Biodiversity MS

1.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
(c)
The Gaia philosophy envisages the entire planet

as a living, self regulating organism;
an open system exchanges energy and material,

a closed system exchanges energy but not material;
sunlight converted by producers;

producers eaten by consumers;
some energy released as heat;
consumers eaten by other consumers;
detrital decay;
(i)
(ii)
3 max
For example coral reefs:

coral reefs increasingly seen as an economic
resource rather than a subsistence resource;
coral reefs have been used for increasingly
intensive fishing;
source of building materials;
sites for tourism;
pollution sink;
cultural and technological change for example
in fishing industry (dynamite fishing);
political motives behind promoting tourist opportunities;
under increasing population pressure;
has led to overfishing (unsustainable);
loss of biodiversity;
damage to extremely vulnerable polyps;
and knock-on effects throughout the ecosystem;
4 max
For example:
conservation areas / national parks;
restricting resource use or allowing resource
use at a sustainable level within the park;
will have economic implications;
can be difficult to police;
ocean is an open system;
indigenous people need to retain control;
victim of your own success;
3 max
[12]
2.
(a)
calculate abundance of organisms;

using Lincoln index / Simpsons diversity index / quadrats;
description of technique;
compare data or previously collected data;
3 max
(b)
(c)
evaluation: size of quadrat and size of organism;

seasonality;
timescale;
reliability of past data;
2 max
Range of possible responses depending on examples used.

natural hazard event / global catastrophic event
(i.e. species in the wrong place at the wrong time;
low population total;
very specialized e.g. vulnerable if food source becomes extinct;
loss of habitat of human activity unable to adapt;
target for hunters;
unable to compete with genetically modified or no-native species;
reproductive behaviour and potential;
trophic level;
6 max
named protected area e.g. Masaai Mara National Park, Kenya;

how it is designed to preserve species diversity:
controlled / prohibited hunting of species;
control of visitor numbers;
guidelines for visitor behaviour to ensure breeding
patterns not disrupted;
no development policy within park;
reintroduction of endangered species;
local ownership by Masaai people;
3 max
evaluate its success:

protection allows diversity to be maintained;
visitors more likely to support wider campaigns if they
have visited a place;
foreign currency earned by Masaai make it worth their while;
more successful the park the more visitors it will attract;
imbalance in population when certain species are protected;
limits on tourists numbers limit revenue that can be earned;
migratory species need to travel beyond boundaries of park;
conflict between wild species and indigenous herders and farmers;
6 max
[20]
3.
(a)
(b)
increase in population growth as death rates lowered due to

better medical care;
increased wealth means people are consuming more (sometimes
more than they need);
economics of food production systems mean that food production
is a business and subsidies may guarantee prices no matter how
much is produced;
desire for food security in turbulent political times;
as more and more land is used for settlement and industry,
increasing need to intensify production on existing farm land;
in LEDCs food production used as a way to generate foreign currency;
Answer will, of course, depend on the problems chosen. [4] for each
problem. Credit should be given for use of examples and case studies.
e.g. soil erosion:
use of heavy machinery leads to compaction of soil, so soil
structure is lost;
top soil is more easily removed by the agents of erosion
(wind or water);
even more erosion likely if wind breaks (hedgerows and walls)
are removed;
once top soil is lost, organic material is gone and the fertility of
the soil is reduced;
this occurred during the 1930s in the US due to intensive farming
on the prairies;
leading to the dust bowl as vast quantities of soil were blown away;
leads to lower yields and a vicious cycle as remaining soil may be
even more intensively farmed by farmers to compensate;
(c)
4 max
8 max
Answers may be general, covering a variety of strategies or more

specific, addressing strategies related to a particular problem.
Credit should be given for use of examples and case studies.
e.g. a general answer:
use of natural fertilizers (e.g. manure) rather than chemical fertilizers;
controlling the amount of fertilizers that are applied to ensure excess
is not washed into water bodies;
organic farming methods applied and marketed effectively to consumers to
compensate for higher production costs;
biological pest control rather than chemical control;
keeping stores of genetic material to ensure species diversity is not lost;
encouraging polyculture to reduce vulnerability to disease;
agro-forestry to reduce soil erosion;
specific strategies to reduce soil erosion e.g. terracing;
5 max
Expression of ideas [3 max]
[20]
4.
(a)
(b)
technocentrist because they tend to argue that economic

development should precede environmental protection;
and argue that society can find solutions for environmental
problems through technology which comes when the economy is strong;
would point to success stories like Canada and Scandinavia
who have good environmental records and are economically developed;
2 max
Arguments in favour of the statement:

costly to change technology to more environmentally sustainable
forms e.g. new power stations or investment in renewable
technologies such as solar;
often LEDCs rely on weak pollution laws to attract multinationals
to locate there;
so if they set environmental controls they will lose jobs and
income vital for development;
rights to emit CO2 for example can be bought and sold (richer
countries can afford to buy the right to emit more CO 2) which
has implications for industrial development;
often countries with best record of environmental protection are
the most developed economically e.g. Scandinavia;
people in poverty will often be forced to act with short-term
perspective e.g. unsustainable use of forests in order to survive;
it is not fair to expect LEDCs to protect the environment, as richer
countries didnt when they were going through their industrial
revolutions;
Arguments against:
some of the most economically developed countries have huge
ecological footprints and are very wasteful e.g. US, UK, Japan;
unsustainable use of the environment will only bring short-term
economic growth not long-term economic growth;
often the most sensible users of the environment are people
who are considered undeveloped economically;
e.g. indigenous tribes in Amazonia/street kids recycling waste;
people in poverty are often more intimately dependent on their
environment vital to protect it to help them;
surely we can and should learn from the mistakes made by richer
countries?;
(very anthropocentric view) what about the rights of other living
species to be unmolested?;
environmental damage will have a knock-on effect on human
societies that cannot wait until everyone has developed before
we address it e.g. loss of species diversity once gone its gone;
environment is the source of our resources for development so
it is vital that the two go hand in hand sustainable development;
10 max
(c)
Responses will depend on the choice of environmental issue but

for full marks candidates should be able to name specific groups
e.g. actual NGOs and international bodies rather than simply
identify broad groups such as local people and charities.
e.g. issue: depletion of stratospheric ozone
UNEPs involvement in forging specific international agreements;
role of NGOs and pressure groups in monitoring, raising awareness
and lobbying for solutions;
discussion of steps taken by national governments to comply
with international agreements;
local campaigns to encourage sunscreen use e.g. slip, slop, slap
educational campaign in Australia;
role of scientists e.g. at the Antarctic stations in studying the
ozone hole;
5 max
[20]
5.
(a)
Answer should be balanced to include both examples of animals

that are prone to extinction and those that are not.
Factors which may leave an animal prone to extinction include:
small population size e.g. blue whale influences reproductive
success/prone to disease/inbreeding/susceptible to environmental
change;
reduced genetic pool prone to mutations due to inbreeding/
genetic weakness leading to physical weakness;
over hunting e.g. rhino;
loss of habitat e.g. panda/fragmented habitat lack of food
resources/lack of space;
Factors that may lead to an animal being less prone to extinction:
large population e.g. cockroach less affected by predation/large
genetic pool;
extensive geographical range less susceptible to individual
habitat loss;
non-specialist existence e.g. the rat survives in many environments;
5 max
(b)
rare;
vulnerable;
endangered;
extinct;
unknown;
Three correct [2], two correct [1], one or zero correct [0].
reduction in total population of a species;
levels of exploitation;
habitat decline/loss;
habitat fragmentation/population isolation;
number of populations low/in decline;
low number of mature adults; [3 max]
relevant use of examples; [1 max]
(c)
6 max
Answers should show what the candidate believes to be the best

strategy for conserving a named protected area and evaluate
the strategy against other strategies. Good answers will also
include case histories or examples that have worked.
Award [1] for naming a protected area, e.g. Masai Mara;
e.g. creating community support for the area;
supplying adequate funding and resources;
carrying out relevant research and monitoring;
protecting with legislation;
policing and guarding;
giving the site economic value;
6 max
Accept other reasonable answers.
[20]
6.
(a)
The system should be both terrestrial or both aquatic. Examples

could compare salmon fishing in Norway with rice fish farming
in Thailand, intensive beef farming in North America and Masai
herding in Kenya. No credit should be given for naming the food
production system. However, if food production system is not
named award [5 max].
Award [2 max] for resource inputs.
The following points could be considered:
comparison of contrasting fertilizer use;
variation in water resource use;
labour input;
energy input;
Award [2 max] for resource outputs.
consideration of variation in system productivity;
reference to net and gross production;
Award [2 max] for technology.
comparison of the variation in technology and the implication for
the system;
technology may include machinery and organic technology
e.g. GM crops, the use of draft animals versus agricultural
machinery;
Any other reasonable answers.
(b)
6 max
Answers should clearly demonstrate the direct and indirect impact

of the two farming systems on their immediate environment.
The nature of the systems chosen will dictate the content of the
answer.
salmon fishing in Norway:
organic debris contamination of coastal waters from waste food
and excreta;
the addition of steroids and other chemical waste to the adjacent
coastal waters;
accidental escape and the contamination of local gene pools;
potentially introduces non-natural genetic variation;
rice fish farming:
impacts on local biodiversity both plants and animals;
introduces alien species;
changes nutrients budget;
impacts directly on natural resources/food within the system;
5 max
Answers must refer to both systems for full marks.
(c)
(i)
Award [2 max] for any of the following.

food resources needs:
needs will change over the next 100 years as the global
human population continues to increase;
as countries develop further their demand for a greater
variety of food products (at a greater level) will expand;
dietary animal protein will increase/food fashion may change;
change in productivity due to environmental degradation
will further stress systems;
Award [2 max] for any of the following.
achievement of food resource change:
adoption of new crop varieties;
use of GM crops;
increased productivity driven by new technology and
farming initiatives;
(ii)
4 max
environmental stress;
more land required for food production;
agricultural intensification;
loss of diversity;
2 max
[20]
7.
(a)
H eat
C O
H eat
L ig h t
H 2O
T is s u e to o th e r
tr o p h ic le v e ls
TREE
L itte r to s o il
N u trie n ts
W a te r
3 max
Award [1] for tree in box, [1] for two matter flows and [1] for two
energy flows.
(b)
(c)
producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

photosynthesis;
one of the main contributors to organic matter in soil;
through symbiotic bacteria, producers are significant in fixing
nitrogen;
provide habitat for other organisms;
Accept other reasonable statements that show ecological knowledge.
2 max
e.g. Chilean matorral

p ro d u c e r
A c a c ia c a v e n s
C h ile a n th o rn
tre e
3 max
p rim a ry c o n s u m e r
O c to d o n d e g u
ro d en t
se co n d a ry co n su m e r
F e lis g u ig n a /
C h ile a n w ild c a t
Award [1] for appropriately labelled trophic levels, [2] for three
appropriate species or [1] for two appropriate species.
Do not accept rabbit, fox etc., unless there is some identifying
feature i.e. snowshoe hare and arctic fox.
(d)
(e)
(f)
long-term stability leading to speciation/complexity;

2
high species number per unit area (South America 0.125 species km
2
versus 0.0027 species km in temperate forests in North America);
high number of endemic species;
limiting factors low and so high productivity leading to high diversity;
3 max
decomposers break down tissue;

release nutrients for reabsorption by producers;
form basis of decomposer food chain (which may be energetically
more important in some ecosystems than grazing food chains);
as chemosynthetic autotrophs may form basis of food chain;
through incomplete breakdown of organic material contribute
to build up of humus and improve nutrient retention capacity in soil;
are vital in nitrogen cycle;
2 max
primary productivity would decrease;

Award [2 max] for the following.
acid rain can damage foliage directly thus reducing photosynthesis;
increase in solubility of nutrients facilitates leaching with consequent
loss of productivity;
increases susceptibility of trees to stresses such as disease/
temperature/insects/fungal infection;
3 max
[16]
8.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
amphibians: 0.05 %;
flowering plants: 0.15 %;
need a large range to hunt;
habitat loss;
loss of prey species;
bioaccumulation and biomagnification;
hunting by humans;
small population size;
reduced genetic pools;
already endangered;
top trophic level;
governmental: UNEP/EPA;
non-governmental: Greenpeace/WWF;
Both needed for [1].
With reference to a named example, the following points
should be considered.
community support;
funding and resources;
legal status and policing;
adequate research;
No credit for naming the protected area. However, if a named
area is not specified award [2 max].
2 max
3 max
[8]
9.
(a)
(i)
1920 accept answers between 1910 and 1940
(ii)
exponential growth/rate of increase accelerates over time/

J curve (provided understanding of rate is demonstrated)
crude birth rate crude death rate;

+ 10;
(iii)
10
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(c)
mammals 40 ( 3) both needed for [1]
birds 48
both show exponential increase;

mammals rate of increase has been more irregular;
since 1650 more bird species extinct than mammal species;
Accept other reasonable answers
species is classified as extinct when there is no reasonable
doubt that the last individual has died;
when exhaustive surveys throughout its historic range
have failed to record an individual;
surveys should be over a time frame (diurnal, seasonal, annual)
appropriate to life cycle and life form;
Accept none left (or similar) for [1 max]
2 max
2 max
Award [1 max] for relationship

human population growth and increasing extinctions are positively
correlated/OWTTE;
human population increase has caused increases in extinctions;
Award [3 max] for reasons
humans have caused (exponential) increase in extinctions through
habitat degradation/destruction/fragmentation;
pollution;
hunting/collecting/harvesting and thereby driving species
to extinction;
4 max
[13]
10.
(a)
(b)
(i)
insects;
(ii)
fungi;
(i)
many species simply have not been discovered yet (large areas
of tropical forest/deep ocean unexplored for example);
rate of extinction is so rapid that some species become extinct
before we have discovered them;
small organisms hard to find/capture/identify;
1 max
vertebrates are larger, so are easier to find/catch and classify;

there are fewer species of vertebrate, so the chance of finding
all of them is higher;
1 max
(ii)
11
(c)
(d)
e.g. for insects, use a large sweep net to capture;

and then identify using keys the number of species;
count number of individuals in each species;
use Simpsons diversity index (involves total number of insect
species and number of individuals);
number of species must be recorded within a given area (e.g.
number of species in a quadrat/hectare);
3 max
No mark for naming an ecosystem, but if no ecosystem is named

award [1 max].
e.g. Coral Reef off coast of Philippines
direct threats: [1 max]
aggressive fishing techniques e.g. dynamite fishing/cyanide fishing;
collecting shells/coral for souvenirs for tourist industry;
indirect threats: [1 max]
coral reefs then become more vulnerable to storm/cyclone
damage/disease/sea temperature changes (due to global warming);
siltation due to mangrove clearance and run-off from coast;
2 max
[9]
11.
(a)
some environmental problems are global in terms of the scale of

the effects rather than local, so international cooperation in
addressing them makes sense;
e.g. global warming is going to have far-reaching global impacts
so a united response to monitoring and mitigation is more likely
to be effective;
international agreements can help to motivate governments to
take action and honour their commitments e.g. to cut CO2
emissions, e.g. Montreal Protocol, rather than burying their
head in the sand about an issue;
international organisations e.g. UNEP have the resources to
mobilise and coordinate action e.g. in environmental research,
when individual nations, especially LEDCs, might not have
access to funds/expertise;
when problems cross borders e.g. smuggling of endangered species,
international cooperation is vital e.g. CITES;
however, local solutions have a valuable role to play e.g. often
problems are caused at local scale, so local people should be
involved in addressing the problem, the World Conservation
Strategy recognises this;
often the motivation for addressing problems starts at the local
level i.e. when individuals feel passionately about an issue;
some issues e.g. recycling and landfill are local issues so a
global strategy would be cumbersome, bureaucratic and
inappropriate;
Award [5 max] if no examples are used.
8 max
12
(c)
small-scale studies allow for in-depth detailed investigations;

understanding processes and interconnectedness at a local level is
vital if threats to that ecosystem are to be effectively mitigated
e.g. understanding relationship between two interdependent
species will enable you to predict what will happen if one of
them becomes extinct;
on a practical level, scientists have to be able to undertake studies
at a manageable level i.e. by investigating specific hypotheses,
e.g. you could not design a research programme that was just
going to investigate oceans;
for groups lobbying about a particular environmental issue,
their concerns will not be taken seriously unless grounded in
rigorous fieldwork and fact;
this is one of the problems with conflicting evidence on the
issue of global warming;
similarly for political decisions to be taken there needs to be
a body of evidence and understanding on which these decisions
are based;
lots of studies of small-scale ecosystems form jigsaw pieces in
a bigger picture of how larger-scale ecosystems e.g. biomes are
being affected by human actions;
studying small-scale ecosystems enables environmental change
e.g. in response to pollutants, to be monitored over time;
these studies can inform human actions to ensure that practices
change in the right way to mitigate the problem e.g. studies of
consequences of applying lime to acidified lakes;
6 max
Accept other reasonable responses.
[16]
12.
(a)
greater biomass;
higher levels of species diversity;
soil conditions are more favourable e.g. with greater organic content;
better soil structure/greater water retention;
lower pH;
plant species will be taller and longer living;
more K-strategists/few r-strategists;
greater community complexity and stability/equilibrium;
greater habitat diversity;
4 max
13
(b)
Award [3-4 max] for human threats, [3-4 max] for natural threats
and [2-4 max] the consequences.
e.g. Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia
human threats:
such as tourism, coral very fragile and easily damaged by divers
fins/touching coral/breaking bits off for souvenirs;
over fishing can disrupt the balance of species in the food chain;
inadvertent damage from anchors and pollution from boats;
run-off of fertilizers from sugar plantations on the coast;
sewage and pollution from coastal settlements such as Cairns
can lead to excessive nutrients and algal blooms;
increased sedimentation due to deforestation of mangroves to
make space for tourist developments make water cloudy reducing
productivity;
disrupting the interdependence of coral ecosystem with sea grass
beds and mangrove ecosystems;
global warming increases sea temperatures leading to coral bleaching;
natural threats:
all of these make coral more vulnerable to natural threats such as disease;
natural predators e.g. crown of thorns starfish;
structural damage from storms/cyclones;
increased sea temperatures due to El Nio;
can lead to coral bleaching;
which has knock-on effects on the fish species who depend on the
reef for food, protection and nurseries for young;
consequences:
coral reefs are able to withstand some threats but the collective effect
of human and natural processes can lead to damage of the reef and
species, which depend on it, and the breakdown of the ecosystem;
when the critical threshold is reached (when even if threats stop
ecosystem will not recover);
loss of biodiversity;
the valuable role that the ecosystem provides e.g. in conjunction
with mangroves sea grass beds as a line of coastal defence;
as an economic resource;
10 max
14
(c)
Award credit if diagram is used to illustrate the concept of

negative feedback.
feedback is the return of part of the output from a system as input,
so as to affect succeeding outputs;
positive feedback tends to amplify/increase change;
negative feedback on the other hand tends to damp down/neutralise
any deviation from an equilibrium and promote stability;
it is negative feedback therefore which leads to the regulation of
equilibrium within ecosystems;
e.g. effect of a storm on a rainforest high winds blow down a
tree, leaving a gap in the canopy, this lets in more light,
encouraging new growth;
rates of growth are rapid as light levels are high, so new saplings
compete to take place of old tree in the canopy and equilibrium
is restored;
4 max
A range of possible examples may be used.
Award [2 max] if no example used.
[20]
13.
(a)
(b)
(c)
from 1972 to 1975 both species show gradual increase trend;

from 1975 to 1976 moose numbers crash/fall;
wolf numbers continue to rise;
1978 to 1979 wolf numbers crash;
poor climate conditions, winter deaths due to cold;
disturbance;
hunting/trapping;
disease;
loss of prey species/decline of moose earlier;
Accept other appropriate answers
moose numbers may increase further;
leading to greater densities;
greater grazing and a change in habitat type;
vegetation change would occur as moose preferentially graze;
moose may ultimately outstrip their own food supply;
may cause a habitat shift;
decline in moose numbers;
2 max
2 max
2 max
15
(d)
ethical arguments wolves have a right to exist;

aesthetic arguments beautiful creatures;
genetic arguments loss of diversity once it is gone it cannot
be regained;
ecological arguments role in food web, maintaining numbers
of prey species;
commercial arguments pelts/wildlife tourism/trophy hunting;
Accept other reasonable arguments.
3 max
[9]
14.
(a)
(b)
(c)
tourism can only be successful if it can have a long-term future;

a long-term future is only possible if the tourism enterprise is sustainable;
to be sustainable the tourism venture must not deplete local resource
bases by direct/indirect impact;
it must not pollute the local environment;
good tourism is sustainable tourism, tourism that values its environment;
ecotourism is often sustainable;
In addition to the above points, award [1] for each case study, up to [2 max].
global warming will ultimately change weather patterns;
summer seasons may be extended (e.g. coastal beach holidays);
coastal resorts selling sun, sea and sand may develop further north;
winter sports holidays may be curtailed by lack of snow and ice;
failing rains may make some resorts obsolete due to lack of water resources;
Supporting case studies or examples are relevant.
sustainable development (a phrase coined in 1987 in Our Common

Future) is defined as development that meets our current needs
without depleting resources in the future;
sustainable development also does not deplete the environmental
quality of an area;
sustainable development varies in definition depending on viewpoint;
economists view sustainable development in pure commercial
terms whereas environmentalists will also include environmental
quality as an element;
some believe that development (particularly development designed
to allow LEDCs to compete with MEDCs) can never be
sustainable (within a free market);
development and sustainability in the mind of many economists
are contradictory positions even though environmentalists hold
the concept of sustainable development as the best way forward
for society and the planet;
5 max
[20]
16
15.
(a)
(b)
high profile/charismatic species catch public attention both nationally

and internationally (e.g. tiger India);
however, species based conservation favours charismatic organisms
and is less successful in saving non cuddly species;
saving a named species requires preserving the animals habitat this
benefits all other organisms in that habitat;
however a species can be artificially preserved (e.g. in a zoo) whilst
its natural habitat is destroyed (e.g. Giant Panda);
Award any three of the above points [1] each or any other suitable
suggestions.
3 max
area A: [1 max]
fragmented and small with a large perimeter area ratio/large edge
effect so lots of disturbance;
fragmented so difficult migration between fragments;
small size may limit species contained/limit population sizes;
area B: [1 max]
large perimeter area ratio/relatively small edge effect so less
disturbance;
large size promotes high biodiversity;
large size so good for large vertebrates/top carnivores/large
species populations;
area C: [1 max]
as large as B but dissected by a road which acts as a barrier to species
migration;
road increases edge effect some more disturbance;
road allows easier access to the interior of reserve for monitoring;
road gives easier access for poachers;
some evaluative element is required (i.e. how the characteristic
relates to the ecosystem in a positive or negative way);
(c)
(i)
lid
g ro u n d le v e l
p la s tic c u p
b a it
(d e a d in s e c t)
Award [1] for the diagram and [1] for up to three labels.
Accept pitfalls designed to collect larger species.
17
(ii)
(iii)
(d)
a falling value would suggest a loss of diversity/in this instance

a loss in the invertebrate biodiversity;
these data could be used to identify a biodiversity decay problem/
kick start a management strategy to assess the cause and
reverse the trend;
Award credit if specific management strategies to address loss
in biodiversity are suggested.
use Lincoln index/capture-mark-release-recapture method;
capture ground beetles, mark-release;
after a period of time recapture and count those with and
without marks;
due to the process of plate tectonics the Earths surface has

gradually broken up and drifted apart over many millions of years;
this process has allowed groups of organisms to become isolated
and evolve along different paths dictated by their new
surrounding and environmental conditions/plate movement not
only isolates groups but also subjects them to new climates and
environmental conditions;
2 max
2
[14]
18
16.
(a)
succession: orderly change over time in an ecosystem;

succession e.g. temperate forest development;
zonation: the arrangement/patterning of plant

communities/ecosystems, into parallel/sub-parallel bands in
response to change, over a distance, in some environmental factor;
zonation e.g. changes in ecosystems up a mountain with increasing
altitude;
6 max
Award [1] for definition, [1] for example and [1] for a diagram
of each process.
19
(b)
food production system e.g. intensive wheat production;

natural ecosystem e.g. deciduous woodland;
both wheat fields and woodlands have low initial productivity;

increases rapidly as biomass accumulates;
wheat harvested before production:respiration = 1;
herbivores controlled or isolated from the food production system;
natural woodland consumer community increases so naturally
high productivity is balanced by consumption and respiration;
woodland reaches climax when production: respiration = 1/all
productivity is balance by respiration;
Award [2 max] for examples and [4 max] for comparisons.
(c)
6 max
characteristics: [3 max]
greater habitat diversity;
complex ecosystem;
various niches;
different nutrient and energy pathways;
large size;
little human activity;
minimal pollution;
plentiful abiotic factors e.g. water, light, heat;
different trophic levels;
threats: [3 max]
pollution kills some species, makes conditions impossible for
others/Trent Biotic Index organisms/degradation of ecosystems;
selective logging;
hunting of top carnivores;
human activities burning/building;
grazing animals;
climate change;
6 max
Award credit if named examples are used.

[20]
17.
(a)
large animals require relatively large space for breeding/foraging/

20
(b)
(c)
(d)
hunting/ territoriality;
the area often needs to be large enough to limit disturbance/include
buffer zones;
the area needs to be large enough to minimize the chance of animals
wandering outside the reserve and becoming targets for hunters;
if reserves are too small, viable populations of large animals are
not sustainable;
3 max
conservation designed to conserve a particular species;

may not require the preservation of the animals habitat;
or the animal in the wild;
usually associated with charismatic species, e.g. big cats, rhino;
2 max
global volcanic eruption leading to rapid climate change/hostile

environment;
catastrophic events such as meteorite impact leading to rapid
climate change/hostile environment;
over hunting of large mammals by man (in the Holocene) to the
extent that populations became reproductively unviable/wiped out;
Do not accept Ice Age.
2 max
collecting: [2 max]
using legislation to prevent moving/import of endangered species;
education about impact of collecting to change behaviour;
encouraging non-destructive collection e.g. photography rather
than digging up;
overgrazing: [2 max]
fencing/cordoning off sensitive habitats/ biological hotspots;
reducing herd sizes;
providing alternative grazing;
supplementing income through nature tourism;
Accept other choices of threat and reasonable strategies.
4 max
[11]
18.
(a)
stops organic residues entering streams and causing pollution/eutrophication;
(b)
(i)
reducing lawn size lawns are restricted to grass species and

succession cannot occur as they are cut regularly;
allowing plants and trees to grow alongside streams will increase
the range of habitats for insect/bird species;
more food/nutrients provided for species;
Accept any other reasonable responses.
Award [0] if no reason given.
21
(ii)
(c)
provides greater stability;

more niches so more alternative food sources within the food
web should anything happen to an individual species;
greater genetic diversity so better able to withstand
diseases/change;
aesthetic/potential economic value of greater diversity;
removing grass cuttings takes nutrients away from the soil, so

there will be a net loss of nutrients;
natural fertilizers less likely to contain harmful toxins which
may build up in species (biomagnification);
cheaper;
a way of reducing overall waste/resources/energy used;
a more sustainable strategy;
less likely to cause eutophication than artificial fertilizers;
artificial fertilizers lead to release of greenhouse gases as they
are produced;
natural fertilizers may contribute positively to soil structure;
2 max
2 max
[7]
19. No mark scheme available
20.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
a range of ecosystems offering a range of habitats/niches;

favourable abiotic conditions, hot/high insolation and humid/
high precipitation;
high productivity can support numerous trophic levels;
complex food webs allow many niches;
historic isolation has allowed speciation leading to high
endemism;
after Madagascar broke away from Gondwanaland, species
evolved independently in response to local conditions;
principles of island geography apply;
many niches so potential for new speciation is high;
Award [2] if response links ideas: great length of time for
speciation and isolation from the mainland.
island colonized relatively recently so species have not

developed escape/evade strategies/not afraid of man;
2 max
2 max
22
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Response should be presented as a model. Accept flow diagrams,

spider diagrams, nets, etc. Award [1 max] for responses not given
in the form of a model.
protective forest cover removed;
directly by logging/farming/mining/industry/settlement;
soil exposed to rain and easily washed away/eroded;
soil exposed to high temperatures and baked/dried out;
nutrients leached away;
soil loses fertility and can no longer support plants;
soil degraded and useless as a resource for humans;
Award [3 max] if no climatic factors are mentioned, or the fact that soil
is naturally poor.
maintains more canopy so soil is protected from rain/sun;
better survival of residual trees so niches/species protected;
recovery of natural systems after disturbance is more likely;
(in principle) natural interest can be harvested whilst natural
capital is preserved;
Award [1 max] if response is not explicitly linked to sustainability.
4 max
2 max
(i)
(18 482 600 461 100 =) 3.01%/3% ;
(ii)
promotion of development and conservation is the favoured

approach of the World Conservation strategy;
incentive for local people to preserve local ecosystems if they
can see the economic benefit;
funds from e.g. ecotourism can be put back into conservation
programmes;
Madagascar is a poor country and economic development
is naturally a priority;
an economic alternative to harmful actions;
2 max
site 2 is a pristine (climatic) climax habitat so exhibits

greatest diversity;
site 1 is a disturbed habitat with few trees and arrested
succession so lower diversity;
site 3 will experience some disturbance but less than site 1;
some species may only be present in forested areas as this
is where they find food e.g. Lemurs;
Scorpions favour drier conditions and therefore inhabit
the grassland site (1);
3 max
(i)
23
(ii)
strengths:
2
reserve is relatively large (50 km ), larger reserves are better;
one large reserve generally better than lots of little ones;
reserve surrounded by forest which acts as a natural buffer zone;
isolated from human activity so less chance of disturbance;
already rich in species/high biodiversity/biological hotspot;
weaknesses:
remote so access for research/monitoring could be difficult;
remote so difficult to police;
continuing population growth may lead to expansion and
increased pressure from the settlement;
not clear whether there are economic opportunities in the
reserve for local people;
only one ecosystem type presented here, to be most effective
other reserves needed in other locations;
Award [2 max] if only strengths or weaknesses are addressed.
(g)
(i)
36 million;
(ii)
yes, government should because population growth rate is

high (3 %) and population is putting increasing pressure
on limited resources;
yes because carrying capacity is likely to be exceeded;
reducing birth rates is often seen as being an important feature
of countries that are further along in demographic transition;
more people means more pressure will be put on fragile
ecosystems, many of which provide important goods and
services and need to be protected;
no, government should not because population growth rate
will naturally stabilize as the country develops;
large population is needed to develop the country economically;
overpopulation is to do with numbers of people compared to
resource use, provided resources are used sustainably there
is no reason why populations should not grow;
through technology which will develop as the country
develops economically, Madagascar will be able to increase
its carrying capacity;
Award credit for other reasonable arguments.
3 max
2 max
[23]
24
21.
(a)
if populations are small species are more likely to become extinct;

e.g. tigers have very small total populations;
highly specialized species are more vulnerable if their niche is lost;
e.g. the Poo-uli honeycreepers eat only land snails as their main food
so if this becomes extinct, so do they;
species found in isolated/specific areas are more vulnerable if their
habitat is lost;
e.g. Wkiu bug found only on the summit of Mauna Kea, Hawaii,
highly specialized to survive in the summit alpine ecosystem;
low reproductive potential because of limited gene pool;
e.g. Bicknells Thrush has been listed as special concern in
Canada because its reproductive potential is so low (only 20005000
breeding pairs);
species at a higher trophic level are often more vulnerable to extinction;
because they require a large area of primary productivity;
charismatic species are more likely to receive attention/protection
than others;
e.g. tigers attract more funding and attention than lichens;
species who already exist in protected areas/reserves more likely
to be saved;
species whose genetic material has been stored for the future more
likely to be saved;
Award [1] for each principle that makes a species more vulnerable
and [1] for named example and description that shows the principle
applies. Award [3 max] if no examples are used. Do not award
marks for a species where the reason for vulnerability is not clear.
6 max
25
(b)
mechanism of evolution: up to [5 max]

genetic variation occurs in populations (due to mutation/recombination);
natural selection occurs in populations;
those that are most fit to survive in the local conditions survive, and
pass on their genes to future generations;
speciation occurs due to isolation which may be geographic/reproductive;
as species are isolated they evolve differently;
isolated populations may be subject to different natural selection;
eventually isolated populations are sufficiently different that they
are unable to produce fertile offspring;
thus the number of different species/species diversity increases over time;
e.g. speciation occurred as plates diverged and individuals were isolated;
as plates moved and areas experienced new climatic conditions
species adapted over time to new conditions;
barriers formed between ecosystems e.g. through fold mountains
as plates converged, leading to speciation;
human impact on biodiversity: up to [5 max]
damage/changes to habitats through changes in land use
e.g. urbanization;
agricultural practices e.g. monoculture/pesticides/GM crops;
introduction/escape of non-native species displacing native species
through competition;
pollution leading directly to death/increasing vulnerability of
species to disease e.g. through enhanced greenhouse effect;
hunting/collecting/over-harvesting of species;
Give marks for use of named examples and/or sourced figures.
8 max
26
(c)
many factors determine extinction rates, and the relative weighting/

way in which these factors interact is a subjective process;
so predicting extinction rates in the future is not an exact science;
increase in extinction rates may in part be due to improved
recording of extinctions;
people with a technocentric philosophy may put more faith/hope
in the ability of technology in the future to help us minimize extinctions;
there are some success stories e.g. crocodiles, which can lead
people to be optimistic;
others may be concerned that the rate of extinction is now faster
than ever before;
the environmental movement has come a long way, people may
feel this is a sign that biodiversity is likely to get more attention/
funding in the future;
some scientists may focus on specific species/ecosystems rather
than looking more holistically at the issue of global loss of
biodiversity which affects their perception on the issue;
greater understanding now of the intrinsic values of nature/society
is more environmentally aware;
scientific understanding of ecosystems has demonstrated that we
have an impact and we need to manage our impact;
greater global communication, so we are more aware and concerned;
4 max
Award marks for other answers of equal weight and validity.
[20]
22.
(a)
(b)
model B
corridor allows organisms to migrate between reserves/greater number
of opportunities for mating with a wider population/greater genetic
diversity because more individuals can mix;
No marks for stating model without reason.
Accept Model A if valid reason is given. e.g. separate reserves mean
that if wildlife in one are wiped out/killed, others may survive.
Reasons must relate to genetic diversity.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
living mass is large in the rainforest/tall trees/many layers

of vegetation/large amounts of nutrients stored as there is
a lot of biomass per unit area;
high levels of rainfall washing nutrients out of the soil/leaching

results in infertile soil/loss of nutrients;
open because matter/nutrients (and energy) are freely exchanged

outside the system;
27
(iv)
(c)
Strengths:
simple to interpret/quantitative to some extent/pictorial so
easy to compare with others;
Limitations:
no indication of quantities as numeric values/simplistic;
found in parts of the world with high population density so pressure

on the land to remove forest and grow food;
it takes a long time to recover from logging/destruction;
have biological hotspots with high biodiversity so many species
affected;
valuable timber is removed and so forest damaged;
Do not accept acid rain (Brazil is low for acid rain).
Do not accept tourism/ecotourism unless tied to impacts on habitat(s).
Credit answers which either address reasons why this ecosystem is
intrinsically fragile or reasons why people might destroy the habitat.
2 max
[8]
23.
(a)
(b)
(i)
Northern Andes
(ii)
Amazon Basin
(iii)
Overall figures are high [1]/high productivity [1].../... and

structural complexity of tropical ecosystems [1];
Northern Andes high biodiversity due to genetic isolation on
mountain summits and in remote valleys [1]/range of
environments due to altitudinal variation [1]/Amazon Basin
a relatively homogeneous environment [1];
Any reasonable alternative. [Must have something more than
tropical forest ecosystems are complex for both marks.]
A species of organism, of which numbers are so low that there

is a likelihood of its becoming extinct in the near future/owtte [1];
named species [1];
[IUCN definition = taxa in danger of extinction and whose
survival is unlikely if causal factors continue operating.
Includes taxa with numbers at a critical level; those with
drastically reduced habitats; and those not seen in the wild in
the past 50 years.]
Any three of: small numbers [1]/restricted distribution [1]/

complex migration patterns [1]/complex breeding cycle [1]/
reduced habitat [1]/low rate of reproduction [1]/hunting
pressure [1]/economic value [1]/or reasonable alternatives.
(i)
(ii)
28
(c)
(d)
Any 3 ways with examples [1] each, e.g.

Protective legislation (koala in Australia in early 20th century) [1];
International treaty (CITES) (Green Amazon parrots) [1];
Breeding programmes (numbats in Australia/pandas) [1]/protection
of habitats (whooping crane in USA) [1];
Any reasonable alternative
(2 ways, but no examples = [1])
Natural selection = a mechanism of evolution [1]/caused by removal

of ill-adapted individuals and survival of those adapted to the
environment [1]; evolution in long term biodiversity by filling
available niches [1]; isolation (cutting off islands/formation of
mountains etc.) separates populations [1]/changing environment
may create isolated populations [1]/climatic change may trigger
adaptation to new conditions [1].
3
[15]
24.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Long-term increase/period of stability for several hundred million years/

equilibrium?/major decline around 200 million/several smaller
extinction periods [1]; possibly due to catastrophic events/changes
in environment causing mass extinctions [1]; long-term increase
possibly due to increase in diversity of environment, e.g. as land
colonised by plants [1].
max 2
(i)
Mammals
(ii)
The highest proportion of extinctions in relation to total

number of species. (Allow an answer such as mammals
are often large, conspicuous and sometimes hunted.
Some require large area to support individual or pair.)
max 1
It is caused by human activities [1]; it has been over a much

shorter period/earlier extinctions over longer period (millions
of years) due to natural causes (meteoritic impact/competition
as new groups evolve/environmental change) [1].
max 2
Any two of: Small numbers/end-member of food chain/complex

migration pattern/complex breeding cycle/restricted distribution/
slow rate of reproduction/of value for some portion of its anatomy/
hunted/large and conspicuous/specialised habitat/low genetic
diversity/destruction of habitat.
max 2
29
(e)
(f)
(g)
Any two of: Aesthetic (no longer able to see tigers, elephants)/
may be important ecologically/may be important economically
(might be useful for food/fibre/drugs/biological control/medical
research)/good effect, e.g. extinction of smallpox/people/stock
less likely to be attacked by top predators/greater area or less
competition for food for humans/any reasonable answer.
max 2
Any three of: Breeding programmes in zoos (panda)/protected areas

and habitats (Orang-Utan in Sabah and Sumatra)/international
agreements (CITES, Whaling Convention)/gene banks (Herbarium at
Kew).
(Any reasonable alternative must have an example to get the mark.)
max 3
Any reasonable example: e.g. Dodo on Mauritius [1]: unafraid of

humans, confined to island, flightless, killed for food by visiting
seamen [1].
2
[15]
25.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Biodiversity is the variety of forms of life on earth [1];

encompasses species, habitat and genetic diversity [1]/generic
term for the abundance of and number of species on earth.
2 max
Habitat diversity if the habitat is destroyed, there is nowhere

for the species to live [1]/conservation of habitats leads to
conservation of species and genetic diversity [1].
1 max
(i)
(ii)
Disturbance by humans reduces habitat diversity [1]/habitats

lost as humans clear vegetation/build cities [1];
most live in temperate forest zone so most disturbed here [1]/
most disturbed is temperate forests [1]; logged and cleared
by humans for last few thousand years [1]/most converted
to crop land [1];
diversity much reduced as habitats lost [1];
tropical rainforest highest diversity [1]; as least limiting factors [1];
most threatened at present [1];
desert and tundra have lower diversity as conditions more
limiting [1];
tundra least threatened at present [1]; desert nearly half disturbed.
Accept any appropriate argument for any of the four ecosystems.
e.g. tropical rainforest under most pressure from humans in
clearing and burning the forest [1]; highest species diversity/
many ecological niches [1];
e.g. desert - productivity easily damaged [1];
long recovery time [1]/more disturbed areas [1].
(d)
6 max
2 max
For named example award no marks, but award [1] for each
30
(e)
valid reason up to [2].

e.g. Dodo ground-living/tame so vulnerable/small total
population/hunted by sailors as food.
2 max
e.g. World Heritage sites to protect habitats such as south-west

Tasmania/coastline of north-east England [1]; education of the
public by conservation organisations WWF publicising pandas [1]/
any valid example [1].
2 max
[15]
26.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Description [1]; explanation [2]. Number of species inversely

proportional to altitude [1]/Lower the altitude, more bird species [1];
at higher altitudes, temperature decreases so less NPP and so less
food for birds [1]; less species at 3000 m and over as there is less
land at these heights [1]/less ecological niches at altitude so less
diversity [1]/low biological productivity of high altitude
ecosystems [1] 0500 m may include sea birds [1]/any
reasonable explanation [1]
Habitat diversity the range of different habitats per unit area [1];
Species diversity the heterogeneity of species in a given area [1]
3 max
Award [1] for each of two reasons.

e.g. because it is morally right to do so/aesthetic reasons/because
humans use other species for medicine/crops/food/drugs/
resources/because the gene pool is reduced if species become
extinct/some uses of species not yet discovered
2 max
Award [1] for each of three reasonable characteristics.

e.g. large enough area for a viable population of top carnivores [1]/
in one block of land/water that is not spread out but compact in
shape [1]/minimise edge:area ratio [1]/corridors between smaller
areas [1]/legislation/purchase of land to protect it [1]/agreement
of humans living in or around the area [1]/minimise harmful
edge effects [1]/variety of habitats [1]
3 max
31
(e)
Award marks for any reasonable changes described (positive

or negative).
e.g. increase in landscape variation to increase range of habitats [1]/
planting of more trees/bushes [1]/digging of ponds [1]/active
management to prevent deterioration [1]/education of humans
living nearby [1]
or
spreading of exotic species from cultivated areas/towns
nearby (e.g. weeds, feral cats) [1]/farm land runoff causing water
pollution [1]/disturbance of wildlife by humans [1]/contamination
of forest ecosystems by pesticide [1]/burning and development
of fire-tolerant species and ecosystems [1].
(f)
Award [1] for brief description of named area and up to [2] for
management strategies.
2 max
3
[15]
27.
(a)
(i)
right whale;
(ii)
pollution of seas/overfishing/overexploitation of food species/

e.g. harvesting of krill in Antarctic/climate change degradation
of habitats/distortion of food chains;
1 max
Any three of:

degree of specialisation/e.g. dietary needs too specialised;
distribution limited to some oceans;
slow reproductive rate/K-selected species/small number of young;
higher trophic levels may accumulate toxins;
long migration routes;
3 max
difficult to monitor and estimate numbers;

easy for hunters to avoid detection;
no ones property/tragedy of the commons;
difficult to keep open ocean species in captivity/OWTTE;
2 max
(iii)
(iv)
(b)
Allow for any reasonable comparisons e.g.

Greenpeace fast response to issues;
actively uses media/stunts/may break national laws;
UNEP works more slowly;
has to get agreement of nations/national bodies may be in conflict;
capable of initiating international laws;
3 max
32
(c)
named habitat;
importance of species/communities/habitat;
other arguments for preservation relevant to local example;
Allow an actual name or a habitat type e.g. name: Walberswick
National Nature Reserve, Suffolk/John Forrest National Park,
Western Australia or habitat type: (English lowland heathland/
Jarrah forest).
3 max
[13]
28.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
a general term for diversity;

which includes species, habitat and genetic diversity;
per unit area;
2 max
Allow [1] for each two arguments e.g.

ethical/aesthetic/genetic resource for humans/commercial
resources/life-support functions/maintain ecosystem stability/
conserve rare habitats;
2 max
Allow any three of the following.

isolation geographic or reproductive;
changing environments;
variation in populations;
mutation in populations;
natural selection;
survival of the fittest;
competition;
3 max
advantages
easier to involve humans in identification of attractive species/
e.g. WWF and pandas;
breeding programmes in zoos increasing population numbers;
possible to control international trade/CITES;
disadvantages not protecting habitats;
organisms cannot survive if not in habitat;
only focuses on endangered/conspicuous/attractive species;
led by public opinion;
4 max
33
(e)
Allow [1] for each pair considered. Allow for any reasoned argument.
might support greater species diversity/higher population numbers
of each species/greater productivity at each trophic level longer
food chains;
edge effect increased in B risk of disturbance/drift of pollutants/
greater productivity more top carnivores in A/territory greater for
top carnivores in A/smaller units in B cannot support as high
biodiversity as A;
gene flow between reserves easier in A/movement of species
easier top carnivores/can move between reserves in A;
edge effect lower in A/perimeter : area ratio lower in A (see also (2)
above)/smaller units in B cannot support as high diversity as A;
4
[15]
29.
(a)
2.075 % (allow values between 2.0 and 2.1);
(b)
(i)
mammals;
(ii)
invertebrates;
Both answers needed for [1].
(c)
Award [1] each for two of the following.

mammals are often large/conspicuous;
and sometimes of economic value (fur, meat, skins);
large mammals require substantial area for their support;
many mammals feed at high trophic levels/are k-strategists and
have low reproductive potential;
and so are more vulnerable to extinction;
mammal species number lower, so loss of a few species more
significant;
knowledge of mammals and their extinctions is reasonably complete;
biodiversity of invertebrates is not well known;
many species of invertebrates may have become extinct without
being documented;
most insects are small/inconspicuous;
and are of little economic value;
Any other appropriate point.
1
1
2 max
34
(d)
Award [1] each for five of the following.

with the exception of fishes and invertebrates, many more island
species have been rendered extinct than continental species;
island biotas are particularly vulnerable because of high degree
of endemism;
small size of populations on islands;
less genetic diversity in small island populations;
absence of predators on islands and therefore vulnerability of
organisms when these are introduced;
specialized nature of island forms;
small number of fish extinctions on islands due to rarity of suitable
habitats;
and small number of species originally;
5 max
[9]
30.
(a)
variety of species per unit area/OWTTE;
(b)

environmental pressures (e.g. predation, climate);
act on variations within a population (e.g. size, colour, resistance to disease);
to change the frequency of genetic traits/genes in a population;
where this reaches the point that the forms cannot interbreed,
speciation has occurred;
2 max
(c)
(i)

natural hazard events:
volcanic eruptions;
droughts;
floods;
global catastrophic events:
glaciation;
meteor impact;
change in climate;
(ii)

habitat fragmentation;
habitat destruction;
monoculture;
introduction of exotic species;
pollution;
hunting/collecting/overharvesting;
2 max
2 max
[7]
35
31.
Award [1] each for four of the following. Reward detail, logical argument
and named examples.
large areas usually preferred to small;
as they can conserve a greater variety of habitats/microhabitats;
and higher numbers of individual organisms;
and thus greater genetic variability;
larger areas have smaller proportional length of perimeter;
and thus fewer edge effects than small areas;
e.g. disturbance, drift of pollutants;
similarly, compact areas preferred to elongate/irregular;
corridors sometimes useful for connecting isolated or small reserves;
4 max
[4]
32.
(a)
(b)
describe:
very low numbers of extinctions before 1650;
slightly higher number 1651 to 1850/approximately 0.5 species
per year;
rapid increase 1851 to 1950/approximately 2.5 per year;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 to approximately one
species per annum;
2 max
explain:
extinction rate before 1850 low as human effect on biodiversity low
as population pressure on environment relatively low;
extinctions before 1850 not fully recorded;
extinction rate 1851 to 1950 much higher due to rapid human
population increase;
and rapid rate of habitat loss;
decrease in extinction rate since 1951 due to greater efforts to
protect endangered species and ecosystems;
or many vulnerable species already extinct;
any other reasonable points;
3 max
low total numbers/long or complex migration route/specialised

habitat/specialised food sources/widely hunted or otherwise
used by humans/low reproduction rate/large number of
predators/susceptibility to disease/limited distribution/
catastrophe such as flooding or meteor impact;
any other reasonable points;
Responses need two factors per mark.
Factors must be specific to extinction of organisms. No credit for
vague answers such as global warming or degradation of
environment.
2 max
36
(c)
(d)
endangered:
species in danger of becoming extinct in the immediate future
because their numbers have declined to a critical level;
extinct:
species believed to no longer exist alive;
2 max
Any reasonable example: reasons must be appropriate to example.

[1] for name and [2] for reasons e.g.
name: Dodo;
reasons: confined to small island (Mauritius);
extreme tameness;
hunting as a source of food by visiting sailors;
destruction of forest habitats;
competition with introduced organisms, e.g. pigs;
3 max
Note: recent research has suggested that dodos were not very tame
and that the flesh was unpleasant to taste; thus habitat
destruction and introduction of pigs (and rats) were
probably most significant factors. However, the points
given above are widely mentioned in the literature and
may be considered acceptable responses.
(e)
(i)
(ii)
[1] for name, [1] for brief description e.g.

Kakadu National Park, Northern Territory, Australia;
tropical savanna with extensive wetlands;
2 max
Any reasonable examples, but must have some evaluation

for full [5] marks.
For above example:
measures:
designation as World Heritage Area by UNESCO;
involvement of Aboriginal people in management;
concentration of visitor pressure, campsites, into limited areas;
strict protection of flora and fauna by law;
international agreements with Japan, China to protect migratory
birds;
attempts to eliminate introduced species;
3 max
evaluation:
considerable success, as measured by visitor numbers;
and protection of habitats and biodiversity;
success due to use of modern scientific techniques and
traditional land management;
and due to use of local, national and international measures;
2 max
37
(f)
genetic diversity represents the variety of genetic material in a gene

pool or population, habitat diversity is the range of different habitats
or ecological niches in an ecosystem, community or biome/OWTTE
1 max
[20]
33.
(a)
(b)
Award [1] for name e.g. Peregrine falcon.

legislation (e.g. ban hunting);
cloning;
artificial breeding/zoos;
creating new reserves/parks;
protection of habitats;
reduction in use of toxic substances (e.g. DDT);
Any other reasonable suggestion.
3 max
Answers only need to show one advantage and one disadvantage

for each of the listed approaches to conservation.
Advantage
6 max
Disadvantage
Zoos
controlled breeding;
allow for research;
allow for education;
extreme protection for
individuals;
problems reintroducing
animals to wild;
prisons for animals;
sends wrong message
we dont need to worry;
tend to favour popular
animals;
small genetic pool;
Creation of
reserves or
protected areas
conserves whole
ecosystem;
prevents hunting;
protects from humans;
difficult to manage;
very expensive;
Convention on
International Trade
in Endangered
Species (CITES)
signed by many countries;

protects many species;
difficulty enforcing treaty;

many countries have not
signed it;
implementation varies from
country to country;
Allow any other reasonable points.
38
(c)
Award [1] for name and brief description e.g.

Coto Doana wetlands and coastal habitats in southern Spain;
Evaluation:
provides vital habitat and food for birds migrating between Europe
and Africa;
also plays an important role in education;
provides opportunity for ecological research;
3
[12]
34.
(a)
(b)
(c)
positive relationship/species diversity increases as island area

increases;
as island size increases, rate of increase in number of plant
species decreases/steepness of curve decreases;
number of habitats increases with island area/larger islands more
complex ecosystems;
larger islands have longer shores, therefore more likely to receive
drifting seeds, fruits, etc.;
larger islands more likely to be nesting sites for seabirds and
therefore to have seeds,
fruits brought from mainland;
larger islands more likely to be conserved;
larger islands can support larger populations of a given organism
and so extinction is less likely;
Any reasonable alternative explanation.
reduction in plant biomass;
reduction in number of plant species;
increase in very low ground-living plant species;
competition with and decline of any other herbivorous species;
trampling and soil erosion;
accelerated turnover of nutrients (especially N, P) though herbivore
excretion;
Any reasonable alternative explanation.
2 max
1 max
2 max
Do not expect sophisticated ideas on island biogeography in this

question, but reward appropriately if they appear.
[5]
35.
(a)
(b)
loss of habitat;
logging of forests;
fragmentation of habitats;
pollution;
hunting;
natural hazards;
Two correct points required for [1].
1 max
lack of data from many areas;

39
data predicted by models;

need for long time to observe changes/need to observe changes over
prolonged period;
birds are difficult to monitor because they are very mobile;
difficulties in taxonomy/identification;
(c)
lack of international agreements;

regular hunting at any point in life cycle;
need for conservation in breeding and wintering areas
(and between them);
unpredictable losses due to hazards on long migration routes;
Credit any reasonable answer.
2 max
2 max
[5]
36.
(a)
(b)
(i)
amphibians 16.7 %; (accept 16 to 17 %)

Both required for the mark.
(ii)
freshwater fish 4.9 %; (accept 4 to 5 %)

Both required for the mark.
(i)
facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild in the near future;
(ii)
example of currently endangered species e.g. giant panda/blue whale;
(iii)
Reasons: [3 max]
small population;
extremely specialized/specialized habitat;
restricted food source;
low reproductive potential;
accumulation of toxins;
a prominent predator, so killed by farmers protecting their stock;
migrates long distances;
Consequences: [2 max]
loss of species diversity;
loss of aesthetic value;
loss of habitat;
may be crucial to its food web/keystone species;
may have contributed to mankind as a medical, or other,
resource in the future;
Reasons must be appropriate for the species selected in (b)(ii).
5 max
[9]
40
37.
(a)
governmental: UNEP/United Nations Environment Programme;

Allow:
international (e.g. UNEP/United Nations Environment Programme)
national (e.g. United States National Parks Services/English Nature)
state (e.g. Victoria Parks and Wildlife Services)
non-governmental: Greenpeace/WWF/Worldwide Fund for Nature;
(b)
Governmental
organization
Non-governmental
organization
use of media
media liaison officers prepare

and read a written statement
use footage of activities

(e.g. chasing whaling boats)
to gains media attention;
speed of response
considered/slow/there must
be consensus between
member governments
rapid;
political/diplomati
c constraints
considerable/activities are
hindered by political
decisions/there may be
disagreements between
political parties or member
nations (international
organizations)
unaffected by political
considerations/activities
may be illegal;
enforceability
international treaties and

national or state laws can
lead to prosecutions of
offenders
no power/use public
opinion to pressure
governments to act;
4 max
Allow any other reasonable points.

Comparisons must be made to gain full credit.
[6]
38.
(a)
(i)
species diversity [1 max]:

the variety of species per unit area (this includes both the
number of species present and their relative abundance)/
OWTTE; (Glossary definition)
The response must have concept of unit area and/or
relative abundance for the mark. Number of species
is insufficient.
habitat diversity:
the range of different habitats in an ecosystem;
often associated with the variety of ecological niches/OWTTE;
2 max
41
(ii)
description [1 max]:
city has by far the highest biomass per square km;
city has highest density of population;
city has lowest biodiversity as absolute number of species
and expressed as index;
i.e. a small number of common species are very abundant;
forest has lowest biomass;
and population;
forest biodiversity is high, but not as high as farmland;
i.e. a wide variety of species, none of which is very abundant;
farmland has much lower biomass than city, higher than forest;
farmland has lower population than city, higher than forest;
explanation:
city is a specialized environment that a few species can
exploit very well;
food from gardens, rubbish (garbage) etc. may be available
to support some species;
city has low habitat diversity/low number of ecological
niches;
forest is a multi-layered habitat, with a variety of plant
species, so habitat diversity is high;
farmland may have highest habitat diversity of all,
having both natural and artificial habitats;
some food from human sources may be available in
farmland (crops);
the diversity index of the three environments takes account
of the species diversity and the relative abundance of the
species, hence farmland highest;
At least two explain points needed to achieve full marks.
(b)
(i)
(ii)
the process through which new species form/OWTTE

(Glossary)/the process by which change in the frequency
of genetic trait occurs (in response to environmental pressures);
individual organisms in a population vary;
natural selection = the tendency of those organisms most
adapted to/fittest for environment to survive;
and therefore to pass their characteristics to their progeny;
thus organisms become increasingly adapted to their environment;
a changing environment may affect speciation/evolution;
mutations may affect rate of speciation;
appropriate example;
Reward any two of the above points or any other reasonable
points.
4 max
2 max
42
(iii)
isolation of a small sub-group of the original population may

encourage/accelerate speciation;
through impossibility of interbreeding/exchange of genetic
material with original population;
and adaptations to new environment;
entirely new endemic species/unique species not found
elsewhere may appear;
e.g. unique finches/tortoises/iguanas on Galapagos Islands;
Any other reasonable point.
2 max
[11]
39.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(b)
(c)
name and brief description;

e.g. woodland near Underwood Avenue: a fragment of urban
bushland in Perth, Western Australia;
name of human activity;
e.g. threatened with clearance for housing development;
effect on biodiversity:
may destroy flowering trees/shrubs (e.g. Banksias) and
nectar-feeding birds dependent on them (e.g. honey-eaters,
wattle-birds);
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered

Species (of Wild Fauna and Flora)/an international agreement/
treaty aimed at preventing trade in endangered species of plants
and animals;
thereby reducing demand;
and contributing to organisms conservation;
e.g. ivory/rhino horn/many marine turtle species/many
species of parrots;
very small population numbers;
slow reproduction rate;
specialized habitat;
habitat under threat;
long/complex migration routes;
under human pressure from hunting/collecting/trade;
high in food pyramid;
appropriate example (whooping crane, Carnabys cockatoo,
Asian rhino);
Note: example not essential to receive full marks.
1
1 max
3 max
3 max
[9]
43
40.
(a)
(b)
number of native species in Continental Europe/Africa/Australia

is high because of large area;
number of native species is high in Continental Europe/Africa/
Australia because of wider range of habitats;
number of native species is high in Continental Europe/Africa/
Australia because of wider range of climate;
(Converse: NZ and Hawaii smaller range of species because
of smaller area/range of habitats/climate)
number of native species high in Australia because of isolation
throughout evolutionary history;
number of native species low in NZ/Hawaii as few species can
colonise remote islands;
islands more liable to be colonised by introduced species;
high proportion/percentage of total species in NZ and Hawaii
are introduced;
because native species may be adapted to specialized environments
and are less resistant to competition;
Any other reasonable points
(i)
(ii)
habitat diversity = the number of habitats/ecological niches

per unit area/in a certain area;
species diversity = the number of species of organism per
unit area/in a certain area;
habitat diversity is an indication of the ecological variety
of an ecosystem;
and therefore the number of species it can accommodate;
complex habitats provide more ecological niches for organisms;
habitat diversity may cause isolation of populations;
natural selection ensures organisms are adapted to
environment and way of life;
as environmental pressures influence frequency of genetic
traits in populations;
reproductive barriers may arise through (divergent) evolution;
so the more environments an ecosystem represents, the
greater the possibility of speciation;
e.g. an ecosystem with several layers such as tropical
forest is likely to have a higher diversity than single
layered ecosystems such as temperate scrub/heathland;
Any other reasonable points.
4 max
5 max
44
(c)
name of species, e.g. dodo;

Factors will depend on example selected. E.g. for the dodo:
confined to small island/limited distribution (Mauritius);
small population;
useful source of food for visiting sailors;
extreme tameness;
large and conspicuous;
slow rate of reproduction;
habitat destruction;
competition with introduced organisms (e.g. pigs);
Any other reasonable points. Award [1] for two factors.
Note date (1600); be tolerant here. However, dinosaurs are not
acceptable.
(d)
(i)
name of area, e.g. Uluru (Ayers Rock, Northern Territory, Australia)

Always allow benefit of the doubt if you have not heard of the
protected area.
Google may be helpful.
(ii)
Reasons will depend on area. For example, with respect to Uluru:

spectacular nature/aesthetic appeal of isolated monolith;
geological importance;
relatively undisturbed nature of surrounding habitats (at least
by western/European influences);
archaeological importance;
variety of organisms (plants, reptiles);
significance to indigenous peoples;
possibility of taking large areas into management without
disturbing longestablished ownerships;
2 max
3 max
45
(iii)
Evaluation of success again will depend on area chosen.

E.g., with respect to Uluru:
designation as a World Heritage Site;
therefore international recognition of its importance;
freehold of land transferred to indigenous (Aboriginal) people;
Aboriginal people involved in management of the area;
recreational pressure/accommodation concentrated in
limited locations;
plants/animals/landforms protected;
well drafted protective legislation;
funds from entry fees from visitors used for maintenance
of area;
some conflict between western/recreational/tourist values
and Aboriginal sacred site values;
thus climbing of Rock still allowed, contrary to Aboriginal
preference;
and has resulted in a number of casualties (some fatal);
A simple description of management does not answer the
question.
Candidates must evaluate the success, this implies at least
some comment on the management practise used.
Example: Burning and grazing by sheep are used on
some of the heathland nature reserves of the East Suffolk
Sandlings is not sufficient.
Burning and sheep grazing are sometimes successfully
used to maintain the traditional open landscape character
of the heather-dominated plant communities on some of the
East Suffolk Sandlings nature reserves, and to maintain
their characteristic biota, some species of which are
locally endangered full marks.
3 max
[20]
41.
(a)
reserve A would be more effective than reserve B;

reserve A has smaller perimeter than reserve B, so disturbance is
less likely/edge effects less pronounced;
reserve B has longer perimeter so edge effects more pronounced
which might increase biodiversity;
animals more likely to wander out of reserve B than reserve A
because of shape;
cropland is managed more intensively than forest;
drift of pollutants/crop sprays may affect reserve surrounded
by cropland;
in cropland, sowing, weeding/fertilizing and harvesting occur
at least once a year causing disturbance to reserve;
forest provides a better buffer zone than cropland;
forest provides wider variety of habitats/food sources for species
moving beyond reserve boundaries;
There must be at least one reference to shape and one to management
of surrounding land for full credit.
4 max
46
(b)
(i)
(ii)
rare;
vulnerable;
threatened;
endangered;
indeterminate/unknown;
extinct;
Award [2] for four correct, [1] for three or two correct and
[0] for one correct.
name of species: e.g. Sumatran tiger (no mark awarded for name)
reasons:
top predator and little energy reaches top of pyramid;
loss of habitat;
large area needed for viable population;
hunted because seen as danger to humans/livestock;
fragmentation of habitat makes breeding difficult;
high market value of body parts encourages poaching;
low genetic diversity with low numbers;
introduction of diseases;
Any other valid points.
Award [2 max] if name is not given.
(iii)
(c)
2 max
species at trophic level below become more numerous;

species at trophic level above become less numerous;
shortened food chain produces imbalances at other trophic levels;
sick/weak animals no longer culled;
less fit individuals lower down food chain survive to breed;
decomposer organisms, etc. associated with dung eliminated;
CITES is Convention on International Trade in Endangered

Species (of Wild Fauna and Flora);
countries agree to monitor trade in threatened species (and
their products) at ports and airports;
illegal imports/exports are confiscated to discourage illegal trade;
if trade in organism (or parts) can be reduced, pressure on wild
population reduced;
suitable example of CITES in action;
list of threatened species is formally agreed (in separate schedule);
3 max
3 max
2 max
[14]
42.
(a)
(i)
genetic diversity represents the range of genetic material/

variability in a gene pool/population;
whereas habitat diversity represents the range of different
habitats/ecological niches in an ecosystem or biome
(based on glossary);
2 max
47
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
diversity at initial stage is low;

species diversity increases with colonisation through pioneer
stages and later stages of succession;
as plants grow, habitat diversity increases;
as habitat diversity increases, species diversity increases;
as productivity increases;
and food chains lengthen and insects and vertebrates colonise;
so a positive feedback link exists between habitat and species
diversity;
rise in populations and immigration may increase genetic diversity;
Any other reasonable point
islands represent isolated ecosystems;
and therefore support isolated populations;
immigration/incoming gene-flow is rare;
population of goats likely to be based on a small original
or founder population;
with very small genetic variety;
mixing of limited gene pool may have led to common
intermediate characteristics;
limited gene pool may have resulted in a population which was
very similar/homogenous;
natural selection;
may have caused adaptation;
to the characteristics of the island environment (e.g. camouflage);
the higher the area of the reserve, the higher the population;
the higher the population the higher the genetic index;
with one slight exception (Addo);
because a large population can generally hold a greater variety
of genes/variation than a small one;
the density of population varies from 6 ha per animal to over
200 ha per animal;
the density may vary with habitat/vegetation/climate;
might reflect difference in wildlife management/conservation/
hunting;
4 max
3 max
5 max
48
(v)
(b)
small, isolated populations contain a very limited range of genes;

and therefore cannot vary or evolve very much;
this increases the possibility that they will become extinct;
a larger area can contain larger, and therefore more stable
population;
other factors include the greater habitat and species diversity
that can be held in larger areas;
however, some argue that a number of small reserves are
preferable to a few large ones;
as the package of genes/habitats/species will be different;
and if one reserve is destroyed, others may survive;
Any other reasonable points Be tolerant, reward understanding
of ecological and conservation principles.
Award [1] for each factor plus example.

volcanic eruption (e.g. Mount St Helens/Krakatoa);
glaciations (quaternary ice advances in northwest Europe);
meteorite impact (mesozoic impact in the Americas held by some
to be responsible for a major extinction event);
deforestation (northwest highlands of Scotland: The Great Wood
of Caledon);
monoculture (West Australian wheat belt/North American prairies);
introduction/escape of non-native species (New Zealand);
pollution (River Thames/reduction of predators through use of
pesticides in 1960s);
over-hunting/collecting (extinction of passenger pigeon in North
America/thyracine in Tasmania);
Any other reasonable suggestion
When marking be tolerant. Give benefit of the doubt to any apparently
reasonable examples.
Allow [2 max] for appropriate factors but without named examples.
2 max
4 max
[20]
43.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
(i)
species diversity = number of species of organisms per unit;

habitat diversity = number of habitats/ecological niches per
unit area/within an ecosystem;
generally the higher the habitat diversity, the higher the
species diversity;
generally in a high mountain range the complexity of
vegetation decreases with altitude;
complex tropical forest communities at base provides
variety of ecological niches for many species;
or
less complex vegetation at higher altitudes provides fewer
ecological niches;
and thus can support fewer bird species;
Any other appropriate points
2 max
animals with tusks/large tusks are more likely to be killed for

49
their ivory;
natural selection results in the removal of unfavourable
genes from the population;
organisms carrying these genes tend to die before reaching
adulthood;
in modern Africa, genes for tusks/large tusks can be considered
unfavourable;
and thus animals with tusks/large tusks will be removed from
population/not pass their genes on to the next generation;
over time, therefore, fewer and fewer elephants will have
tusks;
Any other reasonable points
(ii)
(iii)
small populations become vulnerable because of poor social

structure (non-viable sex ratio, etc.);
low genetic diversity;
easily wiped out by disease/natural hazards/poaching;
however, an isolated population may become distinctively
different;
as it may carry a set of genes not typical of the parent
population;
2 max
3 max
Must name one purpose and one weakness:

Purpose [1 max]
reduction of international trade, so that demand will be reduced,
and the killing of rare and endangered species discouraged;
Weakness [1 max]
some countries are still outside the Convention;
provisions difficult to implement/enforce, particularly in
less economically developed countries;
cumbersome/lengthy procedures for modifying the Convention;
a number of exceptions exist e.g. import/export of
organisms for scientific purposes (Article III part 3 of the
Convention);
2 max
50
(iv)
name of organism/conservation scheme [1 max];

details of management programme;
response will depend on organisms or scheme selected [3 max]
For example
Chuditch/Western Quoll;
the largest marsupial predator in Western Australia;
at the time of European settlement, Chuditch occurred in
approximately 70% of the continent;
by the late 1980s they had become endangered (population
less than 6000);
Perth Zoo has bred more than 300 Chuditch for release in
the last decade;
since the breeding programme began, Chuditch have been
downlisted from endangered to vulnerable (E);
Must have one evaluation point for full marks.
(c)
Humans interfere with ecosystems in the following ways:

removing some organisms for food or other uses (hunting,
timber-cutting);
habitat destruction e.g. forest clearance/wetland drainage;
and resultant substitution of artificial ecosystems for natural
systems;
artificial systems often have a single dominant food-chain;
e.g. grass cow human;
this contrasts with complex food-webs of forest ecosystems;
pesticides remove both target species and others;
artificial ecosystems have lower habitat diversity (farmland,
plantations);
and therefore lower species diversity;
crops/livestock have very low genetic diversity;
simplified systems have fewer energy/matter pathways/
feedback loops;
and may thus suffer changes from which recovery is impossible;
[2 max] for simple statement of activities
4 max
5 max
[20]
44.
(a)
(i)
there may be more grassland habitat in total in the region;

commercial value of rainforests may be a disincentive for
protecting them;
grasslands may be easier to police than forests (e.g. against
poachers);
greater areas of forest may have already been destroyed
before protection programmes began;
grasslands may have more popular/high status organisms
(e.g. zebra, giraffe, large carnivores, etc.);
therefore may generate more tourist income per unit area;
Any other reasonable suggestions.
2 max
51
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(b)
Calculations:
150 km 2
Grassland:
100 = 50% (allow 4555 %);
300 km 2
50 km 2
Rainforest:
100 = 100% (allow 95105 %);
50 km 2
2 max
percentage increase in rainforest greater because:

it began with a smaller area (so a small increase represents a
larger percentage increase);
increased interest in ecotourism for rainforests;
pressure from environmental groups to save the rainforest;
1 max
rainforests contain high diversity of species;

these species are unique to the habitat;
and represent a high proportion of the total world biodiversity;
biodiversity of tropical rainforests less well-documented than
other ecosystems;
rainforests have significant effect on wider climate;
which affects the survival of many other species;
rainforests are diminishing globally at a considerable rate;
source of useful products/genes;
2 max
Transition zone:
permanent settlements cause high impact;
by limiting their size, impact on boundary of buffer zone is reduced;
reduces impacts of pollution/disturbance on margins of buffer zone;
Buffer zone:
allowing research increases knowledge of species and ecosystems;
which can be used for better conservation;
tourism can provide revenue/raise public interest;
which can aid in further conservation;
sustainable exploitation by locals encourages their support for the project;
Core zone:
minimal immediate human activity protects the most vulnerable
species (even the most intensively conserved areas may need
occasional management e.g. control of bush fires, elimination
of exotic species);
maintains an untouched deposit of diversity that can feed into
buffer zone;
some ecological studies require natural/ near-natural environments;
At least one point from each zone to gain full marks.
4 max
[11]
52
45.
(a)
habitat diversity;
because different habitats tend to have different species;
so more habitats will generally include greater variety of species;
similarly, different species tend to have different genes;
so more species will generally include greater variety of genes;
Award [1 mark] each for any two explanations.
If species diversity is identified, no mark should be awarded for
it, but either of the last two marking points may be credited for [1].
(b)
3 max
Natural selection:
some genetic types will be better adapted and thus contribute to
next generation more than others;
hence gene frequencies/genetic types in a species will change over time;
Isolation:
plate tectonics (or other environmental events) may cause part of a
population to become isolated;
this isolated population may be exposed to different agents/pressures
of natural selection;
Speciation:
these isolated populations may undergo genetic change to a point that
they can no longer breed with those of their ancestors type;
by definition these will then be a new species;
Environmental change:
changes in environment lead to changes in direction of natural selection;
leading to new adaptations and possible further speciation (as above);
4 max
Any other reasonable points or valid examples can be credited.

Must mention at least two of the processes for full marks.
(c)
Advantages: [1 max]
often it can generate great public appeal (e.g. pandas, tigers, etc.);
natural habitats may be so diminished/deteriorated that the species
is unlikely to survive;
it may support detailed scientific research/reintroduction programmes;
Disadvantages: [1 max]
maintenance of species may be difficult in captivity;
population and therefore gene pool of species will be very small;
it ignores the value of other species in the habitat/and the role it
would normally play in that habitat for other species;
difficulties of re-introduction to wild;
2 max
[9]
53

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1.

The Gaia philosophy envisages the entire planet

an open system exchanges energy and material,

sunlight converted by producers;

For example coral reefs:

calculate abundance of organisms;

evaluation: size of quadrat and size of organism;

Range of possible responses depending on examples used.

named protected area e.g. Masaai Mara National Park, Kenya;

evaluate its success:

increase in population growth as death rates lowered due to

Answers may be general, covering a variety of strategies or more

technocentrist because they tend to argue that economic

Arguments in favour of the statement:

Responses will depend on the choice of environmental issue but

Answer should be balanced to include both examples of animals

Answers should show what the candidate believes to be the best

The system should be both terrestrial or both aquatic. Examples

Answers should clearly demonstrate the direct and indirect impact

Answers must refer to both systems for full marks.

Award [2 max] for any of the following.

producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

e.g. Chilean matorral

long-term stability leading to speciation/complexity;

decomposers break down tissue;

primary productivity would decrease;

1920 accept answers between 1910 and 1940

exponential growth/rate of increase accelerates over time/

crude birth rate crude death rate;

mammals 40 ( 3) both needed for [1]

both show exponential increase;

Award [1 max] for relationship

vertebrates are larger, so are easier to find/catch and classify;

e.g. for insects, use a large sweep net to capture;

No mark for naming an ecosystem, but if no ecosystem is named

some environmental problems are global in terms of the scale of

small-scale studies allow for in-depth detailed investigations;

Award credit if diagram is used to illustrate the concept of

from 1972 to 1975 both species show gradual increase trend;

ethical arguments wolves have a right to exist;

tourism can only be successful if it can have a long-term future;

sustainable development (a phrase coined in 1987 in Our Common

high profile/charismatic species catch public attention both nationally

a falling value would suggest a loss of diversity/in this instance

due to the process of plate tectonics the Earths surface has

succession: orderly change over time in an ecosystem;

zonation: the arrangement/patterning of plant

food production system e.g. intensive wheat production;

both wheat fields and woodlands have low initial productivity;

Award credit if named examples are used.

large animals require relatively large space for breeding/foraging/

conservation designed to conserve a particular species;

global volcanic eruption leading to rapid climate change/hostile

stops organic residues entering streams and causing pollution/eutrophication;

reducing lawn size lawns are restricted to grass species and

provides greater stability;

removing grass cuttings takes nutrients away from the soil, so

19. No mark scheme available

a range of ecosystems offering a range of habitats/niches;

island colonized relatively recently so species have not

Response should be presented as a model. Accept flow diagrams,

(18 482 600 461 100 =) 3.01%/3% ;

promotion of development and conservation is the favoured

site 2 is a pristine (climatic) climax habitat so exhibits