to
resistors (fixed and confusion. investigate their
variable),
light dependent resistors, conduction
characteristics
lamps, The teacher might, however, keep a record of the symbols at this point.
ammeters, encountered by the pupils as the course progresses and
voltmeters, give out a full sheet when they have all been encountered
magnetising coils, separately.
bells,
fuses,
relays,
light emitting diodes,
rectifying diodes.
20(c) State that the sum of the Reminder: p.d. is concerned with where the energy ends P.d.s in series:
potential differences in a up. Consider two resistors (AB and BC) in series. The http://www.sec.org.za/physic
series circuit is the equal to energy which ends up between terminal A and C (i.e. in s/plOelpd.html
the potential difference the two resistors) is equal to that which ends up between
across the whole circuit and A and B added to that between B and C.
use this in calculations.
Set up a series circuit and demonstrate this. Use the
opportunity to include a section of circuit with resistors in
parallel. Note these resistors all have the full p.d. of that
section of the circuit across them which only counts once
when finding the total p.d. across the circuit.
20(e) Do calculations on the whole Pupils will need to practise answering questions starting Resistance:
circuit, recalling and using with simple circuits (one cell, one ammeter and one http://hyperphysics.phy-
formulae including R = VII resistor) and gradually try more complicated arrangements astr.cisu.edu/hbase/electric/r
and those for potential as they become more proficient. esis.html
differences in series, resistors
in series and resistors in
parallel.
UNIT 5 Energy and Energy Sources
Most pupils will have some concept of energy in a general industrial or domestic sense but they are less likely to be as precise in their understanding as the subject demands at
this level. An elementary experience of the distinctions between the different forms of energy would be useful even at the start of this unit.
Context
Since energy is one of the fundamental ideas which underpin the whole of this subject, this is another fundamental unit. In the first section, however, one can afford to swim
with the tide and leave the idea of energy less than properly defined. It does lead into the full and fundamental definition, however, and at that point more care will be needed
as the concepts and definitions are used throughout the rest of the course.
Outline
At first, the fairly gentle topic of energy transformation and energy sources is dealt with. There are few difficult or abstract ideas here and it lends itself to a less mathematical
treatment than many other areas. It is desirable, however, to keep the subject as precise as possible and to make sure that pupils do not start using terms like power, energy
and force interchangeably. It is essential that when energy is properly defined in the second half of this unit, it is done carefully and that its structural importance as a concept
is thoroughly emphasised. The terms kinetic and potential energy can be used quantitatively and the definition of work is included. Efficiency and power can be fully defined
here, even if they have featured in previous units. The formula, E = mc2, will excite some pupils who will believe that they are now real physicists - encourage them. Finally the
environmental consequences of power generation will return them to more straightforward and familiar areas.

8(a) List the different forms of It is probably best to name and describe the different forms Types of energy:
energy with examples in of energy as they occur in the course rather than to list them http://www.cicse.com/enerciy/t
which each form occurs. in an somewhat abstract and artificial way all at once. At ypes.htm
some point, however, it makes sense to list the energy forms or:
which have been encountered and to ensure that pupils can http://powermin.nic.in/kids/typ
identify which form of energy is most important in a given es of enerqy.htm
change. Energy cannot be properly defined until work done
has been defined (later in this unit), but most pupils will have
some idea of what energy means here.
8(b) State the principle of the Consider some particular examples of energy change. Conservation of energy:
conservation of energy and http://www.irish-
apply this principle to the What energy changes occur in a hydroelectric power station? enerqy.ie/content/content.asp
conversion of energy from What energy changes occur when electrical energy is used ?section id=1 I 35&lanpuacie
one form to another. domestically in the cooker? ki=1
An electric drill?
A mobile telephone charger? Energy transformations:
What energy changes occur in a motor vehicle? http://www.physicsclassroom.
When it is going up hill? As it accelerates? com/mmedia/enerqy/pe.html
What energy changes occur in a nuclear power station? or:
http://www.
nottinqhamschools
co.
uk/eduweb/schools/school
s-template. aspx?id=874
8(d) List renewable and non- This can be quite an arid topic if taught conventionally, but it Non-renewable energy Emphasise that the Sun
renewable energy sources. does lend itself to project work. sources: is the ultimate source of
http://www.sustainableenerqy most energy consumed
.gld.edu.au/sources/nonrene on Earth but that this is
wable.html not true of geothermal
energy, nuclear energy
Renewable energy sources: and tidal energy.
http://www.sustainableenerqy
.cild.edu.au/sources/renewabl
e. html
or:
http://www.factmonster.com/i
pka/A0907040. html
8(e) Describe the processes by Pupils might research the whole topic individually or a small
which energy is converted group of pupils might research one type of renewable energy
from one form to another, and then explain their findings to the whole class.
including reference to
It is important that pupils remember that this is a physics
• chemical/fuel energy (a project and they should make clear the origins of the energy
regrouping of atoms) source as well as any environmental benefits, e.g. hydrogen
• hydroelectric generation is not a source of renewable energy since it has to be
(emphasising the generated by some means.
mechanical energies
involved) What is the pupil proposing as the source of the energy to
• solar energy (nuclei of generate it? Pupils should understand that renewable
atoms in the Sun) energy does not mean that it can be "used again", rather that
• nuclear energy it is being renewed as it is used so that it will "not run out".
• geothermal energy
• wind energy.
8(j) Calculate work done from the Emphasise the difference between doing work and getting Work done: The formula mgh comes
formula work = force x tired. http://www.qlenbrook.k12.il.us from force x distance.
distance moved in the line of /qbssci/phys/Class/enerqy/u5l
action of the force. A human gets tired supporting a weight at a constant height laa.html Doing work is the same
even though no work is being done. Likewise no work is as transferring energy
done against gravity when a suitcase is moved horizontally. Mechanical energy: and energy is the ability
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ to do work.
Give many examples including: lifting a load vertically gcsebitesize/physics/enerqy/p
upwards, rolling a barrel up a plank at an angle, removing an otentialandkineticrevl.shtml The two quantities are
electron from an atom, excited nuclei rearranging themselves inextricably intertwined.
after radioactive decay (gamma-radiation). This is true quantitatively
and so they have the
same unit.
8(c) State that kinetic energy The formula %mv2 can be deduced from F = ma and a = (v2- Kinetic energy:
Ek = %mv2 and that potential u2)/2. It is usually better just to state it at this stage. http://hyperphysics.phy-
energy E = mgh and use astr.qsu.edu/hbase/ke.html
these equations in Potential energy:
calculations. http://www.cilenbrook.kl 2.il us
/qbssci/phys/Class/enerqy/u5l
I b.html
8(k) Calculate the efficiency of an
energy conversion using the
formula efficiency= energy
converted to the required
form/total energy input.
8(h) Describe the process of Emphasise that every energy conversion generates some
electricity generation and heat which is usually lost to the surroundings.
draw a block diagram of the
process from fuel input to Try to discourage pupils from writing, " lost as heat, light
electricity output. and sound". Few systems waste energy as light and those
which do lose energy as sound, lose very little when
compared to the quantity lost as heat.
8(l) Discuss the efficiency of Figures on energy input and output are usually available from Power station efficiency:
energy conversions in a local power station and this may even be a convenient http://www.aie.org.au/melb/m
common use, particularly place in the course to arrange a visit. aterial/resource/pwr-eff.htm
those giving electrical or:
output.
A discussion of power station efficiency might include more http://www.memaqazine.org/b
efficient systems including combined power and heat ackissues/aprO2/features/sixt
(C.P.H.) ypc/sixtypc.html
8(m) Discuss the usefulness of
energy output from a number
of energy conversions.
8(n) Calculate the power from the This definition gives a specific meaning to power which is Work and power:
formula distinct from energy. Power is always: the rate of change of http://www.physicsclassroom.
power= work done/time something measured in joules. Give examples: the rate of com/Class/enerqy/U5LIa.htm
taken. doing work, the rate of losing heat, the rate of generating
energy, etc.
8(f) Explain nuclear fusion and These two opposite processes both release energy but Energy in fission and fusion:
fission in terms of energy emphasise that fusion only releases energy for small nuclei http:Ilwww.energyguest.ca.go
releasing processes. and fission for large ones. Quote the accurate masses of the vlstorylchapterl 3.html
proton, neutron and helium nucleus and show that mHe < 2m
+ 2mm.
8(g) Do calculations using the Consider a few specific examples of fission such as:
mass-energy equation:
E=mc2. 2
92 0 U+ n -1Ba+ 12 Kr +3n 56 36 0
8(i) Discuss the environmental Start a class discussion. Groups put forward the merits of Environmental issues:
issues associated with power building a particular sort of power station for their http://www.qcse.com/energyl
generation. country/community. climate change.htm

Pupils concentrate on the negative aspects of power
generation: global-warming, pollution, radioactive discharges,
and health effects.
They should be reminded of the importance of an adequate
power supply.
UNIT 6 Thermal Energy and Matter
Pupils should have encountered some basic ideas concerning heat and temperature and the difference between them needs to be made clear e.g. a spark has a high
temperature but can emit only a little thermal energy whilst the polar sea is cold but the internal energy of all its molecules is large. Many pupils will not distinguish between
electrical and thermal conduction and will, also, need to be put straight. Pupils will need to know terms like insulation and radiation (applied to l.R. radiation). Some
elementary kinetic theory is also needed for this unit.
Context
This unit introduces the topic of thermodynamics - another hugely significant area of physics. Many large industries rely on its being understood. This unit could be fitted
into a course almost anywhere since it is, to some extent, independent of many of the concepts on which the other units rely. Energy, however, ought to have been properly
defined before it is taught. Heat is often referred to as thermal energy.
Outline
The early ideas of conduction and convection are fairly easy to explain and to understand and many pupils will already be aware of these two energy transmission
mechanisms. Radiation is likely to prove harder and it is worth ensuring that pupils have a clear understanding of this topic before moving on. The effective insulation of
buildings is dealt with and the manner in which a thermometer functions will be introduced here. Pupils will meet these phenomena: expansion, boiling, melting and
evaporation. The definitions of heat capacity, specific heat capacity and specific latent heat are included in this unit.

9(a) Describe how to distinguish There are many simple examples. Stir hot tea with plastic, There are several types of
between good and bad wooden, glass, aluminium, stainless steel and silver simple equipment which
conductors of heat. spoons/rods. show comparative thermal
conduction properties.
Poke a fire with iron, brass and copper rods.
Give practical examples: a saucepan should be made
from a good conductor whilst its handle is made from a
poor one. There are many others.
9(b) Describe in molecular terms Use a model of a solid structure (balls joined by springs) Heat transfer: Pupils can be linked
how heat transfer occurs in and show that shaking one end leads to vibrations at the http://www.lanly.com/heatinq.h together in a line using their
solids, other. tm arms and vibrations can be
or: sent along the line.
In a metal, a vibrating atom can propel electrons a very http://www.mansfieldct.org/sch Compare metallic
long distance at high speed. They collide with other ools/mms/staff/hand/convcond conduction with kicking a
atoms far off and set them vibrating. This is a much faster rad.htm football the entire length of
process. or: the pitch.
http://sol.sci.uop.edu/-ifalward
/heattransfer/heattransfer html
Thermal conduction:
http://phun physics.virqinia.ed
u/topics/thermal.html
9(c) Describe convection in fluids Use a Bunsen burner to heat a beaker of water at one Illustrate convection with
in terms of density changes. side, on the bottom. The convection current can be seen specific examples:
using a few tiny crystals of potassium permanganate at • wind
the bottom. • heat transmitted around a
room
Special tubes which link back on themselves in a square • the ice-box in a
shape can be used to illustrate convection, refrigerator cools the area
below it.
There is a clear series of events which take place in
convection: hot water expands -* its density falls -* it
rises - it pushes away the liquid above it and sucks in the
liquid next to it -* a circulation is set up.
9(d) Describe the process of heat Hot objects emit I.R. radiation (unit 6). The hotter the IR radiation: Examples include:
transfer by radiation. object, the more radiation it emits. At equilibrium, an http://www.pcse.com/enerpy/r • energy from Sun to
object absorbs just as much as it emits. adiation.htm Earth
or: • electric fires (not
Be careful to distinguish between absorption and http://k12.ocs.ou.edu/teachers/ radiators)
emission. Absorption experiment: set up a black can of reference/overrad.html • thermal imaging.
water and a white can of water in direct sunlight. Absorption/emission:
Determine the temperature rises. http://sol.sci.uop.edu/-ifalward Trick question: Why are
/physicsl 7/chapter7/chapter7. polar bears white?
Wear a black T-shirt and a white one in direct sunlight. t!Pii Answer: Camouflage.
What happens? Emission experiment: set up the two
cans filled with boiling water in the shade. Record the
temperature drop with time.
9(e) Describe how to distinguish
between good and bad
emitters and good and bad
absorbers of infra-red
radiation.
9(f) Describe how heat is Simple experiments measuring the temperature drop of a
transferred to or from can of water, a warm piece of metal, or even a
buildings and to or from a thermometer itself, lagged in different ways or given a thin
room. black coating from a sooty candle can be used to illustrate
the processes.
9(g) State and explain the use of The poor conductivity of air does not itself explain Insulation: A few insulation techniques
important practical methods insulation, as most buildings are surrounded by many http://www.sei.ie!content!conte are not designed to
of heat insulation for metres of air. nt.asp?section id=1 111 suppress convection. Why
buildings. is white a popular colour for
Most heat is transferred to or from buildings and rooms by houses in hot countries?
convection in the air. The principle of most insulation Consider the day and the
mechanisms is to suppress convection, night.
This is done by trapping the air. It is then important that
air is a poor conductor of heat.
10(a) Explain how a physical Make it clear that the property chosen must change Thermometric parameters: Mention the:
property which varies with significantly, measurably and always in the same direction http://www.cartaqe.org.lb/enlth • volume of mercury!
temperature may be used for (prevents ambiguity). Any property which behaves in this emes/Sciences/Physics/Therm ethanol,
the measurement of way this will do. odynamics/AboutTemperature! • resistance of platinum,
temperature and state Development!Development.ht • thermoelectric e.m.f. of a
examples of such properties. fli thermocouple.
10(b) Explain the need for fixed Two points are needed to draw a straight line and two Fixed points: Emphasise that the ice
points and state what is fixed points are needed to specify exactly every particular, http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/dist point is the only
meant by the ice point and intermediate point. ance!scil22!Proprams!p20!p2 temperature at which ice
the steam point. O.html#4.%2OTemperature%2 and water can co-exist and
Give some idea of how they are obtained in practice. OScales the steam point is the only
Calibrate a thermometer on which no scale has been temperature at which water
marked (use rubber bands or a permanent pen to mark and steam may co-exist -
the fixed points), or check a laboratory thermometer. both at standard
atmospheric pressure.
10(d) Describe the structure and Let pupils see a variety of liquid-in-glass thermometers Thermometers: Describe and show a
action of liquid-in-glass with different ranges and sensitivities. http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/dist thermocouple. Discuss its
thermometers (including ance/sci I 22IProqramsIp2OIp2 advantages and
clinical) and of a Get them to explain why one thermometer has a greater 0.html#4.%20Temperature%2 disadvantages. Will its
thermocouple thermometer, range than another or why the graduations on one OScales readings (between 0°C and
showing an appreciation of its thermometer are closer than on another. 100°C) agree with hose on
use for measuring high Thermocouples: the liquid-in-glass
temperatures and those Let them see that the bulbs have different volumes, the http://www.efunda.com/desiqn thermometer? Use a
which vary rapidly. bores are different, the lengths are different and the liquids standards/sensors/thermocou thermocouple to observe
might well be different. Will these thermometers be ples/thmcple intro.cfm the cooling of a beaker of
linear? How were the points marked on the scale? hot water.
10(c) Discuss sensitivity, range and Consider the difficulty of reading a temperature when the Range and sensitivity:
linearity of thermometers. thermometer is in someone's mouth. How can this be http://kr.cs.ait.ac.th/-radoklphy
solved? sics/j7.htm
How would the pupils design a clinical thermometer - one
that maintains its maximum reading?
11(a) Describe a rise in State the increasing speed of the molecules as the Kinetic theory:
temperature of a body in temperature rises as a fact but try to justify it, e.g. as http://www.bcpl.netl-kdrews/k
terms of an increase in its temperature rises: mt/kmt.html
internal energy (random or:
thermal energy). • Brown ian motion becomes more violent, http://www.falstad.com/qasl
• chemical reactions speed up,
• the speed of sound in gases rises.
11(b) Define the terms heat Emphasise that a rise in temperature is a consequence of Heat capacity: Emphasise that heat
capacity and specific heat the transfer of thermal energy (cause and effect). http://www.westqa.edu/-chem/ capacity is measured for a
capacity. courses/chem 1211 d/lecture/C particular object whereas
Heat and temperature are not the same thing. hapter6/sldOO8.htm specific heat capacity is the
Specific heat capacity: property of a substance.
Heat water in a beaker with an immersion heater or use http://hyperphysics.phy- Specific heat capacity deals
an electric kettle. astr.cisu.edu/hbase/thermo/sp with temperature changes
ht.html and it unit includes that of
temperature
11(c) Calculate the heat transferred Plot AT -* t (temperature rise -* time). The initial straight
using the formula thermal line reveals that AT a Q (heat supplied) since Q = Pt.
energy = mass x specific heat Kettles often have a rated power marked on them.
capacity x change in
temperature. Using this value, determine the specific heat capacity of
water.
11(d) Describe melting/solidification Cool a test-tube of molten wax and plot T- t. Melting and boiling: Specific heat capacity is
and boiling/condensation in http://stweb.peel.edu.on.ca/ss defined for a single phase
terms of energy transfer Notice the shape of the graph and where the wax sweb/SNCI D/Edmatters/Gr9 I changing temperature
without a change of becomes solid. Do not melt candle wax or any other ntroduction/Handouts/Chemist whilst melting and boiling
temperature. inflammable substance with or near a naked flame. ry/Chanqes%2Oof%2OState.ht are phase changes
occurring at a single
Measure the temperature of water as it is brought to the temperature.
boil and keep measuring it as it boils.
11(e) State the meaning of melting Define melting point and boiling point.
point and boiling point.
11(f) Explain the difference Leave various dishes of water in direct sunlight. Record Evaporation and boiling: See 12(e) and 12(g) in unit
between boiling and their maximum temperature. Do they ever reach 100°C? http://hyperphysics.phy- 9.
evaporation. Tabulate the differences between the two terms. astr.cisu.edu/hbase/kinetic/vap
pre.html#c2
11(h) Explain latent heat in terms of Explain that melting/boiling involves pulling the molecules Vaporisation:
molecular behaviour. apart against an attractive force which is holding the http://en.wikipedia.orWwiki/Eva
molecules together. poration
Use a few small balls held together by doubled-sided
sticky tape or adhesive strips. Energy is needed to
separate the balls.
11(g) Define the terms latent heat The latent heat of steam can be used to transfer heat. Latent heat:
and specific latent heat. Consider a "Bain Marie" or a traditional porringer in http://www.physchem.co.za/H
cooking. eatlLatent.htm#fusion
Specific latent heat:
http://www.irish-
enerciy.ie/contentlcontent.asp?
section id=1165&lanquaqe id
11(i) Calculate heat transferred in Measure the specific latent heat of evaporation of water.
a change of state using the Use an electric kettle whose power rating is known and let
formula thermal energy = the water boil for five or six minutes.
mass x specific latent heat.
Measure the mass of water which escaped. Leaving the
lid off as it boils should prevent an automatic kettle
switching itself off at the boiling point.
11(j) Describe qualitatively the Demonstrate specific examples. Expansion of solids, liquids
thermal expansion of solids, • Solids: ball and hoop, and the bimetallic strip, and gases:
liquids and gases. • Liquids: completely fill a flask with coloured water, http://www.physchem.co.za/H
insert a bung with a narrow tube and immerse the flask eatlEffects.htm
in hot water. At first the water level in the tube falls as
the glass expands but then the level rises.
• Gases: use the flask with the bung and tube empty and
invert the equipment and put free end of the tube under
water. Bubbles emerge when the flask is held in warm
hands.
11(k) Describe the relative order of In a liquid-in-glass thermometer, both the liquid and the Thermal expansion: Galilean thermometers
magnitude of the expansion glass expand. http://www.physchem.co.za/H work on the same principle.
of solids, liquids and gases. eatlEffects.htm As the temperature rises,
It is possible sometimes to see a fall in the liquid level or the liquid expands more
before it rises since the glass expands first. Eventually http://www.wpbschoolhouse.bt than the solid and so the
the liquid expands more and the liquid rises in the tube internet.co.uklpaqeO3/3 52sta density of the liquid falls
even though the tube has expanded. tes.htm faster. The balls sink.
Expansion:
All ideal gases expand at the same rate as each other http://www.revision-
which is much larger than the rate at which liquids expand. notes.co.uklrevision/148.html
11(l) List and explain some of the Ask pupils to collect photographs or make drawings of Expansion of bridges: Fuel is cooled so that more
everyday applications and anywhere that thermal expansion is good or bad. http:Ilwww.dimages. calexpans can be put into a racing-
consequences of thermal ion of solids.htm car's tank of a given
expansion. All of these are used: the bimetallic strip is the basis of volume.
the thermostat, riveting and fitting metal rims on train
wheels, expansion has to be allowed for in tall buildings,
overhead power cables, bridges, roads and railway lines.
The thermal expansion of liquids is the basis of the liquid-
in-glass thermometer.
11(m) Describe qualitatively the Demonstrate this effect by trapping air in a capillary tube
effect of a change of with an index of oil or concentrated sulphuric acid. Put the
temperature on the volume of tube into a beaker of hot water and as the gas expands, it
a gas at constant pressure. pushes the index up.
If a class set is available pupils can plot a graph of the
length of the air column against temperature and
extrapolate the graph backwards to zero length.
UNIT 7 Magnetism and Electric Current
Pupils are likely to have some elementary ideas concerning magnetism and the Earth's magnetic field but many will be convinced that all metals are magnetic and will need to
be shown otherwise. The first section of this unit is free-standing and could be taught at several stages in the course. It links in well, however, with the second part of the unit
which could not properly be taught without a significant amount of current electricity preceding it; this is dealt with in unit 4.
Context
The unit deals with magnetism and electromagnetism and it follows on from and extends ideas met in unit 4. The use of electricity in motors and loudspeakers and the
generation of electricity by generators are hugely significant features of the modern world. Physics has changed the human condition enormously and electricity has been a
significant factor in this achievement.
Outline
At the beginning of the unit, the phenomenon of permanent magnetism and magnetic materials is dealt with and this is vital for the understanding of the topics and devices
in the second half. Pupils will learn about three related magnetic effects. These are the production of a magnetic field by a current, the motor effect and the dynamo effect.
Their understanding of these is enhanced by studying particular field patterns, the d.c. motor and the a.c. generator. All these ideas are brought together to explain the
operation of a transformer and the use of transformers in power supply systems concludes the unit.

17(a) State the properties of Pupils should experiment with magnets. Law of magnetism: Use, flat magnets whose
magnets. http://www.lancs.ac.ukldepts/p flat faces are the poles.
They probably know that like poles repel and that unlike hysics/teachinci/pyl 031ch27.pp Pupils might investigate
poles attract. Emphasise "north pole" is an abbreviation s these more carefully.
for "north-seeking pole".
17(c) State the difference between Pupils often think that all metals are magnetic. Magnetic materials: Although iron is often said
magnetic, non-magnetic and http://www.zephyrus.co.uk/ma to be magnetically soft, real
magnetised materials. Try attracting copper, aluminium, brass, nickel (chemical cineticmaterials.html iron often retains some
spatulas are often made of nickel), carbon, nylon or wood residual magnetisation.
to a magnet. Find out how stainless steel
behaves?
17(f) State the differences between Given a magnet how would you tell whether a piece of Permanent/temporary
the properties of temporary steel was magnetised or unmagnetised? magnets:
magnets (e.g. iron) and http://www.sciencetech.techno
permanent magnets (e.g. Why are permanent magnets and compass needles made muses. ca/enqlish/schoolzone/I
steel). of steel? nfo Maqnets.cfm
Why are the cores of electromagnets made of iron
17(b) Describe induced magnetism. Pick up chains of iron nails or paper-clips end to end. Induced magnetism:
Remove the original magnet. http:Ilwww.phy6.org/earthmag/
inducemq.htm
17(e) Describe the plotting of Plot the field patterns of different arrangements of one or Plotting magnetic fields: Avoid mentioning electric
magnetic field lines with a two magnets using iron filings (keep the magnet in a http://www.practicalphysics.or fields here as this causes
compass. plastic bag to keep it clean). ci/cio/Experiment 313.html?top confusion.
ic id=7&collection id41
Find the neutral point where appropriate. Also use plotting
compasses. Pupils can become adept at plotting these
patterns.
17(d) Describe electrical methods Wrap wire around a brass, iron and steel nail. Pass a Electromagnets: Pupils make their own
of magnetisation and current through the wire. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ electromagnet and see how
demagnetisation. qcsebitesize/physics/electricity many paper-clips, N, can
Note the different behaviour as you try to pick up paper- /electromagneticforcesrev5.sht be picked as the current
clips. What is the core of an electromagnet made from? ml changes. Plot N -* I.
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction needs to
be taken on trust here, as it is not encountered until later
in the unit.
17(g) Describe uses of permanent Uses include: motors, loudspeakers, generators,
magnets and electromagnets. dynamos, speedometers, medical scanners, maglev
trains,
17(i) Describe the use of magnetic Uses include tape-recorders and video recorders. Magnetic tape:
materials in audio/video http://hyperphysics.phy-
tapes. astr.qsu.edu/hbase/audio/tape
2.html
17(h) Explain the choice of material Attach a magnet to the top of a match-box. Remove the Magnetic Screening: Do not confuse with the
for, and use of, magnetic drawer and place paper-clips at the bottom surface. See http://www.exploratorium.edu/ Faraday cage which
screening. how many paper-clips can be held. snacks/macishield! screens the protected
Uses of magnetic screening: region from electric fields.
Put into the gap blocks of various materials: polythene, http://www.maqneticshield.co Magnetic screening can be
copper, wood, aluminium, brass, steel, iron. How is the m/ used to prevent the
number of paper clips affected? magnetic component of a
radio frequency electro-
The strength of the magnet (the number of flux lines magnetic wave from
emerging) is relatively constant. reaching a given location.
These lines cannot be destroyed or absorbed but they
may be channelled away from the protected area;
materials which do this are called permeable.
All such materials are themselves magnetic.
17(j) Describe the pattern of the Use standard equipment to plot the patterns caused by Fields due to currents: Plot the field pattern caused
magnetic field due to currents current-carrying straight wires, flat coils, solenoids. http://schools.matter.org.uk/Co by a Helmholtz pair of coils.
in straight wires and in ntentlMagneticFields/Default.h Notice how uniform it is in
solenoids and state the effect If possible allow pupils to plot the fields with compasses or tm the middle.
on the magnetic field of iron filings.
changing the magnitude and
direction of the current.
I 7(k)1 Describe applications of the Get pupils to use a relay to switch one circuit on and off Relays:
magnetic effect of a current in using another circuit. Examples include the car ignition http://www.technoloqystudent.
relays and circuit-breakers. system. com/eleci /relayl .htm
Circuit breakers:
These ideas can prepare pupils for circuitry using http://hyperphysics.phy-
transistors. Trip switches and relays can be demonstrated astr.cisu.edu/hbase/electric/bre
in class. qnd.html
22(a) Describe experiments to Possible experiments include: The motor effect: Draw the circular field
show the force on a current- http://www.walter- pattern surrounding a
carrying conductor, and on a • Lay an unwound paper-clip on top of two parallel rails fendt.de/ph 11 e/lorentzforce.ht straight wire and add the
beam of charged particles, in (also unwound paper-clips) which lie between the poles rn uniform, straight field
a magnetic field, including the of a strong magnet (field downwards). Pass a current Fleming's left hand rule: pattern of a permanent
effect of reversing (1)the into one rail and out of the other. This is the catapult http://www.schoolscience.co.u magnet.
current, (2) the direction of effect. klcontentl4/physics/copper/co
the field. • Pass a current through a strip of aluminium foil in a pch3pci2.html On one side of the wire
magnetic field. The foil moves, or: they reinforce whilst on the
• Reverse the current and the field both separately and http://www.le.ac.uklse/centres/ other side they cancel.
together. sci/selfstudy/maml2.htm Hence there are more field
• The motor effect is a 3D effect and the relative lines on the first side and
directions are not easy to describe or memorise. fewer on the other. The
Fleming's left-hand rule is a useful way of remembering lines behave like stretched
it but it is not a law of physics. rubber bands and so eject
the wire in the direction
Apply these principles to a beam of electrons. Where predicted.
possible show a fine-beam tube or a Maltese Cross tube.
22(b) State the relative directions of
force, field and current.
17(k) Describe applications of the Let the pupils see dismantled loudspeakers. Hand out Loudspeakers: Link in with sound waves
2
magnetic effect of a current in sheets showing incomplete or unlabelled diagrams and let http://hyperphysics.phy- (unit 2) and alternating
loudspeakers, the pupils complete them. astr.gsu.edu/hbase/audio/spk. current (later in this unit).
htn An a.c. produces an
Make a large, cardboard model (-50 cm diameter) to show alternating force and the
the shape and position of the components. diaphragm vibrates.
Pupils can make coils of fine wire (enamel covered),
attach them to a cone of paper, pace near a bar magnet
and when a.c. from a signal generator passes through
sound is heard.
22(c) Describe the field patterns Pass a current through two parallel strips of aluminium foil Parallel wires: Draw the field patterns for
between currents in parallel - no magnet needed. Like currents attract. Reverse the http://www.kineticbooks.com/p parallel wires carrying
conductors and relate these current in one strip. Unlike currents repel. Consider the hysics/17181/17196/sp.html currents in the same
to the forces which exist field of one strip and its effect on the current in the other. or directions and then in the
between the conductors http://www.physchem.co.za/C opposite directions.
(excluding the Earth's field). urrent%20Electricity/Current.ht
m#Force2 Notice, in each case, where
the two fields cancel out.
22(d) Explain how a current- Illustrate the effect with a large (-50 cm x -50 cm), non- Torque on coil: Wind a simple coil and
carrying coil in a magnetic functioning cardboard model. http://www.plus2physics.com/e place it between the poles
field experiences a turning current and mqfield/study m of a magnet.
effect and that the effect is The magnetic poles are painted cardboard boxes. Use aterial.asp?chapter=3
increased by increasing (1) real, thick wire but paint arrows to show the current and Its plane lies in the field. It
the number of turns on the use drinking straws with arrowheads to show the forces on rotates through a quarter
coil, (2) the current. the two sides of the coil. turn and stops when
perpendicular to the field.
22(e) Discuss how this turning Use the cardboard model to show that if the current is The electric motor: Make a simple motor from
effect is used in the action of reversed when the coil is perpendicular to the field then it http:Ilhowstuffworks.comlmoto wire, flat magnets, a former
an electric motor. will continue to rotate in the same direction. r.htm on which to wind the coil
and show that it can be
made to rotate.
22(f) Describe the action of a split- Make a "commutator" from aluminium foil and a cardboard
ring commutator in a two- tube and fit it to the model.
pole, single coil motor and the
effect of winding the coil on to Use two other lengths of wire to rub against the
a soft-iron cylinder, commutator.
Explain that a soft-iron core magnifies and concentrates
the magnetic field.
23(a) Describe an experiment Insert a bar magnet into a solenoid connected to a Electromagnetic induction: Other experiments include:
which shows that a changing sensitive meter (needle meter or mirror galvanometer). http://micro.maqnet.fsu.edu/el (1) Move a wire up and
magnetic field can induce an Withdraw it. ectromaqliavalfaraday2l down between two
e.m.f. in a circuit. or: poles of a magnet.
Repeat with the other pole and repeat using the other end http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/ (2) Rotate a copper disc
of the solenoid. qcsebitesize/physics/electricity between the two poles
/electromapneticinductionrevl. and measure the
Insert two or three identical magnets taped together. Vary shtml e.m.f. between axle
the rate of insertion, and circumference. In
both cases use a
sensitive
galvanometer.
23(b) State the factors affecting the A coil with more turns may well have a greater resistance.
magnitude of the induced This produces a similar meter reading.
e.m.f.
Show the dependence on the number of turns, N, using
the same piece of wire wound into more or fewer turns.
23(c) State that the direction of the Consider the two possible current directions when Lenz's Law: Demonstrate the direction
current produced by an inserting a magnet into a coil. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/el of the current induced by
induced e.m.f. opposes the ectromaci/iava/lenzlaw/ moving a wire up through
change producing it (Lenz's Both make the coil into a magnet: one attracts the magnet or: the gap between two poles
Law) and describe how this - larger current -f stronger field -* faster magnet -* http://www.catandoqs.net/enqli of a strong magnet. The
law may be demonstrated. even larger current. sh/Lenz s Law/lenz s law.ht directions are given by
ml Fleming's right-hand rule or
Ever larger amounts of energy come from nowhere. This by using the left-hand rule
is impossible. and remembering Lenz's
Law.
The other repels the magnet -* smaller current -* weaker
field - slower magnet -* even smaller current. A small
amount of energy is generated by a small initial push.
This is what happens.
23(d) Describe a simple form of a.c. Use a large cardboard model to show the arrangement of The a.c. generator: Show an old, cut-up a.c.
generator (rotating coil or the parts (similar to the motor model in 22(e) and (f)). http://www.walter- generator or make a model
rotating magnet) and the use fendt.de/ph lie/generator e.ht a.c. generator. Rotate it at
of slip rings where needed. Place small arrows on the coil to show the direction of the rn a constant rate. A CR0.
current induced. Make a set of slip rings from aluminium displays the output.
foil and some cardboard tubes.
23(e) Sketch a graph of voltage Connect an a.c. generator to a CR0. (unit 10) and look An a.c. supply:
output against time for a at the trace. Measure the periodic time and the amplitude. http://www.eng.uct.ac.za/-vict
simple a.c. generator. or/electric/ACDC.htm
23(f) Describe the structure and Make a simple electromagnet (an iron nail wound with The transformer: Construct a transformer
principle of operation of a wire connected to a supply). http://hyperphysics.phy- from an iron bar and wind
simple iron-cored astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/t two coils on it (this is not
transformer. Insert it into a coil connected to a galvanometer. ransf.html very efficient). Use a
Withdraw it. Place the electromagnet into the coil and or: transformer kit with a
switch off the supply. This is like withdrawing it. Switch http://people.clarkson.edu/-sv laminated iron core.
on. oboda/eta/plots/transformer.ht
ml
Use an a.c. supply and replace the galvanometer with a
CR0. (unit 10).
23(g) State the advantages of high Use a model power lines demonstration with torch lamps Power lines:
voltage transmission. at the beginning and end. Transmit at 3V. Then step up http://www.practicalphysics.or
to 12V, transmit and step down to 3V. Do not use high ci/cio/Experiment 352.html
voltages on bare wire which the teacher or pupils can or:
come into contact with. http://www.bsharp.org/physi
cs
stuff/xmission. html
23(h) Discuss the environmental Overhead: cheaper to build, cheaper to maintain, cheaper Environmental effects:
and cost implications of to inspect, no insulation needed, they stay cool, ugly, a http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk
underground power hazard for helicopters, hang-gliders, children with kites. /library/brochures/overhead u
transmission compared to Underground: the reverse of the above but a hazard for nderqround/
overhead lines, diggers may ignite gas supplies in earthquakes, problems
in flooding.
UNIT 8 Forces and Motion

This unit introduces some of the most basic concepts in mechanics. The pupils will, by this stage in the course, be used to dealing with the idea of force but here for the first time its exact definition is
presented. Acceleration is a quantity which pupils will struggle with, even though they might well have some intuitive conception of what it means. A failure fully to understand it is often betrayed by an
inability to deduce or even consistently to use its correct unit. Similarly terminal velocity is a term which many pupils will believe they are acquainted with but which few will fully understand at first. Be
wary.
Context
The ideas here fit in neatly with those of energy but there is not a huge amount of overlap and, as long as the term force has been taken on trust at an early stage, the proper definition can wait until
here with few disadvantages. It need hardly be said that these quantities and concepts form the basis of many types of engineering and yet again this branch of the subject is economically and
socially very important indeed.
Outline
The unit begins by distinguishing between scalar and vector quantities and it teaches pupils to combine vectors. Kinematics and the definition of acceleration are dealt with by introducing the
appropriate graphs. An understanding of the phenomenon of air resistance enables pupils to tackle terminal velocity. The importance of the idea of resistive forces, such as friction, should not be
overlooked as it explains why things behave so differently from what a simple interpretation of Newton's Laws might lead one to expect. Newton's Second and Third Laws of Motion are covered in this
unit and the Newton is properly defined. The unit concludes with the phenomenon of motion in a circle and the need for a centripetally directed force to enable it to happen.

1(a) Define the terms scalar and Explain that forces cause movement (acceleration) and Scalars and vectors: Emphasise that any
vector, that an object can only move one way even when several http://www.qlenbrook. k12.il.us/ quantity which makes
forces act and so several forces must be the equivalent of cibssci/phys/Class/1 DKin/UI LI sense when followed by
one total force. b.html a direction word is a
or: vector. Both a force of
Consider two forces cancelling and then opposite forces http://www.physicsclassroom.c 3.ON upwards and a
producing a non-zero, resultant force. om/Class/I DKin/U I LI b.html displacement of 0.45m
west make sense; but
Forces are not the only quantities which behave like this; a mass of 1.8 kg
any quantity which has direction is a vector: displacement, sideways does not.
velocity, acceleration and force. Simple experiments
using forces tables or
weights hung from
strings can verify the
rule. Use Newton
meters. Use scale
drawings for velocities
and displacements.
1(b) Determine the resultant of Consider two forces which are perpendicular and add Vector addition:
two vectors by a graphical them graphically. Introduce the parallelogram rule and the http:Ilwww.physchem.co.zaNe
method. triangle of forces. ctors/Addition. htm
1(c) List the vectors and scalars The distinctions between distance and displacement or
from distance, displacement, between speed and velocity are arbitrary conventions in
length, speed, velocity, time, physics which have to be learnt.
acceleration, mass and force.
They are conveniently illustrated by estimating them for a
racing car travelling at uniform speed at various points
around a racing track - especially after a whole number of
laps.
2(e)1 Plot and interpret distance- Consider the distance-time graph and take its gradient.
time graphs.
2(e)2 Plot and interpret speed-time Pupils often find rates of anything difficult. Plot graphs of Acceleration: Introduce the unit m/s2
graphs. pupil's height -* time or volume of water in bath -* time or http://www.cilenbrook.k12.il.us/ and consider objects
any quantity with a single unit -* time. qbssci/phys/Class/1 DKin/U1 LI falling from cliffs; notice
e.html that they travel further
Talk about metres/year, litres/minute or or in each subsequent
somethings/second. With a flying start, measure the time http://library.thinkguest.org/IO second. Use 10 m/s2 to
for a pupil to run or bicycle 10 m, 20 m, 30 m etc. and plot 796/ch3/ch3.htm calculate the velocities
distance -* time graphs. and displacements for
falling objects.
Consider a motorbike moving away from the traffic lights,
its velocity is increasing. The rate will be measured in
(m/s)/s. Consider numerical values. Calculate a.
2(c) State what is meant by Calculate the gradient of a speed-time graph. Consider For a uniformly
uniform acceleration and the distance-time graph of an accelerating body. accelerating object the
calculate the value of an Run across the classroom accelerating from rest. Then average velocity =
acceleration using change in decelerate. (u+ v)12.
velocity/time taken.
2(h) State that the acceleration of Freefall:
free-fall for a body near the http://solomon.physics.sc.edu/
Earth is constant and is -tedeschi/demo/demo3.html
approximately IOm/s2. or
http:!!www.qlenbrook. k12. il.
us!
qbssci!phys!Class!newtlaws!u
2l3e.html
2(e)3 Plot and interpret distance- Speed-time graphs:
time graphs. http:!!www.physicsclassroom.c
om!Class!1 DKin!U1 L3a.html
or:
http:!!www.bbc.co.uk!schools
cicsebitesize!physics!forces!sp
eedvelocityaccelerationfhrev2
shtml
2(i) Describe qualitatively the An object reaching terminal velocity is a good example to Terminal velocity:
motion of bodies with consider. http:!!www.bbc.co.uk!schools
constant weight falling with gcsebitesize!physics!forces!fal I
and without air resistance Emphasise the distinction between a decreasing ingobjectsrev2.shtml
(including reference to acceleration and a deceleration (negative acceleration).
terminal velocity).
Consider the motion of a falling parachutist. Set up a tube
containing a viscous liquid and drop ball-bearings into it.
Or consider a rocket which accelerates at an increasing
rate as its mass decreases (F = ma is dealt with later).
Consider the speed-time graph in both cases.
2(d) Discuss non-uniform Non-uniform acceleration:
acceleration. http:!!homepage.mac.com!cba
kken!weblabs!nonuniform html
2(f) Recognise from the shape of Make sure that distance-time and speed-time graphs and Set up a large
a speed-time graph when a their gradients are understood. pendulum (I - 3m) and
body is observe its motion; try
(1) at rest, to plot an approximate
(2) moving with uniform speed-time graph.
speed,
(3) moving with uniform
acceleration,
(4) moving with non-uniform
acceleration.
2(g) Calculate the area under a Pupils will probably be able to use the formula x = vt in Area under the graph:
speed-time graph to ordinary situations - when travelling for 3 h at 5 km/h one http:Ilwww.bbc.co.uklscotlandl
determine the distance moves 15km. Use these ideas in the case of a speed-time education/bitesize/standard/ph
travelled for motion with graph for a body moving at constant speed. ysics/forces and motion/spee
uniform speed or uniform d-time graphs rev3.shtml
acceleration. Emphasise that area does not mean cm2 of graph paper
but area according to the two axes. This has unit of m/s x
s: m.
3(a) State Newton's third law. Emphasise that forces only ever occur in pairs; single The third law: Emphasise that two
forces never exist. The horse pulls the cart, the cart http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us third law forces never
restrains the horse. cibssci/phys/Class/newtlaws/u act on the same body.
2l4a.html The forces are always
Suspend a hook from a support or the ceiling by friction or: of the form: the force on
alone. Suspend a weight from the hook. Gradually http://www.physchem.co.za/M A due to B and the
increase the weight supported. otion/Third%2OLaw.htm force on B due to A:
BFA = - AFB
As the hook exerts a larger force on the weight, the weight Two forces acting on
exerts a larger force on the hook which is eventually the same body may
pulled from its support. well be equal in size,
opposite in direction
Get two pupils to lean against each other back to back at and of the same nature,
an angle. As A supports B, so B supports A. Stand a pupil but they cannot be a
on a set of scales. As the weight pushes down on the third law pair.
scales and is recorded, so the scales push upwards on
the pupil, who does fall to the floor but stays a few
centimetres (the thickness of the scales above it
3(c) Describe the ways in which a A body experiencing no resultant force will have zero Friction free motion: Examples of zero
force may change the motion acceleration (constant velocity, but not necessarily zero http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/s resultant force acting
of a body. velocity). cienceclips/acies/8 9/friction.s on a stationary body
html are numerous.
Consider: ice-hockey pucks, snooker balls, maglev trains, or:
hovercraft and space-craft. The Voyager probes are still http://www.fearofphysics.com The School resting on
travelling in straight lines at huge velocities long after their Friction/friction.html its foundations, a book
engines stopped working. resting on a table, an
exhausted athlete lying
on a trampoline (here
the stretching of the
support can be noticed;
in the other two cases it
is too small to observe).
3(b) Describe the effect of Get the pupils to contribute as many appropriate words as
balanced and unbalanced possible: speeding up, slowing down, stopping, changing
forces on a body. direction, reversing, swerving, lifting and so on.
3(d) Do calculations using the Show that acceleration is the consequence of a resultant F = ma:
equation force = mass x force. Pull a trolley along a track using a falling weight and http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools-
acceleration. a pulley. qcsebitesize/physics/forces/fe
gmahrev2.shtml
If possible use tickertape timers, (or dataloggers) and
trolleys to show: a a F and a a 1/m. So F = kma but that
in SI k =1; this defines the Newton.
3(e) Explain the effects of friction Emphasise that the consequence of a constant, resultant Stopping distances:
on the motion of a body. force is a constant acceleration not a constant velocity. http://www.sdt.com.au/STOPP
INGDISTANCE.htm
3(f) Discuss the effects of friction Emphasise that when cars, trains and aeroplanes are
on the motion of a vehicle in travelling at constant velocity, the tractive force is used to
the context of tyre surface, cancel frictional forces.
road conditions (including
skidding), braking force, Consider the effect of reducing or increasing friction
braking distance, thinking between the road and vehicle: oil spills and ice on roads
distance and stopping or gravelled escape lanes for lorries on steep hills.
distance.
Consider the effect of reduced visibility (night, fog, rain) or
the driver's condition (intoxication, tiredness, lack of
concentration).
3(g) Describe qualitatively motion Pass a thin piece of string (-50 cm) through a narrow Centripetal motion: Relate these ideas to
in a circular path due to a length of glass tubing. Attach an object (small ball) to one http:Ilwww.glenbrook.k12.il.usl the force needed to
constant perpendicular force, end of the string and a laboratory weight to the other end. qbsscilphyslmmedialcircmotlcf keep a moving electron
including electrostatic forces Hold the tube and set the object moving in a circle; a html in a circular orbit or a
on an electron in an atom and balance is reached when the weight supplies the correct moving satellite in orbit
gravitational forces on a tension in the string to keep the object moving in a circle, around the Earth. The
satellite (F = mv2/r is not word centripetal - if
required). Cut the string and observe the object fly off in a tangential used at all - must be
direction. Make sure that the object moves in a safe used as a direction
direction and that no one is injured, word (just like
downwards).
A force is needed for circular motion and when it is Gravitational and
removed, the object reverts to straight line motion with electrostatic attractions
constant velocity. Consider a motorbike travelling around are forces of physics
a curve hitting a patch of spilled oil. which in these cases
act in a centripetal
The removal of friction allows the motorbike to carry on in direction.
a straight line and to hit the outside of the curve. Consider:
a spin-drier, a bucket of water rotated in a vertical circle,
holding on to a roundabout or throwing the hammer in
athletics.
3(h) Discuss how ideas of circular Electrons:
motion are related to the http://www.colorado.edu/physi
motion of the planets in the cs/2000/waves particles/wavp
solar system. art2.html
UNIT 9 Pressure and Gases

This unit introduces pressure and many pupils will have encountered this quantity in one way or another. By this stage in the course, pupils will already have met the idea of
force but, even if they have not, it can be taken on trust prior to its being properly defined. Gas pressure and the pressure caused by solid objects in contact are not, to all
pupils, obviously related ideas and it would be useful if some were aware of this connection. Some understanding of the kinetic theory of matter will be necessary in explaining
the properties of gases.
Context
This unit contains various ideas which involve pressure and the properties of gases but which are not, at first sight, obviously related. These ideas are useful in
mechanics and thermodynamics but to pupils they may well appear to be topics which are not central to the syllabus as a whole. Undermine this impression by
emphasising, whenever appropriate, the relationships of the concepts included here to those elsewhere in the course.
Outline
This unit defines pressure and then applies it to situations involving solids, liquids and gases. Two simple pressure-measuring instruments are described and the operation of
hydraulic machines explained. At this stage, Boyle's Law is introduced and used. This leads to a more thorough look at gases and how the behaviour of their molecules can
explain their properties. Evaporation is re-examined in molecular terms at the conclusion of the unit.

7(a) Define the term pressure in Use an inflating balloon to lift weights. Two square holes Pressure:
terms of force and area, and of different sizes are cut in the flat upper surface of a thin http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press
do calculations using the wooden box. A large balloon is placed in the box. ure
equation Simple experiments:
pressure = force/area. The sections which were cut out of the box are placed http://physics.about.com/cs/airan
back in the holes. As the balloon inflates, the small dfluidexp/a/040703a.htm
wooden platforms rise up lifting weights placed on them.
The larger area platform can lift a larger weight. Show the
effect of pressure in experiments. Place heavy cones on
sand, both upright and inverted, or construct a "bed" of
nails (-25 cm x -25 cm) and stand on it carefully.
7(b) Explain how pressure varies Many simple examples illustrate the significance of Examples:
with force and area in the pressure: http:Ilhyperphysics.phy-
context of everyday • the ineffectiveness of a blunt knife, astr.qsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/patm.
examples. • walking on snow in ordinary shoes - use snowshoes, tI!!Iii
• a nail or drawing pin has a large area at one end and a
smaller _one_at_the_other,
• heavy vehicles on soft ground need large area
caterpillar tracks,
• compare elephants and women in stiletto heels.
7(d) Explain quantitatively how the Deduce the formula p = hdg by considering the weight of a Pressure in liquids: Let water escape out
pressure beneath a liquid certain depth of liquid acting on the base of a tank. http:Ilhyperphysics.phy- of narrow tubes at
surface changes with depth astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pflu.html different levels in the
and density of the liquid in Consider specific examples: Pressure in the sea: side of a cylinder of
appropriate examples. • the increase of pressure with depth (1 atm. /10 m), http://encarta.msn.com/encyclop height -5Ocm, filled
• the pressure divers encounter at 20m edia 761573707/Bathyscaphe.h with water. The
• the pressure at a depth of 10 000 m (the Mindanao tml lowest jet squirts the
trench). furthest. Lower a
sensitive pressure
gauge into water and
observe the reading
7(c) Describe how the height of a Consider inverting a 1.0 m tube full of mercury into a small Torricelli's experiment: To make such a
liquid column may be used to mercury bath (wear thin plastic gloves to prevent mercury http://fyzweb.cuni.cz/piskac/poku barometer with water
measure the atmospheric absorption through the skin). sy/torr/ would need plastic
pressure. tubing of length 10 m;
Calculate the pressure at the base of the column of it is what Torricelli
mercury. It exceeds atmospheric pressure. The mercury did. It can be done.
flows out of the tube until the pressure of the mercury
equals that of the atmosphere.
What happens as the atmospheric pressure changes?
7(e) Describe the use of a Describe a manometer and make a simple one to Manometer: Pour water into a U-
manometer in the measure the excess pressure of the gas main. Measure http:Ilwww.dwyer- tube. Into one limb
measurement of pressure how hard a pupil can blow. A water manometer will need inst.com/htdocs/pressure/Mano pour a less dense
difference. to be -3.O m tall for this. meterlntroduction.cfm liquid. The top levels
in the limbs are
unequal.
This is especially
surprising if the
second liquid can mix
with water (e.g.
ethanol).
7(f) Describe and explain the Make a model hydraulic jack with two vertical syringes of Hydraulic brakes or press: Solids transmit
transmission of pressure in different diameters. http://www.darvill.clara.net/enfor forces, whereas
hydraulic systems with cemotlpressure.htm liquids and gases
particular reference to the The syringes are half-filled with oil and their jets joined transmit pressures.
hydraulic press and hydraulic with tubing (filled with oil - water can be used but forms Hand out incomplete
brakes on vehicles, bubbles of air). or unlabelled
diagrams of these
Pushing down one piston lifts the other. Use a small devices and let the
weight on the smaller syringe to lift a greater one on the pupils complete
larger syringe, them.
A small force is being magnified. Compare the distances
through which the two weights move.
7(g) Describe how a change in Pupils will know that reducing the volume of a gas Boyle's Law: Explain the law in
volume of a fixed mass of gas increases its pressure. http://www.circ.nasa.ciovIWWW/ molecular terms. In a
at constant temperature is K-12/airplane/aboyle.html larger volume the
caused by a change in Place a finger over the end of a bicycle pump; it takes a molecular density is
pressure applied to the gas. large force to compress the gas. lower and so there
Use a standard piece of equipment to demonstrate are fewer collisions
Boyle's Law. with the walls of the
vessel per second.
Consider examples such as: The pressure falls.
• bubbles released from sinking ships,
• the volume of a free diver's lungs at -70m below sea
level,
• partially inflated meteorological balloons released
from the earth's surface.
7(h) Do calculations using
p1V1 = p2V2.
12(a) State the distinguishing Pupils will be very familiar with these properties. This is a
properties of solids, liquids sensible time to tabulate them, include: solids transmit
and gases. forces; liquids and gases transmit pressures.
12(b) Describe qualitatively the Show pupils models of solid structures. Balls joined Brownian motion: Calculate or give
molecular structure of solids, together by springs and balls glued together directly. Use http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/ values for the
liquids and gases, relating glass beads in a tube with a vibrating base to simulate the qas2D/qas2D.html separation of
their properties to the forces three states. Molecular structures: molecules in liquids
and distances between http://www.apgi64.dsl.pipex.com and solids. Calculate
molecules and to the motion Pupils can act out the behaviour of solids, liquids and /sfa/slq structure.htm the separation of
of the molecules. gases as they behave like molecules themselves. Show molecules in air at
the Brownian motion of smoke particles, room temperature.
12(c) Describe the relationship State as a fact that molecules travel faster at higher Moving molecules: Justify the
between the motion of temperatures. Molecules in solids vibrate but in gases http://id.mind.netl-zona/mstm/ph statements:
molecules and temperature. they travel in straight lines between collisions. ysics/mechanics/energy/heatAn • The speed of
dTemperature/qasMoleculeMoti sound in air
on/ciasMoleculeMotion.html increases with
temperature.
• The pressure of a
trapped gas rises
with temperature.
12(d) Explain the pressure of a gas Explain that the collisions of extremely tiny molecules Pressure and temperature: Take a hollow,
in terms of the motion of its travelling at very high speeds causes many minute http:Ilwww.antonine- copper sphere with a
molecules. impacts whose spread out effect is detected on a education.co.uklPhysics AS/Mo pressure gauge
macroscopic scale as pressure. dule 2/Topic 8/gas laws.htm attached. The
pressure increases
A football can be kept in the air by constantly punching it with its temperature.
from below. Many tiny impacts cause a single force.
Balloons burst as a party progresses, it gets hotter in the
room and the pressure in the balloons rises. Gas
cylinders explode in fires.
12(e) Describe evaporation in terms The faster molecules escape and so the liquid left behind Evaporation:
of the escape of more is cooler. http://hyperphysics.phy-
energetic molecules from the astr.qsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/vappr
surface of a liquid. e.html
Refrigerators:
http://www.wiseqeek.com/how-
does-a-refrigerator-work. htm
12(g) Explain that evaporation Place a glass beaker or a copper can on another one Cooling by
causes cooling, which is upside down. Put a small amount of water evaporation:
between them. • refrigerators
9 perspiration
In the top vessel pour a small amount of a • panting dogs
volatile liquid.
Force air rapidly through the liquid so that it • wiping ether on
evaporates an
quickly. arm before an
injection
The water freezes and the lower vessel can be • wrapping butter
lifted up or
with the upper one. ice cream in wet
paper.
12(f) Describe how temperature, Carry out some experiments to determine these effects. Rate of evaporation: • How is the shape
surface area and draught Use a volatile liquid or use water over several days. http://esci.unco.edu/water/wtrwis of a cooking pan
over a surface influence e/2t.htm determined by
evaporation, what is being
cooked?
• Why does an
evaporating dish
have a large
surface area?
UNIT 10 Practical Electricity

Pupils tackling this unit ought to be acquainted with the concept of energy from unit 5, the basic ideas of current electricity in unit 4, electromagnetism in unit 7. This unit ought
to be taught near the end of the course. Pupils are quite likely to have been aware of the installation of mains electricity or the rewiring of a house but may not be very familiar
with the physics which lies behind much of what they have seen. Similarly, the use of the CR0. in medical establishments will be familiar but they are unlikely to know how it
works.
Context
This unit applies the rather theoretical aspects of electricity, which have already been dealt with, to more practical circumstances which pupils will be quite familiar with. The
supply of electricity to homes, offices and industry is a major convenience of the modern world and the electricity supply industry is important in every country in the world. The
use and operation of the CR0. leads on to some electronic devices and circuits. These are the very foundation of both the electronics industry and the information revolution for
which the use of computers and modern communications have been essential.
Outline
The unit begins with some of the uses of electrical energy on a domestic scale. The formula for power can be used to calculate the rating for the fuse which a particular
appliance requires; circuit breakers are dealt with here. The mechanics of charging for electricity is explained and so is the wiring of plugs and the dangers posed by selected
electrical hazards. The cathode-ray oscilloscope is described in some detail. Potential dividers, capacitors and reed relays are explained and then used in certain electronic
circuits. The last section describes logic gates, transistors, bistable circuits and astable circuits, which are an optional part of the course and may only be of interest to some
teachers or students.

21(a) Describe the use of electricity Emphasise that the overwhelming majority of electrical Uses of electricity: Can these operate on an
in heating, lighting and energy is used in this way. http://www.teachnet. ie/pcoa a.c. supply? Are there
motors. kley/consumers.htm other uses of electricity -
Consider industrial and domestic uses: kettles, furnaces, charging batteries,
cookers, streetlights, table lights, theatre lights, operating electronics?
illuminated signs, lighting in greenhouses and zoos, drills, Can these use an a.c.
lifts, food-mixers, saw-mills. supply?
Consider less obvious and mixed examples: refrigerators,
washing machines and so on. Pupils can make their own
list and report to the class on the Physics principles by
looking around their home or neighbourhood.
21(b) Do calculations using the Consider: energy= voltage xcharge (unit 4) and divide Electrical power:
equation both sides by time. The definition: V = P/I is just as http://www.bbc.co.uk/school
power= voltage x current, satisfactory as the more traditional: V= E/Q and the volt s/qcsebitesize/physics/electr
and energy = may be taken as the watt/ampere. icity/mainselectricityrev5.sht
voltage x current x time
In some ways these definitions are superior as pupils are
more likely to be familiar with current than with charge.
Since E= Pt so E= Vit.
21(e) Explain the use of fuses and Produce in class some domestic devices: kettle, drills, Fuses and circuit breakers: Consider R.C.C.B.s
circuit breakers and fuse radios. http://hyperphysics.phy- (residual current circuit
ratings and circuit breaker astr.qsu.edu/hbase/electric/ breakers).
settings. Read the power from the label and calculate the current bregnd.html#cl
drawn. What fuse rating is required? Consider car
headlamps (12V) and rechargeable appliances.
Buy a reel of low rating fuse wire (-2A) and allow pupils to
see it blow or measure how the fusing current depends on
the length of fuse wire.
21(c) Calculate the cost of using Pupils realise that the cost of electricity is likely to depend Electricity bills: Show pupils an actual
electrical appliances where on the power of the device and the time for which it is http://www.gcse.com/energy and recent bill and
the energy unit is the kWh. used. Hence it depends on P x t. Electricity suppliers tend /kWh5.htm explain how the final cost
to use the kWh but emphasise that this is a special non-SI is calculated.
unit which equals 3.6MJ. Are there any standing
charges? Is there any
Show pupils an electricity meter and read it. Explain that it cheap rate electricity at
keeps a running tally of the energy used. night? Are there taxes?
Allow pupils to heat up water electrically, measuring power
and time, and then calculate the cost of heating up a cup
of coffee or tea or a swimming-pool.
21(g) State the meaning of the Explain that the earth wire is a safety feature; the device Mains wiring: The live wire is the one
terms live, neutral and earth. can function without it although it is not safe to let it do so. http://www.student.cardonal whose voltage varies and
It is the live and neutral wires which constitute the circuit. d.ac.uklmaterials/physics/Ph this is responsible for the
ysics/Domestic%2Oelectricit flow of current. The
y%2Oand%2Owirinp%20a% neutral wire (-OV)
2Opluq/frameset.html completes the circuit.
This is why it is the live
connection must be
broken to make a device
safe.
21(f) Explain the need for earthing Emphasise that earthing operates in conjunction with the Earthing:
metal cases and for double fuse; a live metal case connected to earth is not safe until http://www.bbc.co.uk/school
insulation, the large earth current drawn through the live blows the s/gcsebitesize/physics/electr
fuse. icity/mainselectricityrev2.sht
ml
Appliances with double plastic cases have nothing to earth
and do not need to be earthed. Show them the double Double insulation:
square symbol on such a device. Some devices have a http:Ilcipco.apogee.netlfoelf
plastic "earth" pin. This operates the safety shield on the sci2di.asp
socket.
21(i) Explain why switches, fuses
and circuit breakers are wired
into the live conductor.
21(h) Describe how to wire a mains Allow the pupils to wire plugs (keep a special set for the
plug. pupils with a screw drilled into the earth pin. This
prevents a pupil who has wired the plug incorrectly
from inserting it into a socket).
21(d) State the hazards of Draw attention to the dangers of frayed wires and cut Electrical safety:
damaged insulation, insulation. http://siri.uvm.edu/ppt/topicsI
overheating of cables and electhazardspottinci.htm
damp conditions. Explain that domestic water is quite a good conductor. Do
not trail leads under carpets.
24(a) State that electrons are State this as a fact. It can be shown by thermionic diodes Thermionic emission:
emitted by a hot metal connected to sensitive galvanometers - if available. http://www.matter.org.uk/te
filament. rn/electron gun/electron gu
Or in the fine beam tube the low pressure hydrogen n simulation.htm
indicates the path taken by the emitted electrons.
Thermionic diodes:
http://www.nationmaster.co
m/encyclopedia/Thermionic-
valve
24(b) Explain that to cause a
continuous flow of emitted
electrons requires (1) high
positive potential and (2)
very
low gas pressure.
24(c)1 Describe the deflection of an The path of an electron beam in an electric field can be Electric field deflection:
electron beam by electric shown by appropriate thermionic tubes if available but http://physics.bu.edu/-duffy/
fields. emphasise that the path of the electrons will not be PYI 06/Electricfield.html
circular in a uniform electric field.
The positive plate attracts the negative electrons into a
(parabolic) path.
24(c)2 Describe the deflection of an The magnetic deflection is in accordance with Fleming's Magnetic field deflection:
electron beam by magnetic left-hand rule, bearing in mind that electrons are http://www.reqentsprep.org/
fields. negatively charged. Recients/physics/physO3/cde
flecte/default. htm
Emphasise that a uniform magnetic field can deflect an
electron beam into a circular path whereas a uniform
electric field cannot.
24(d) State that the flow of Electrons carry negative charge in the direction of travel Negative electrons: Compare receiving
electrons (electron current) is which is equivalent to taking positive charge in the http://www.kpsec.freeuk.co electrons with receiving a
from negative to positive and opposite direction. m/electron.htm bill; a bill is negative
is in the opposite direction to money and receiving one
conventional current. is a financial loss.
24(e) Describe in outline the basic Show the pupils a dismantled, old CR0. if available. CR0: The speed of sound in a
structure and action of a http://www.broadeducation.c short, metal rod or even
cathode-ray oscilloscope Emphasise that two pairs of parallel, charged plates om/htmlDemos/AbsorbElectl air can be obtained by
(detailed circuits are not deflect the electron beam. Emphasise that the left to right UseOscilloscope/paqe.htm using a CR0. to
required). motion is controlled by an internal circuit whilst the up and measure the small time
down motion of the beam is controlled by the externally interval.
applied voltage.
24(f) Describe the use of a Use a CR0. to display different waveforms from a signal CR0. settings:
cathode-ray oscilloscope to generator. A medical CR0. must have a voltage input. http://www.kpsec.freeuk.co
display waveforms and to m/cro.htm
measure p.d.'s and short There must be an electrical transducer in a heart monitor.
intervals of time (detailed
circuits are not required). Explain how time intervals can be obtained from distances
measured across the screen and the timebase setting.
Pupils will need to practice with specific values.
24(g) Explain how the values of This just has to be explained but point out that the colours Resistor colour code: Doubling the length and
resistors are chosen are almost but not quite the traditional seven colours of http:Ilwww.uoquelph.cal-ant the cross-sectional area
according to a colour code the rainbow which pupils are likely to know. oon/qadqets/resistors/resist of a resistor keeps its
and why widely different or.htm resistance constant but
values are needed in different Make a set of resistors on cards and allow pupils to read both the mass to be
types of circuit. their values, heated and its surface
area will be four times
larger. It stays cooler.
24(h) Discuss the need to choose Give examples of using different values for different
components with suitable purposes but remember that the resistance and e.m.f.
power ratings. determines the current.
This, in turn, determines the power generated within the
resistor.
24(i) Describe the action of State these behaviours as a fact but emphasise that both Thermistors: Try to avoid using a
thermistors and light- the heat in (n.t.c.) thermistors and the light in L.D.R.s is http://www.antonine- variable resistor on its
dependent resistors and used to free electrons from the structure which in turn education.co.uk/Physics AS own as a potential divider
explain their use as input reduces the resistance. /Module 3/Topic 2/topic 2. until the idea is properly
sensors. htm understood.
It helps pupils to remember how the resistance changes.
P.t.c. thermistors behave differently. L.D.R.s: When it is used the
http://www.antonine- resistance of one end
education.co.uk/Electronics increases whilst that of
AS/Electronics Module l/T the other end becomes
opic 5/topic 5 resistive in smaller. This is confusing
put transdu.htm at first.
24(j) Describe the action of a Set up a circuit and show that the total p.d. across two
variable potential divider unequal resistors is unequally divided (the mouse ends up
(potentiometer). with the mouse's share; the lion takes the lion's share).
Use a variable resistor as one of the resistors and adjust
it. What happens to the voltage of the middle point?
Use a switch, a thermistor and an L.D.R. instead of the
variable resistor.
24(k) Describe the action of a Demonstrate it. Charge up a capacitor in one circuit and Capacitors:
capacitor as a charge store then discharge it through a coulombmeter in another http://www.antonine-
and explain its use in time circuit. education.co.uk/Electronics
delay circuits. AS/Electronics Module l/T
It emphasises the point if the two circuits are physically opic 9/physics of capacitor
separate and the capacitor has to be physically moved s.htm
across the room.
Time delay circuits:
Then use a single circuit with a single-pole double-throw http://www.bbc.co.uk/school
switch. If a coulombmeter is unavailable use an L.E.D. s/gcsebitesize/desiqn/syste
and a large capacitor; try to get a small flash. Put a mscontrol/pneumaticsrev5.s
capacitor (-1 pF) in series with a resistor (-5 MO) and html
connect to a d.c. supply (-6V).
Measure the p.d. across the capacitor with a high
resistance voltmeter or CR0. and see how quickly the
voltage reaches a given value (say 4V). Repeat with a 10
MO resistor. Compare the times.
24(l) Describe the action of a reed Use a reed switch to switch on a circuit. Operate the reed Reed switch:
switch and reed relay. switch with a bar magnet. Operate it with a, clearly http://www.eleinmec.com/art
separate, solenoid. icle.asp?23
See how close the solenoid has to be to the reed switch
before the current in the solenoid will operate the reed
switch.
24(m) Explain the use of reed relays Emphasise that a reed relay is a reed switch with its own
in switching circuits. built-in solenoid. Show one being used.
Use a d.c. circuit containing the solenoid to operate a low
voltage a.c. motor. Emphasise the presence of two
distinct circuits which are only linked magnetically.
24(n) Describe and explain circuits Use circuits with switches, thermistors or L.D.R.s in series A reed switch could be
operating as light-sensitive with the solenoid of the reed relay used to switch on a light
switches and temperature when a door is opened or
operated alarms (using reed closed. The magnet is
relays or other circuits). fixed to the door.
24(o) State the meaning of the These terms are best explained in the contexts in which
terms processor, output they are used in the course.
device and feedback.
The circuits which process voltages (information) are
processors and the output devices are those parts of the
circuit where the final answer appears.
Both the bistable circuit and the astable circuit function
because the output from one device becomes the input of
another; the output is fed back into the input.
25(a) Describe the action of a Set up a transistor switching circuit, e.g. use an Transistor switching circuits:
bipolar npn transistor as an L.D.R./resistor potential divider to control the base current http:Ilhyperphysics.phy-
electrically operated switch and use the collector current to power a lamp. astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electroni
and explain its use in c/transwitch.html
switching circuits. Emphasise that the transistor is being used as a switch in
one circuit powered by the current in the other.
25(b) State in words and in truth Model AND and OR gate behaviour using switches in Logic gates: It is worth setting up a
table form, the action of the series or parallel in one circuit to operate a reed relay in a http://www.kpsec.freeuk.co few logic gate circuits and
following logic gates, AND, second circuit (which includes a lamp). m/gates.htm explaining how they work.
OR, NAND, NOR, and NOT Use a NOT gate and an
(inverter). Emphasise that the second circuit has its own power L.D.R. to switch on a light
supply. Model NOT, NAND and NOR gate behaviour by when it is dark. Use an
using the reed relay to switch off the second circuit. AND gate to switch on a
heater when it is cold and
Emphasise that when the first circuit is switched off the dark.
second is powered by its own supply. Compare with logic
gate circuits and emphasise that a logic gate has its own
power supply.
A NOT gate does not magically turn OV (0) into say 6V
(1).
25(c) State the symbols for the
logic gates listed above
(American ANSI Y 32.14
symbols will be used).
25(d) Describe the use of a bistable Set up a bistable circuit with two NAND gates (or a Bistable circuits: Such a circuit can be
circuit. transistor bistable circuit). http://resourcefulphysics.orq used as a burglar alarm
/down load/2508/bistable cir or an emergency off
Put an L.E.D. at one output and a buzzer at the other. cuits.doc switch for an escalator.
Use push switches.
Observe that one switch switches the buzzer on and the
L.E.D. off, whilst the other has the reverse effect.
25(e) Discuss the fact that bistable Explain that the circuit "can remember" which switch was
circuits exhibit the property of most recently operated.
memory.
25(f) Describe the use of an Set up an astable circuit with NOR gates and capacitors Astable circuit:
astable circuit (pulse (or a transistor astable circuit). Connect the output to a http://www.bbc.co.uk/school
generator) buzzer or an L.E.D. s/gcsebitesize/desiqn/syste
mscontrol/electronicsrev8.sh
Observe the pulsating sound or the flashing light. Vary tml
the value of the resistors and observe the effect on the
pulsing frequency.
Vary the value of the capacitors and repeat the
observation. Check for inverse proportionality in each
case.
25(g) Describe how the frequency
of an astable circuit is related
to the values of the resistive
and capacitative components
ANY QUERIES PLEASE REFER TO MOHD KHAIRUL AZMI BIN KASSIM – MAKTAB SAINS PADUKA SERI BEGAWAN SULTAN
E-mail address khairolazmi.kassim@msains.moe.edu.bn

Physics - Unit 1 - 10

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Physics - Unit 1 - 10

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Learning

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versa. E.g. if Z = 7, then X is always an N (nitrogen). athscience/chemistrynotes/topi alpha- or beta-particle,

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UNIT 5 Energy and Energy Sources

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generation. country/community. climate change.htm

UNIT 6 Thermal Energy and Matter

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UNIT 7 Magnetism and Electric Current

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UNIT 8 Forces and Motion

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UNIT 9 Pressure and Gases

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UNIT 10 Practical Electricity

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