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AFM 51-4/TAC SUP 1

PART TWO
SECTION A - POLICY AND INTRODUCTION
1. General:

a. '!bese procedures apply only to combat control teams of the Special Air Warfare
!nter of Tactical Air Command.
\
b. In recent years it has become increasingly evident that departure from standard
ilitary tactics and maneuvers is necessary to effectively cope with forces seeking to de'ive mankind of his freedom. '!bese forces use every me8IUI possible, from violence and
rce, to subversion and psychological tactics to accomplish their goal. '!be USAF Special
r Warfare Center and the 1st Air Commando Wing were established to study, develop, and
'vise defensive measures in this type of warfare. A prime requirement in successful air
lrfare of this type is a Ujohnny-on-the-spot" in sensitive or lDaecure areas to provide
curate guidance for air strikes, aerial delivery of personnel and equipment, and to set uP
liable communications. '!be Commando Combat Control Team was estabUshed to accomIsh this mission. '!be tasks required of the CCT have proVE!D that strict adherence to the
ual procedures as outlined in normal guidance directives would not allow effective accomlshment of the SAWC misslon, since each task was by nature totalJ,y different from normal
;JOp carrier operatIons. Operations with mixed nationalities having varied degrees of
ucation. varied resources, and in most cases, limited training. required development of
stems that afforded Simplicity of operation and minimum chance of compromise. Unusual
'uations encountered caused an evolution of procedure and techniques for accomplishment
the worldwide Commando mission. '!bis supplement reflects the major portions of these
stems that have proven successful. It is emphasized that expediency often will require
viation from the guides contained herein and that safe accomplishment of the miSSion
ould have prime consideration. Commando Combat Controllers will be teaching and working
th many foreign nationais who lack the tactical military back:ground and training of their
. S. counterparts. For this reason, SimpliCity. clarity. and full understanding should be as:red in Joint operations, especially in hostile or combat situations.

SECTION B - AIR DROP OPERATIONS

2. General:

a. Air drop operations are conducted in support of ground forces to deliver personnel
d equipment into a target area where landing operations are not feasible. Air Commando
r drop operations are usually characterized by s Ingle aircraft peaetratiODS intO denied
'eu under conditions of limited visibility and at varying night levels from 50 feet above
'stacles to HALO (High Altitude, Low Opening). Missions must be carefully planned and
ecuted so as to arrive over the drop zone at the specified time and altitude. and execute
e drop directly over a preselected release pomt. Drops are made by either parachute
'livery, free fall delivery, or combinations of both.
b. Requesting Drops: '!be procedure for requesting support varies in each operating
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AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

Ro~bness (in feet)
Smooth Surface
Small Ripples
One-half small ripples
I-Smooth waves, white caps
2-Breaking waves, white caps
3-Large waves, white caps

Wind (in knots)

Calm wind
TWo knots
3-4 knots
5-6 knots
7-9 knots
10-11 knots

(9) Care must be taken that surface craft do not drift into the landing area. The
pilot will usually taxi back keeping the control marker pOint on his left, and the reception
personnel on boats should be positioned to effect immediate on/off loading from this position.
(10) The method of floating or securing the marker is the same as for light aircraft LZ (water). (Paragraph 2-26)
2-29. Safety Precautions. Except in cases of extreme emergency (such as in rescue, etc.)
prescribed lifesaving equipment will be worn by all personnel. It is emphasized that this
type operation is extremely hazardous, especially in higher winds.
SECTION 0 - FORWARD AIR GUlDE
2-30. General:
a. Commando Controllers acting as forward air guides control and direct air strikes
In very close proximity to friendly ground forces. This provides for greater effectiveness
and insures the safety of friendly troops and aircrews of attacking aircraft. The forward air
guide may be on the ground with friendlies or in a light aircraft provided by the Air Force
or by the supported ground force(s).
b. Close air support is required to neutralize or destroy hostile ground forces which
offer a direct and immediate threat to friendly ground forces, and is integrated with fire
and movement of the ground forces. The forward air guide must be reasonably familiar with
the firepower the aircraft may deliver since he may have an occasion to advise the ground
force commander On the employment of air support activities.
2-31. mes of Close Air Support Missions:
a. Preplanned missions are those for which a requirement can be foreseen; i.e., air
strikes against ground objectives as part of a pre-assault bombardment prior to an attack
by friendly ground forces.
b. Immediate missions for which specific targets and locations cannot be determined
in advance, Le., unexpected appearance of enemy tanks or unexpected resistance from an
enemy strong point.
2-32. Results Required:
a. The forward air guide must state the results desired from close air support
miSSiOns in order to permit the mission planners or the pilot to properly organize the
mission.
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AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

(1) Destruction may be required in attacks on artillery, tanks, and troops. Troop
units can be considered destroyed when casualties have been such as to eliminate the unit's
effectiveness for further combat. Artillery, mortars, etc., not completely destroyed may
again be fired. A tank which is merely immobilized may be used again, while One which is
burned or explodes is no longer a combat weapon.
(2) Neutralization may be required in attacks on prepared positions, such as
fortifications, emplaced artillery and tanks. It may not be possible to destroy a concrete
bunker, but an attack which kills the inhabitants effectively neutralizes the bunker. Troops
may be neutralized by denial of ability to move and fight, or by direct casualties.
2-33. Coordination of Air Strikes and Ground Fire:
a. To gain maximum effect from air strikes in close support, the firepower delivered
by aircraft and by ground weapons must be closely coordinated and controlled. This control
and coordination must be provided by an on-scene forward air guide.
b. When air strikes and ground weapons are employed against the same target, interference must be minimized. If an artillery or mortar is fired, the fires may be lifted or
shifted only seconds before the first aircraft makes its attaCk. and the target re-engaged by
the artillery or mortars immediately after the last aircraft has pulled off its final run in.
Close coordination between the forward air guide handling the strike aircraft and the ground
weaponry forward observer will permit air and ground fires to be placed on and near the
target almost continually. with maximum effectiveness and minimum interference.
2-34. Target Selection:
a. Depending on the nature of the target, the criticalness of the battle, and availability
of resources, the ground commander will determine whether close air support should be requested. The variety of close air support targets is infinite and the effectiveness with which
air strikes can neutralize or destroy them is contingent on several variables. Factors affecting selection of ground targets are:
(1) Capabilities of Ground Weapons. (Will ground weapons insure desired resuits ?)
(2) Identification of Targets. (Can the target be identified by the pilot?)
(3) Aircraft Armament Capabilities.
destroy or neutralize the target?)
~

(Does the aircraft have the capability to

(4) Time Available. (Will the target remain a target through the reaction time
required to place the strike aircraft on target?)
(5) Capability to Direct Air Strike. (If the air strike must be controlled or directed
on target, is the forward air guide capable of so dOing?)
b. Target Vulnerability:

f
(1) Vehicles. All vehicles are highly vulnerable to air attack by most conventional

Attachment 16

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AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

weapons. Thin-skinned vehicles are easy prey for strafing, bombs, rockets, or napalm;
however, tanks and heavily armored vehicles are not as vulnerable to strafing or frag bomb.
Rockets, napalm, and general purpose bombs are all effective on armored vehicles and tanks
but reqUire accurate delivery.
(2) Troops. Troops in the open are good air targets. When they are under cover,
they are difficult to kill except with napalm. Close air strikes against troops are accompanied
by two outstanding secondary contributions: A demoralizing effect On survivors; and disruption of cohesive enemy effort through the incidental destruction of radio communications
and other combat gear.
(3) Defended Villages. These are vulnerable to mass bombing, but are not good
tactical fighter targets. Best results can be obtained by selecting specific targets within the
village for attack.
(4) Fortification. Heavy fortifications of the bunker type are generally not vulnerable to air strikes except with very accurately placed napalm or bombs. Field fortifications,
including pill boxes, artillery emplacements, and other positions are vulnerable to air strike,
but must be struck individually and accurately. Near misses have little effect.
c. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that effective close air support requires
a very high degree of accuracy. Fighters, individually aiming each bomb, rocket, or cannon
can deliver the necessary accuracy. However, destructive radius of conventional weapons
carried by tactical fighters is relatively small. Likewise, the most suitable close air support
targets are correspondingly small. Therefore, these targets must be easily identifiable from
the air or accurately marked to provide an aiming pOint. Although area targets can be attacked
by fighters, they are not generally good targets and do not efficiently use the tactical fighter
effort. Best efforts can be obtained by identifying critical elements within the area target
and selecting them for attack.
d. Typical targets for close air support are: Weapons positions; vehicles and armor;
command posts; troop concentrations; strongly defended positions; missile launching sites;
defended road blocks.
2-35. Some Methods of Target Location and Identification:
a. Smoke. Colored smoke, fired by artillery, mortars, or reCOilless rifle can be
used to mark targets or to serve as a reference point from which to locate targets. If your
position is known to the enemy, it is a Simple matter to drop smoke (which does not blend
with surrounding terrain) in your proximity. thus protecting your area from being selected
as a target and directing the pilot from the smoke. One point to keep in mind: Be certain
the enemy does not have his own smoke.
b. Tracer Ammunition. Might be visible in some conditions of light to mark targets
or establish a reference pOint. IntersecUonoftracerfires would be more definitive.
c. Panels. ~1ay be used to identify friendly positions. Also can be used to point
direction of target but exact use must be clear to pilots to avoid confusion and misplaced
ordnance deli very.
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Attachment 16

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AFM 51-4/TAC SUp 1

d. Landmarks and Terrain Features. Can be used as reference points from which to
locate targets. Give directions and distance to target reference point.
e. Clock Method. Use aircraft heading at 12 o'clock position. Then indicate distance
from aircraft to target and the hour position for direction to target. Difficult to use for an
aircraft close to the target because of rapid change of target bearing from the aircraft.
f. Map Coordinates. May be given to pilot to assist him in locating target. Identical
maps and coordinates must be utilized by the forward air guide and pilot.
g. Dry Run. May be made On suspected target to confirm location and furnish basis
for adjustment by forward air guide onto exact target location. To be used only as a last
resort.
h. Airborne Forward Air Guide. Forward air guides can utilize light aircraft to gain
a better vantage pOint from which to observe target and direct strikes, utilizing any combination of other methods possible to aid direction of close air support strikes.
(1) Advantages of Airborne Forward Air Guide:
(a) Observe terrain which is hidden to a ground observer.
(b) Position himself quickly and easily in difficult terrain.
(C) Establish radiO contact with attacking aircraft more easily.

(d) Observe and transmit results of strikes direct to appropriate agencies.

2-36. Air Strike Control:
a. Planning for an air strike and preparing a briefing for the pilot of a strike aircraft
is a critical element of successful close air support. Obviously, the inability of a forward
air guide to relay intelligently to the pilot vital information concerning target location.
friendly positions, etc., will have disastrous results. "'nether using a "Close Air Support
Mission Card" or simply passing necessary information to the pilot, complete and accurate
instructions are vital. The following paragraphs define that information necessary for satisfactory miSSion accomplishment.
b. A/C or FAG Call Sign. The aircraft call sign is relayed to the forward air guide
on the CASRF (close air support request form). When used by the pilot, the FAG call sign
will appear. If unknown, call sign must be established immediately upon radiO contact.

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I~f

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c. Challenge Reply. Invariably strike pilots will ask the forward air guide to authenticate before operating with him. Assuredly, if target information changes significantly from
pre-strike briefing, authentication will be required.
d. Ordnance Load. (Reference paragraph 2-34b) Different targets require different
type ordnance. A tactical fighter pilot will want to use napalm first, thus minimizing danger
during multiple passes.
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A-23.50

AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

e. Radio Frequencies. The primary frequency is supplied by the CASRF. Daily ops
orders will also supply primary and secondary FAG frequency.
f. Orbit. This is a well-defined geographical reference point at which initial radio
communications are established between the FAG and strike pilot. It is normally one of
several preplanned points. in friendly territory. Its location may be affected by factors such
as anti-aircraft defenses, other air missiOns in adjacent areas. etc. The orbit point must be
in a position from which the air attack can be started and must be easily identifiable from
the air. In featureless country. the orbit point will have to be marked artifiCially. An orbit
point is most important when aircraft operate at extreme ranges. The orbit point is selected
to allow aircraft to remain unobserved by the enemy and yet have good air-ground radio
contact. Strike pilOts will not depart from this point until cleared to the target by the forward
air guide. The strike flight mayor may not have to orbit this point, depending On the time
required for the forward air guide briefing to the strike aircraft. The FAG may transmit a
heading and distance from the orbit point to the target. In the event the FAG must determine
the heading accurately. Of equal importance, the strike aircraft must depart only from directly over the orbit point, on heading.
g. Target Information. This describes the target to the pilot. What is the target
comprised of? What is its disposition? The forward air guide should pass any and all appropriate information to the strike pilots.
h. Coordinates. Normally the strike pilots and the forward air guide will use like
maps. Target location is then a simple matterof coordinate references. However, a forward
air guide should have on hand appropriate aeronautical charts and be able to reference the
target on them should the strike pilots have improper maps. (Standard grid system is the
Universal Transverse Mercator)
i. Elevation. Strike pi lot s may need to know target elevation in order to apply
various delivery techniques.

j. Terrain. This includes any natural Or man-made obstacles that would be a hazard
to the pilot making the attack. Examples are mountains, canyons, towers, cables, or any
terrain feature that could affect the success of the air strike.
k. Surface Winds. Strike pilots can apply wind correction to aiming pOints if the
forward air guide can furnish reasonably accurate wind information.
1. Marking. (Paragraph 2-35) A forward air guide may use his own position as a
reference point on occasion. This should not become common practice since a forward air
guide is a prime target. Only under emergency circumstances should a forward air guide
use a radio transmiSSion to pinpoint his location.

m. Flak. The strike pilOts should know about any known or suspected flak or automatic weapons within the target area. Flak will influence direction of attack and withdrawal
routes.
n. Friendly Positions.

The target is the point of reference. Friendly troops are

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AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

located by vector and distance from target. If the target is more than a thousand meters
from the friendUes, then by stating there are no friendly troops within 500 meters you have
restricted the fire of the strike aircraft to within a 1000 meter circle and have not compromised any friendly troop positions. However, if the target is very close, the exact heading
and distance from the target to the friendly troops must be given. Most likely, the opposing
ground forces are in contact and nothing is compromised anyway. If it is suspected that the
enemy has monitoring capability, colloquial expressions are of value.
o. Attack Heading. The forward air guide can only recommend the direction of
attack and break-out heading. Generally. the best direction of attack is from over the heads
of the friendlies into the target. The pilot has been trained to vary his strike headings if
pOSSible, to minimize ground fire dangers. The direction of pullout normally is based on
known or suspected flak positions. Adjusting fire is part of the ground air guide's job. If the
initial ordnance is on target. then the other strike aircraft can drop on the same smoke or
bracket around the smoke. If the ordnance was off target, then the forward air guide can
pinpoint the target from the smoke, using clock code referenced from the last attack heading.
p. Ordnance Sequence. The forward air guide may recommend the sequence for
multiple passes, but the strike pilot has final say on what he will drop in what order.
q. Mission Results. The forward air guide will assess results of the strike and inform
the flight leader. Pilots will also assess results and inform the forward air guide.
2-37. The Forward Air Guide must establish the position from which he intends to control
the strike. Whenever possible, he should be located so that he can see the target. This will
allow him to correct the aim of the attacking aircraft. Also, he can call off the attack should
the aircraft select the wrong target.
2-38. The briefing given to the strike aircraft by the forward air guide is perhaps the most
important part of the miSSion, barring actual strikes. A concise and accurate briefing will
do much to insure the success of the strike and to assure friendly troop safety. Normally
the briefing is given at the orbit point for the following reasons: a. It is difficult for the
forward air guide to complete the briefing between the time at which he gains radiO contact
and the time the aircraft reach the target; b. It is desirable to strike the target on the first
pass. The forward air guide calls the aircraft into the target area and gives clearance for
attack. The forward air guide should work with only one flight leader at a time to avoid COnfusion. The forward air guide should insure that after the attack, the aircraft have cleared the
target area before another strike is called in.
2-39. Considering the preceding portions of this chapter, the forward air guide has five
primary responsibilities while performing his miSSion:
a. Monitor in-flight reports.

"

b. Advise ground unit commander on capabilities and limitations of tactical

air support.
c. Safeguard friendly troops, provide safe separation between target and friendly
troops as a part of proper air briefing.
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A-23.52

AFM 51-4/TAC Sup 1

d. Direct the air strike.
e. Report results of the strike.
2-40. Training and Co-operation with Irregular Forces. Under the present Commando
concept. various training committees require the Commando Controller to teach and advise
the irregular forces of allied nations in tactics involving air support. Many of these trainees
lack the education usually desired. This is especially true in certain parts of southeast Asia,
and other areas of conflict. Even though many of these troops lack the ability to accomplish
all the f 8. c t s of Forward Air Guide techniques, they can provide much helpful information
to the air strike crews, even without radios. The following system has found success and is
still being used in the self-defended villages system.
a. The village boundaries are well defined with markers readily seen from the air.
These boundaries are illuminated at night by bonfires when under attack.
b. The defenders are taught by the controllers to construct a large pivot-mounted
arrow frame that can be illuminated and defended during attack. This arrow is rotated to
point in the direction of highest vulnerability or hostile contact. If under attack from all
sides, the "fire arrow" is slowly rotated. (It should be noted that experience has taught the
hostile forces the value of this marker, and it usually falls under concentrated fire.)
c. The enemy's approximate distance from the boundary (if somewhat stationary) is
marked for the strike crews by use of small lights (or fires) near the arrow. Each fire will
represent 100 yards (measured from the boundary). Even though many of the native defenders
lack the ability to count, distance can be taught using the distance one can throw a stone, as
high as a water buffalo. etc. (This method of conveying ideas must be emphasized, especially
in the construction of a "fire arrow" sufficient in size to be seen from the air.)
SECTION E - INFILTRATION/EXFILTRATION
2-41. Gencral. Infiltration and exfiltration can be most simply described as the art of going
and coming from the place of business. The capability of moving to an objective, performing
the miSSion, and successfully returning to the base of operations is a most important part
of a Commando Controller's job. Unconventional warfare techniques require that the Commando use any method available to move to the objective area. Covered in this manual are
movement by parachute, water, air, land, and on foot. Methods and speed are limited only by
the ingenuity and adaptability of the individual controller.
2-42. Purpose. The purpose of this section is to establish guides for effective movement to
and from objectives. SOme of the techniques will also aid in the actual accomplishment of the
mission (such as movement on foot to serve as a forward air guide. providing air cover for
an extended patrol or troop movement),
2-43. Methods and Techniques. Included herein are only those specific guidelines not
covered in other directions, including techniques peculiar to the Commando mission. These
include non-standard parachuting activities, water movement, assault landings, motor
patrols, and the most commonly use; CroSB country by foot.

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Attachment 16