METU

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ME 300
SUMMER PRACTICE
REPORT

Prepared by:
zgr SARIGL
1345750
Year: 2005
Company: Otoyol Sanayi A..
Arifiye/ADAPAZARI
1

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1) DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPANY...............................................................................4
1.1) Location of the Company....................................................................................4
1.2) History of the Company...........................................................................................4
1.3) Fields of Activity and Specialties............................................................................5
1.4) Number of Staff and Distribution of Engineers.......................................................6
1.5) Functions of Mechanical Engineers in the Company..............................................7
1.6) Vision & Mission of Otoyol ...............................................................................7
1.7) Quality Policy of the Company...............................................................................8
1.8) Turning Points of Otoyol.... 8
1.9) Job Health & Safety.9
1.10) Otoyol Organization Chart..10
2) INTRODUCTION..11
3) PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES USED IN THE ORGANIZATION12
3.1) Material Removal Processes..............................12
3.1.1) Cutting..12
3.1.1.1) Plasma Arc Cutting.................................................12
3.1.1.2) Shearing..................................................................14
3.1.1.3) Sawing................................................................15
3.1.2) Milling..15
3.1.3) Turning.........18
3.1.4) Drilling..20
3.1.5) Boring...22
3.1.6) Grinding23
3.1.7) Piercing and Blanking...26
3.2) Forming Operations...27
3.2.1) Bending.27
3.2.1.1) Angle Bending.27
3.3) Joining Processes.......................28
3.3.1) Welding.28
3.3.1.1) Oxyfuel Gas Welding..........................28
3.3.1.2) Arc Welding.....................29
3.3.1.2.1) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)..29
2

3.3.1.2.2) Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).............................29

3.3.1.2.3) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW).........................................30
3.3.1.3) Resistance Spot Welding.............................31
3.4) Surface Treatment and Finishing Processes..31
3.4.1) Buffing..31
3.4.2) Sand Blasting32
3.4.3) Heat Treatment.32
3.4.3.1) Annealing Process ..............33
3.4.4) Cementation......................33
3.4.5) Nitriding....................34
3.4.6) Phospatizing......................35
3.4.7) Cataphoresis Painting...............35
4) COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL37
5) OPERATION SEQUENCES OF SOME PARTS...38
5.1) Hydrovac Joint Bracket.........................38
5.2) Front Door Front Panel..............................38
5.3) Wheel Front Panel.................................................................................................38
5.4) U Profile ................................................................................................................39
5.5) Joint Bracket..39
6) COST ANALYSIS OF TWO CHOSEN PARTS.40
6.1) Hydrovac Joint Bracket.40
6.2) Front Door Front Panel .40
7) CONCLUSION ..40
APPENDIX A: List of Some Machines Used in Otoyol.42
APPENDIX B: Otoyol Organization Chart.46
APPENDIX C: Drawings of Some Constructional Parts
Manufactured in Otoyol.............................48
REFERENCES....................54

1. DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPANY

1.1. Location of the Company
Otoyol Sanayi A.. is getting activated in the boundary of Sakarya, which is located at
350km west of Ankara and 130km east of stanbul. The open area of the company is
approximately 258,110m2 and the closed area of the company is approximately 88,455m2.
Total area of the company is 346,565m2.

1.2. History of the Company

Otoyol Sanayi A.. is established in year 1966 at the place of stanbul-Maltepe Glsuyu
by the partnership of Ko Holding, Akbank, T.A.., and Elginkan naat A..
Until 1989, truck, lorry, bus parts and manufacturing is done by the factory, and this year the
factory began manufacturing of Iveco lorries and buses. After 23 years activity at Maltepe,
Otoyol began manufacturing with modern establishment on its own area at the place of
Adapazar/Arifiye in year 1989.
Otoyol started its first bus production in 1967, first light truck production in 1974, first
five speed gear box production in 1979, and municipality type bus production in1986. Otoyol
is carried out falling over cabin lorry production in 1990, first 29-person bus production in
1993, and 6 speed gear box production in 1996.
Otoyol is awarded by ISO 9001 Quality Certificate in 1998. In 1999, Otoyol started
heavy vehicle production.
Otoyol Sanayi A.. now continues exportation to 43 countries of the world. There is no
other automotive industry except from Otoyol, which produces 90% of several models in
Turkey.

1.3. Fields of Activity and Specialties

The fields of activities which Otoyol is capable of can be collected in two main headings:
The first heading is Material Removing Processes and Forming Operations. Under this
heading Otoyol can manufacture 90% of the models, which are designed by its own or
licenced by Iveco. This manufacturing includes complete gear box production, differential
gear production, chassis production, lorry and midibus cabin production and a lot of vehicle
parts.
The second heading is Midibus Design and Manufacturing. Under this heading midibus
production of Otoyol may be listed as follows:

Market analysis

Constitution of the product concept

Industrial design

3D modeling

Product design and analysis

Protototype manufacturing

Tests
Moreover, Otoyol Engineering and R&D department is the possessor of KNOW-HOW

about midibus development.

In addition to lorry and midibus production, Otoyol can do Iveco Daily Minibus
transformation.

1.4. Number of Staff and Distribution of Engineers

White Collars:

228

Manager

13

Administrative Engineers

31

Expert Engineers

15

Simple Engineers

48

Chief

11

Other White Collars

110

Blue Collars:

728

TOTAL

956

Engineers who work in Otoyol have been distributed in different working areas and do
different duties. Their duty distribution is given in Table 1. and Table 2.

Table1. Duty Distribution of Engineers

DUTY

AMOUNT

Engineering and R&D

22

Marketing

Work preparation

Quality control

Project management

12

Production

10

Table 2. Duty Distribution of Administrative Engineers

Mechanical

Industrial

Others

Sum

Manager

10

13

Co-Manager

Chief

11

TOTAL

20

31

1.5. Functions of Mechanical Engineers in the Company

Mechanical engineers are seen in almost every part of production in Otoyol. Beginning
from the product design to quality control after manufacturing, mechanical engineers have a
lot of duties in the company. These duties can be listed as follows:

Product design

Product analysis

Planning for operation sequences

Doing tests

Development of existing products

Moreover, mechanical engineers can be seen in administrative duties like management,

buying, planning, and so on.

1.6. Vision & Mission of Otoyol

Vision
Become irrenouncable work partner in Turkey and region by creating the most
convenient products and services for customers in transportation sector.
Mission
Partnership with strategic partner Iveco will be developed for continuity of leadership
and irrenouncability, design and production of the most convenient commercial vehicles for
customers will be done with devotion to the principles below:
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 Participative and customer focused approach

Close partnership with procurers
Flexible manufacturing and team work
Educated work power and using forward technology
Efficiency and low cost targeted progression basis management
Employee pleasure
Loyalty to Ko Group values
Sensitivity to society and environment

1.7. Quality Policy of the Company

Otoyol Sanayi A.., as a management policy, aims to take place among companies,
which are reliable and preferable in transportation sector. The main components of this policy
are;

Designing and producing commercial vehicles over customers expectations.

Exactly determining and responding to workers and partners requests.

Supporting individual development and creativity.

Raising quality and decreasing costs with continuous improvement activities.

Continuing technological leadership in product and production.

Providing continuousness of Quality Management System.

Supporting development of procurers to reach common goals.

Improving progressions with controls and education.

Protecting the environment, using materials and technology which are not harmful to
environment and human health.

Being in development by considering effective communication in contacts,

participative behavior, constructive criticism, and team work perceptiveness important.

1.8. Turning Points of Otoyol

o

1966 Establishment Maltepe/STANBUL

1979 First Gear Box Production

1989 Removal from stanbul to Arifiye

1989 License and Partnership Agreement with Iveco S.P.A.

1997 Exportation Reached at 31 Million Dollars

1998 ISO 9001 Certificate

2000 New Bus Factory

2002 Eurobus Series Bus Production

2003 ISO 9001-2000 Certificate

2004 Iveco Daily Minibus Transformation Mass Production

1.9. Job Health & Safety

In our country, to create healthy and happy societies is only possible by constituting
healthy, safety, and sensitive organizations to environmental health.
As being among leader establishments of Turkish Automotive Industry with
accomplishments in commercial vehicle production, Otoyol wants to constitute sensitive
organizations and environments with the frame of social responsibilities.
Vision;
In work stations, to produce products without accident by constituting healthy &
safety and sensitive surroundings and organizations in environmental subjects.
To develop effects to environment in positive direction.
To become Model Company in the scope of Job Health & Safety and Environment.
Basic Values;
To absorb SG-Environment System as a Company Culture.
Small negligence causes to arise big disasters.
Every accident can be prevented, must be prevented.
Everybody is responsible for Job Health & Safety and Environmental Management.
Policy;
To provide absorption of SG- Environment subjects by all employees as a
management comprehension and company culture.

To decrease dangers and constitute continuously developing Health & Safety and
Environment System by designating insecure condition and insecure behaviors.
To decrease labor, environment, companys goods, process losses.
To decrease resource consumption and waste amount to the lowest degree.
To carry out Legal Responsibilities in the scope of valid laws and regulations.

1.10. Otoyol Organization Chart

See Appendix B.

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2. INTRODUCTION
In mechanical engineering department, students got some theoretical and practical
knowledge about engineering drawing and production techniques from the courses ME 113,
ME 114, ME 200 and ME 202 which are given in the first and second years. However,
practical values and knowledge are still insufficient for a mechanical engineer in these
courses. In mechanical engineering, the manufacturing technologies have an important role.
So, in order to improve the manufacturing technology knowledge and practical ability,
attending a summer practice program is beneficial for mechanical engineering students.
ME 300 summer practice program is based on the production techniques used and it is
required to make observations about the processes carried out in the company. The students
put their theoretical values learned in previously taken courses into practice by the help of
engineers and technicians who are responsible from the processes in the organization. This
improves the professional knowledge, ability and behaviors of the students. It is also useful
for adaptation to professional life and real production techniques. The summer practice
program is much more useful for observing very different techniques. Students can learn
different systems and their working principles more easily at the same time.
Summer practice program is really very good experience for mechanical engineer
candidates. Students should use all their knowledge they learned from previously taken
courses. Also, during the summer practice the students easily get answers to their problems
and questions about the details of the processes.

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3. PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES USED

IN THE ORGANIZATION
3.1. Material Removal Processes1
In material removal processes, a sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically remove
material to achieve the desired geometry. This process is also called machining. As in all
organizations, machining is very important manufacturing process in Otoyol, since almost all
materials require machining at some stage of their production.
The three principal machining processes are turning, drilling and milling. The other
machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. The machining
processes used in the organization are: sawing, reaming, shaping, grinding, milling, drilling
and related hole making processes, turning, boring and related processes.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut
away material to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining
involves shear deformations of the work material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a
new surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.

3.1.1. Cutting
3.1.1.1. Plasma Arc Cutting2
The plasma arc process has always been seen as an alternative to the oxy-fuel process.
In this part of the series the process fundamentals are described with emphasis being placed
on the operating features and the advantages of the many process variants.
Process fundamentals
The basic principle is that the arc formed between the electrode and the workpiece is
constricted by a fine bore, copper nozzle. This increases the temperature and velocity of the
plasma emanating from the nozzle. The temperature of the plasma is in excess of 20 000C
and the velocity can approach the speed of sound. When used for cutting, the plasma gas flow
1

Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Manufacturing, pp. 475

http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_3/jk51.html

12

is increased so that the deeply penetrating plasma jet cuts through the material and molten
material is removed in the efflux plasma.
The process differs from the oxy-fuel process in that the plasma process operates by
using the arc to melt the metal whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidises the metal
and the heat from the exothermic reaction melts the metal. Thus, unlike the oxy-fuel process,
the plasma process can be applied to cutting metals which form refractory oxides such as
stainless steel, aluminum, cast iron and non-ferrous alloys.
Power source
The power source required for the plasma arc process must have a drooping
characteristic and a high voltage. Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is
typically 50 to 60V, the open circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can be up to 400V DC.
On initiation, the pilot arc is formed within the body of the torch between the electrode
and the nozzle. For cutting, the arc must be transferred to the workpiece in the so-called
'transferred' arc mode. The electrode has a negative polarity and the workpiece a positive
polarity so that the majority of the arc energy (approximately two thirds) is used for cutting.
Gas composition
In the conventional system using a tungsten electrode, the plasma is inert, formed
using argon, or argon-H2, or nitrogen. However, oxidizing gases, such as air or oxygen, can be
used but the electrode must be copper with hafnium.
The plasma gas flow is critical and must be set according to the current level and the
nozzle bore diameter. If the gas flow is too low for the current level, or the current level too
high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will break down forming two arcs in series,
electrode to nozzle and nozzle to workpiece. The effect of 'double arcing' is usually
catastrophic with the nozzle melting.
Cut quality
The quality of the plasma cut edge is similar to that achieved with the oxy-fuel
process. However, as the plasma process cuts by melting, a characteristic feature is the greater
degree of melting towards the top of the metal resulting in top edge rounding, poor edge
13

squareness or a bevel on the cut edge. As these limitations are associated with the degree of
constriction of the arc, several torch designs are available to improve arc constriction to
produce more uniform heating at the top and bottom of the cut.

3.1.1.2. Shearing3
Shearing is the mechanical cutting of materials without the formation of chips by
placing the sheet between two edges of the shearing tools. If the blades are straight, the
process is called shearing, but if the blade geometry is curved, as in the edges of punches and
dies, the process have special names, such as blanking, piercing, notching and trimming. All
of these are basically shearing operations.
A simple type of shearing process is that the punch descends against the work piece
then the metal is first deformed plastically into the die. Because the clearance between the two
tools is only 5% to 10% of the thickness of the metal being cut, the deformation is highly
localized. The punch penetrates into the metal, the material flows into the die, and the
opposite surface bulges slightly. When penetration reaches about 15% to 60% of thickness of
the metal, the amount depending upon the material ductility and strength, the applied stress
exceeds the shear stress and the metal suddenly shears or ruptures through the remainder of its
thickness.
Because of the normal nonhomogeneities in a metal and the possibility of non-uniform
clearance between the shear blades, the final shearing does not occur uniformly. Fracture and
tearing start at the weakest points and proceed progressively and intermittently to the next
stronger locations. The result is a rough and ragged sheared edge.
If the punch and die have proper clearance and are maintained in good condition,
sheared edges may be produced that are sufficiently smooth to use without further finishing.
The quality of the sheared edge can be further improved if the strip stock is clamped firmly
against the die from above, the punch and die are maintained with proper clearance and
alignment, and the movement of the piece through the die is restrained by an opposing
plunger or rubber die cushion applying pressure from below the work piece. These measures
cause the shearing to take place uniformly around the edge rather than randomly at the
weakest points. The major processing parameters in shearing are the shape and materials for
3

E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
pp. 460-462

14

the punch and die, the speed of punching, lubrication and the clearance between the punch
and die.

3.1.1.3. Sawing4
Sawing is a basic machining process in which chips are produced by a succession of
small cutting edges, or teeth, arranged in a narrow line on a saw blade. Each tooth forms a
chip progressively as it passes through the work piece, and the chip is contained within the
space between two successive teeth until these pass from the work. Because sections of
considerable size can be severed from the work piece with the removal of only a small
amount of the material in the form of chips, sawing is the most economical of the basic
machining processes with respect to the waste of material and power consumption, and in
many cases with respect to labor. In recent years vast improvements have been made in saw
blades and sawing machines, resulting in improved accuracy and precision of the process.

3.1.2 Milling5
Milling is a machining operation in which a workpart is fed past a rotating cylindrical
tool with multiple cutting edges (in rare cases, a too with one cutting edge, called a fly-cutter,
is used). The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed. This
orientation between the tool axis and the fees direction is one of the features that distinguishes
milling from drilling. In drilling, the cutting tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of
rotation. The cutting tool in milling is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called
teeth. The machine tool that traditionally performs this operation is a milling machine.
The geometric form created by milling is a plane surface. Other work geometries can
be created either by means of the cutter path or the cutter shape. Owing to the variety of
shapes possible and its high production rates, milling is one of the most versatile and widely
used machining operations.
Milling is an interrupted cutting operation; the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit
the work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of

E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
pp. 685-686
5
Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Manufacturing, pp. 515-517

15

impact force and thermal shock on every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry must
be designed to withstand these conditions.
Types of milling operations
There are two basic types of milling operations;
a) peripheral milling
b) face milling
Peripheral milling
In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the
surface being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside
periphery of the cutter.
Types of peripheral milling:
Slab milling: The basic form of peripheral milling; the cutter width extends beyond
the workpiece on both sides.
Slotting: Slotting is also called slot milling. The width of the cutter is less than the
workpiece width, creating a slot in the work. When the cutter is very thin, this operation can
be used to mill narrow slots or cut a workpart in two, called saw milling.
Side milling: The cutter machines the side of the workpiece.
Straddle milling: The same as side milling, only cutting takes place on both sides of
the work.
In peripheral milling, the rotation direction of the cutter distinguishes two forms of
milling: up milling and down milling. In up milling, also called conventional milling, the
direction of motion of the cutter teeth is opposite the feed direction when the teeth cut into the
work. It is milling against the feed. In down milling, also called climb milling, the direction
of cutter motion is the same as the feed direction when the teeth cut the work. It is milling
with the feed.

16

The relative geometries of these two forms of milling result in differences in their
cutting actions. In up milling, the chip formed by each cutter tooth starts out very thin and
increases in thickness during the sweep of the cutter. In down milling, each chip starts out
thick and reduces in thickness throughout the cut. The length of a chip in down milling is less
than in up milling. This means that the cutter is engaged in the work for less time per volume
of material cut, and this tends to increase tool life in down milling.
The cutting force direction is tangential to the periphery of the cutter for the teeth that
are engaged in the work. In up milling, this has a tendency to lift the workpart as the cutter
teeth exit the material. In down milling this cutter force direction is downward, tending to
hold the work against the milling machine table.
Face milling
In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled , and
machining is performed by cutting edges on both end and outside periphery of the cutter. As
in peripheral milling, various forms of face milling exist:
a) Conventional face milling: The diameter of the cutter is greater than the workpart
width, so that the cutter overhangs the work on both sides.
b) Partial face milling: The cutter overhangs the work on only one side.
c) End milling: The cutter diameter is less than the work width, so a slot is cut into
the part.
d) Profile milling: This is a form of end milling in which the outside periphery of a
flat part is cut.
e) Pocket milling: Pocket milling is another form of end milling, this is used to mill
shadow pockets into the flat parts.
g) Surface contouring: A ball-nose cutter is fed back and forth across the work along a
curvilinear path at close intervals to create a three-dimensional surface form. The same basic
cutter control is required to machine the contours of molds and dies, in which case operations
is called die sinking.

3.1.3 Turning6
6

Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Manufacturing, pp. 502-505

17

Turning is a machining process in which a single point tool removes materials from
the surface of a rotating cylindrical workpiece; the tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation. Turning is traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a lathe, which
provides power to turn the part at a given rotational speed and to feed the tool at a specified
rate and depth of cut.
Cutting Conditions in Turning
The rotational speed in turning is related to the desired cutting speed at the surface of
the cylindrical workpiece by the equation:
Rotational speed (rev/min): N
Cutting speed (m/min): v
Original diameter (m): Do
N = v / Do
The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work from Do to final diameter Df.
The change in diameter is determined by the depth of cut d:
Do Df = 2d
The feed in turning is generally expressed in mm/rev. This feed can be converted to a
linear travel rate in mm/min by the formula:
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate(mm/min) and f = feed(mm/rev).
The time to machine from one of a cylindrical workpart to the other is given by
Tm = L/ fr
where Tm = time of actual machining(minutes); and L = length of the cylindrical workpart,
mm. As a practical matter, a small distance is usually added to the length at the beginning and
end of the workpiece to allow for approach and overtravel of the tool.

18

The volumetric rate of material removal can be most conveniently determined by the
following equation:
MRR = vfd
where MRR = material removal rate (mm3/min). In using this equation, the units for f are
expressed simply as mm, in effect neglecting the rotational character of turning. Also, care
must be exercised to assure that the units for speed are consistent with those for f and d.
Operations Related to Turning
A variety of other machining operations can be performed on a lathe in addition to
turning; these include the following:
a) Facing: The tool is feed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat
surface on one end.
b) Taper turning: Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the
work, the tool is fed at an angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
c) Contour turning: Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis
of rotation as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a
contoured form in the turned part.
d) Form turning: In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape
that is imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
e) Chamfering: The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of
the cylinder, forming what is called a chamfer.
f) Cutoff: The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its
length to cut off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
g) Threading: A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating
workpart in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus
creating threads in the cylinder.
h) Boring: A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the
inside diameter of an existing hole in the part.
i) Drilling: Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating
work along its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.

19

j) Knurling: This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of
material. Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular crosshatched
pattern in the work surface.
Most lathe operations use single-point tools. Turning, facing, taper turning, contour
turning, chamfering, and boring are all performed with single-point tools. A threading
operation is accomplished using a single-point tool designed with a geometry that shaped the
thread. Certain operations require tools other than single-point. Form turning is performed
with a specially designed tool called a form tool. The profile shape ground into the tool
establishes the shape of the workpart. A cutoff tool is basically a form tool. Drilling is
accomplished by a drill bit. Knurling is performed by a knurling tool, consisting of two
hardened forming rolls, each mounted between centers. The forming rolls have the desired
knurling pattern on their surfaces.

3.1.4. Drilling
Drilling is a machining operation used to create a round hole in a workpart. This
contrasts with boring, which can only be used to enlarge an existing hole. Drilling is usually
performed with a rotating cylindrical tool which has two cutting edges on its working end.
The tool is called a drill or drill bit. The rotating drill feeds into the stationary workpart to
form a hole whose diameter is equal to the drill diameter. Drilling is customarily performed
on a drill press, although other machine tools can also perform this operation.
Cutting conditions in drilling
The cutting speed in a drilling operation is the surface speed at the outside diameter of
the drill. It is specified in this way for convenience, even tough nearly all of the cutting is
actually performed at lower speeds closer to the axis of rotation. To set the desired cutting
speed in drilling, it is necessary to determine the rotational speed of the drill for its diameter.
Letting N represents the spindle rev/min
N = v / D
where v= cutting speed, mm/min; and D = the drill diameter, mm. In some drilling operations,
the workpiece is rotated about a stationary tool, but the same formula applies.

20

Feed f in drilling is specified in mm/rev. Recommended feeds are roughly proportional

to drill diameter; higher feeds are used with larger diameter drills. Since there are two cutting
edges at the drill point, the uncut chip thickness (chip load) taken by each cutting edges is half
the feed. Feed can be converted to feed rate using the same equation as for turning:
fr = Nf
where fr = feed rate, mm/min.
Drilled holes are either through holes or blind holes. In through holes, the drill exits
the opposite side of the work; in blind holes, it does not. The machining time required to drill
a through hole can be determined by the following formula.
Tm = (t + A)/fr
where Tm = machining(drilling) time, min; fr = feed rate, mm/min; and A = an approach
allowance that accounts for the drill point angle, representing the distance the drill must feed
into the work before reaching full diameter. This allowance is given by
A = 0.5 D tan(90-
where A = approach allowance, mm; and = drill point angle.
In a blind hole, hole depth d is defined as the distance from the work surface to the
point of the hole. By this definition, the drill point angle allowance does not affect the time
to drill the hole. Thus for a drill hole, machining time is given by
Tm = d/ fr
The rate of the metal removal in drilling is determined as the product of the drill crosssectional area and the feed rate:
MRR = D2 fr /4
This equation is valid only after the drill reaches full diameter and excludes the initial
approach of the drill into the work.

21

Operations related to drilling

Several operations are related to drilling. Most of the operations follow drilling; a hole
must be made first by drilling, and then the hole is modified by one of the other operations.
Centering and spotfacing are exceptions to this rule. All of the operations use rotating tools.
a)

Reaming: Reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole, to provide a better

tolerance on its diameter, and to improve its surface finish. The tool is called a reamer, and it
usually has straight flutes.
b)

Tapping: This operation is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal

screw threads on an existing hole.

c)

Counterboring: Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger

diameter follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole. A counterbored hole is used to seat
bolt heads into a hole so the heads do not produce above the surface.
d)

Countersinking: This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the

hole is cone-shaped for flat head screws and bolts.

e)

Centering: Also called centerdrilling, this operation drills a starting hole to

accurately establish its location for subsequent drilling. The tool is called a centerdrill.
f)

Spotfacing: Spotfacing is similar to milling. It is used to provide a flat

machined surface on the workpart in a localized area.

3.1.5. Boring7
Boring is similar to turning. It uses a single-point tool against a rotating workpart. The
difference is that boring is performed on the inside diameter of an existing hole rather than the
outside diameter of an existing cylinder. In effect, boring is an internal turning operation.
Machine tools used to perform boring operations are called boring machines. One might
except that boring machines would have features in common with turning machines; indeed
as previously indicated, lathes are sometimes used to accomplish boring.

3.1.6. Grinding8
7

Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Manufacturing, pp. 509

Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Manufacturing, pp. 586-587, 597-600

22

Grinding is a material-removal process in which abrasive particles are contained in a

bonded grinding wheel that operates at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is
usually disk-shaped, and is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.
Grinding can be likened to the milling process. Cutting occurs on either the periphery
or the face of the grinding wheel, similar to peripheral milling and face milling. Peripheral
grinding is much more common than face grinding. The rotating grinding wheel consists of
many cutting teeth (the abrasive particles), and the work is fed relative to the wheel to
accomplish material removal.
The Grinding Wheel
A grinding wheel consists of abrasive particles and bonding material. The bonding
material holds the particles in place and establishes the shape and structure of the wheel.
These two ingredients, and the way they are fabricated, determine the parameters of the
grinding wheel, which are:
1) Abrasive material
2) Grain size
3) Bonding material
4) Wheel grade
5) Wheel structure
These parameters are analogous to the material and geometry of a conventional cutting
tool. To achieve the desired performance in a given application, each of the parameters must
be carefully selected.
Grinding Operations and Grinding Machines
Grinding is traditionally used to finish parts whose geometries have already been
created by other operations. Accordingly, grinding machines have been developed to grind
plain flat surfaces, external and internal cylinders and contour shapes such as threads. The
contour shapes are often created by special formed wheels that have the opposite of the
desired contour to be imparted to the work. Grinding is also used in tool rooms to form the
geometries on cutting tools. In addition to these traditional uses, applications of grinding are

23

expanding to include more high-material removal operations. Our discussion of operations

and machines in this section includes the following types:
1) surface grinding
2) cylindrical grinding
3) centerless grinding
4) creep feed grinding
Surface Grinding Surface grinding is normally used to grind plain flat surfaces. It is
performed using either the periphery of the grinding wheel or the flat face of the wheel. Since
the work is normally held in a horizontal orientation, peripheral grinding is performed by
rotating the wheel about a horizontal axis and face grinding is performed by rotating the
wheel about a vertical axis. In either case, the relative motion of the workpart is achieved by
reciprocating the work past the wheel or rotating it. These possible combinations of wheel
orientations and workpart motions yield the four types
Of the four types, the horizontal spindle machine with reciprocating worktable is the
most common. Grinding is accomplished by reciprocating the work longitudinally under the
wheel at a very small depth and by feeding the wheel transversely into the work a certain
distance between strokes.
In addition to its conventional application, a grinding machine with horizontal spindle
and reciprocating table can be used to form special contoured surfaces by employing a formed
grinding wheel. Instead of feeding the wheel transversely across the work as it reciprocates,
the wheel is plunge-fed vertically into the work. The shape of the formed wheel is therefore
imparted to the work surface.
Grinding machines with vertical spindles and reciprocating tables are set up so that the
wheel diameter is greater than the work width. Accordingly, these operations can be
performed without using a transverse feed motion. Instead, grinding is accomplished by
reciprocating the work past the wheel and feeding the wheel vertically into the work to the
desired dimension. This configuration is capable of achieving very flat surface on the work.
Of the two types of rotary table grinding, the vertical spindle machines are more
common. Owing to the relatively large surface contact area between wheel and workpart,

24

vertical spindle-rotary table grinding machines are capable of high metal removal rates when
equipped with appropriate grinding wheels.
Cylindrical Grinding As its name suggests, cylindrical grinding is used for rotational parts.
These grinding operations divide into two basic types:
- external cylindrical grinding
- internal cylindrical grinding
External cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding to distinguish it from
centerless grinding) is performed much like a turning operation. The grinding machines used
for these operations closely resemble a lathe in which the tool post has been replaced by a
high speed motor to rotate the grinding wheel. There two types of feed motion possible,
traverse feed and plunge-cut. In traverse feed, the grinding wheel is fed in a direction parallel
to the axis of rotation of the workpart. A longitudinal reciprocating motion is sometimes given
to either the work or the wheel to improve surface finish. In plunge-cut, the grinding wheel is
fed radially into the work.
External cylindrical grinding is used to finish parts that have been machined to
approximate size and heat treated to desired hardness. Parts include axles, crankshafts,
spindles, bearings and bushings and rolls for rolling mills. The grinding operation produces
the final size and required surface finish on these hardened parts.
Centerless Grinding Centerless grinding is an alternative process for grinding external and
internal cylindrical surfaces. As its name suggests, the workpiece is not held between centers.
This results in a reduction in work handling time; hence, centerless grinding is often used for
high production work. The setup for external centerless grinding consists of two wheels; the
grinding wheel and a regulating wheel. The workparts, which may be individual short pieces
or long rods are supported by a rest blade and fed through between the two wheels. The
grinding wheel does the cutting. The regulating Wheel rotates at much lower speeds and is
inclined at a slight angle to control throughfeed of the work.

3.1.7. Piercing and Blanking9

9

http://www.efunda.com/processes/metal_processing/

25

Piercing
Piercing is the operation of cutting internal features (holes or slots) in stock. Piercing
can also be combined with other operations such as lance and form (to make a small feature
such as tab), pierce and extrude (to make an extruded hole). All these operations can be
combined with blanking.
Piercing of all the holes is best done together to ensure good hole-to-hole tolerance
and part repeatability. However if the material distorts, the method described below can be
done.
When there are large numbers of holes, in a tight pitch, there could be distortions, due
to the high amount of tension on the upper surface due to stretching and compression on the
bottom surface. This causes the material not to lay flat. This can be avoided/lessened by
staggering the piercing of the holes. Holes are punched in a staggered pattern; then the other
holes are punched in the alternate staggered pattern.
Blanking
Blanking is cutting up a large sheet of stock into smaller pieces suitable for the next
operation in stamping, such as drawing and forming. Often this is combined with piercing.
Blanking can be as simple as a cookie cutter type die to produce prototype parts, or
high speed dies that run at 1000+ strokes per minute, running coil stock which has been slit to
a specified width.
For production parts, the final configuration of the drawn or formed shape needs to be
established before the blank die can be built-since the blank size and the slit width size needs
to be established precisely.

3.2. Forming Operations

3.2.1. Bending10
10

E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,

26

Bending is the plastic deformation of the metals about a linear axis with little or no
change in the surface area by stressing the metal above its yield strength but not larger than its
ultimate tensile stress. When multiple bends are made simultaneously with the use of a die,
the process is sometimes called forming. The various bend axes can be at angles to each
other, but each axis must be linear and independent of the others for the process to be
classified as a true bending operation. If the axes of deformation are not linear or are not
independent, the process becomes one of drawing and/or stretching, not bending.
Characteristic of this process is stretching (tensile elongation) imposed on the outer surface
and compression on the inner surface. Since the yield strength of metals in compression is
somewhat higher than the yield strength in tension, the metal on the outer side yields first, and
the neutral axis is displaced from the center of the two surfaces.
Concerning the inner side of the bend, it is possible for the compressive forces to
introduce upsetting, which would cause the material to become longer in the direction parallel
to the bend axis. This effect can become quite pronounced in the bending of thick, narrow
pieces.
Still another consequence of the condition of combined tension and compression is the
tendency of the metal to unbend somewhat after forming, a phenomenon known as
springback. To form a desired angle, metals must be overbent in such a way that upon
springback, the material assumes the desired shape of the product.

3.2.1.1. Angle Bending

A bar folder can be used to make angle bends up to 150 degree in sheet metal under
about 1.5mm in thickness. The sheet of metal is inserted under the folding leaf and moved to
proper position. Raising the handle then actuates a cam, causing the leaf to clamp the sheet.
Further motion of the handle then bends the metal to the desired angle. Bar folders are
manually operated and are usually less than 4meters long.
Bends in heavier sheet or more complex bends in thin material are generally made on
press brakes. These are mechanically or hydraulically driven presses with a long, narrow bed
and relatively slow, short, adjustable strokes. The metal is bent between interchangeable dies
that are attached to the bed and the ram. Different dies can be used to produce many types of
pp. 454-456

27

bends. The metal can be fed inward between successive strokes to produce various repeated
bends, such as corrugation. Seaming, embossing, punching, and other operations can also be
performed by inserting suitable dies into press brakes, but these operations can usually be
done more efficiently on other types of equipment when the volume is sufficient to justify
their use.

3.3. Joining Processes

3.3.1. Welding11
Welding is a process in which two materials, usually metals, are permanently joined
together by coalescence, the coalescence resulting from a combination of temperature,
pressure, and metallurgical conditions. The particular combination of temperature and
pressure can range from high temperature with no pressure to high pressure with no increase
in temperature. Thus, welding can be accomplished under a wide variety of conditions, and
numerous welding processes have been developed and are used routinely in manufacturing.
Nevertheless, the average person has little concept of the importance of welding as a
manufacturing process. If it were not for the use of welding, a large portion of our metal
products would have to be drastically modified, would be considerably more costly, or could
not perform as efficiently.

3.3.1.1. Oxyfuel Gas Welding

In oxyfuel gas welding, acetylene (C 2H2) is used as fuel. A flame is directed towards
the welding point. The metals to be joined are melted at their joints during the process.
Usually, materials thinner than 2mm are welded by this process. Mostly brass, silver and
copper are welded by this method; however iron can also be welded.

3.3.1.2. Arc Welding12

11

E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
pp. 868, 870
12
E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
pp. 880

28

In arc welding, both the electrode and the workpiece become part of an electric circuit.
This circuit causes an arc flow between the electrode and the work. This arc melts metals
during welding.

3.3.1.2.1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)13

Shielded metal arc welding is performed by striking an arc between a coated-metal
electrode and the base metal. Once the arc has been established, the molten metal from the tip
of the electrode flows together with the molten metal from the edges of the base metal to
forma sound joint. This process is known as fusion. The coating from the electrode forms a
covering over the weld deposit, shielding it from contamination; therefore the process is
called shielded metal arc welding. The main advantages of shielded metal arc welding are that
high-quality welds are made rapidly at a low cost.

3.3.1.2.2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)14

The primary difference between shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc
welding is the type of shielding used. In gas tungsten arc welding, both the arc and the molten
puddle are covered by a shield of inert gas. The shield of inert gas prevents atmospheric
contamination, thereby producing a better weld. The primary gases used for this process are
helium, argon, or carbon dioxide. In some instances, a mixture of these gases is used

3.3.1.2.3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)15

13

http://www.tpub.com/content/construction/14250/css/14250_41.htm
http://www.tpub.com/content/construction/14250/css/14250_41.htm
15
E. Paul DeGarmo, J Temple Black, and Ronald A. Kohser, Materials and Processes in Manufacturing,
pp. 886-887
14

29

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), formerly known as MIG welding (for metal inertgas), was a logical outgrowth of gas tungsten arc welding. The process is similar, but the arc
is now maintained between the workpiece and an automatically fed, consumable wire
electrode.
Argon, helium, and mixtures of the two can be used for welding virtually any metal,
they are used primarily with the nonferrous metals. In welding steel, some O 2 or CO2 is
usually added to improve the arc stability and reduce weld spatter. The cheaper CO 2 can be
used alone in welding steel, provided that a deoxidizing electrode wire is employed.
The specific shielding gases can have considerable effect on the nature of metal
transfer from the electrode to the work and also affect the heat transfer behavior, penetration,
and tendency for undercutting (weld pool extending laterally beneath the surface of the base
metal). Several types of electronic controls can be used to alter the waveform of the current.
This makes it possible to control the mechanism of metal transfer, from drops, to spray, to
short-circuiting drops. Some of these variations include pulsed arc welding (GMAW-P), shortcircuiting arc welding (GMAW-S), and spray transfer welding (GMAW-ST). Buried arc
welding (GMAW-B) is another variation in which carbon dioxide-rich gas is used and the arc
is buried in its own crater.
Gas metal arc welding is fast and economical because there is no frequent changing of
electrodes, as with stick-type electrodes. In addition, there is no slag formed over the weld,
the process can be readily automated, and, if done manually, the welding head is relatively
light and compact. A reverse-polarity DC arc is generally used because of its deep penetrated,
spray transfer, and smooth welds with good profile. Process variables include type of current,
current magnitude, shielding gas, type of metal transfer, electrode diameter, electrode
composition, electrode stickout (extension beyond the gun), welding speed, welding voltage,
and arc length.
A number of industrial robots are now available to perform gas metal arc welding. To
function properly, however, the computer electronics of these robots must be shielded from
the high-frequency interference of the welding process.

3.3.1.3. Resistance Spot Welding16

16

http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_3/kssaw001.html

30

Spot welding is one of a group of resistance welding processes that involve the joining
of two or more metal parts together in a localized area by the application of heat and pressure.
The heat is generated within the material being joined by the resistance to the passage of a
high current through the metal parts, which are held under a pre-set pressure.
The process is used for joining sheet materials and uses shaped copper alloy electrodes
to apply pressure and convey the electrical current through the workpieces. Heat is developed
mainly at the interface between two sheets, eventually causing the material being welded to
melt, forming a molten pool, the weld nugget. The molten pool is contained by the pressure
applied by the electrode tip and the surrounding solid metal.

3.4. Surface Treatment and Finishing Processes

3.4.1. Buffing17
Buffing using wheels and compounds is somewhat like using wet and dry sanding
paper, only much faster. Instead of using elbow grease you will be using the power and speed
of an electric motor. The edge, or face, of the wheel is the sanding block, which carries a thin
layer of compound which is the sandpaper. Varying types of wheel are available, and the
different grades of compound are scaled similar to sandpaper. The compounds are made from
a wax substance which has the different abrasive powders added to it. When this hard block is
applied to the edge of a spinning buffing wheel, the heat from the friction melts the wax, and
both wax and abrasive are applied in a thin slick to the face of the wheel.
The objective of buffing is to make a rough surface into a smooth one and, of course,
each work piece will be in a different condition, so will need different procedures. Imagine
the surface magnified thousands of times; it will look like jagged mountains and valleys. By
repeated abrasion, you are going to wear down those mountains until they are old, soft, rolling
hills! Then they will not dissipate the light, but reflect it. It is the reflection that makes the
buffed part appears shiny.

3.4.2. Sand Blasting18

17
18

http://www.caswellplating.com/buffs/buffman.htm
http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/dictionary/353.html

31

Sand blasting is a method for giving glass surfaces a matt finish either for decoration
or to reduce transparency. The method was invented in 1870 by an American, Benjamin C.
Tilghman, who is thought to have been inspired by the effect of sand being blown against
windows on the American prairies. Compressed air forces the abrasive material through the
nozzle of a sandblasting gun and onto the glass surface. Although sand can be used, more
effective abrasives with less toxic effects are now available. Silicon carbide is commonly
used, as is electro-corundum (aluminum oxide). The glass is normally placed inside a special
cabinet with arm holes, a viewing window and dust extraction facilities.

3.4.3. Heat Treatment19

Heat Treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to alter their physical
and mechanical properties without changing the product shape. Heat treatment is sometimes
done inadvertently due to manufacturing processes that either heat or cool the metal such as
welding or forming.
Heat Treatment is often associated with increasing the strength of material, but it can
also be used to alter certain manufacturability objectives such as improve machining, improve
formability, restore ductility after a cold working operation. Thus, it is a very enabling
manufacturing process that can not only help other manufacturing process, but can also
improve product performance by increasing strength or other desirable characteristics.
Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, since they respond well to heat
treatment and the commercial use of steels exceeds that of any other material. Steels are heat
treated for one of the following reasons:
-Softening
-Hardening
-Material modification

3.4.3.1. Annealing Process20

The term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an
elevated temperature for an extended time period and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily,
19
20

http://www.efunda.com/processes/heat_treat/introduction/heat_treatments.cfm
William D. Callister, JR., Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction, pp. 329

32

annealing is carried out to (1) relieve stresses; (2) increase softness, ductility, and toughness;
and/or (3) produce a specific microstructure.
Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work,
that is, to soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal.

3.4.4. Cementation21
Cementation is the process in which chemical precipitates (in the form of new
crystals) form in the pores of a sediment or rock, binding the grains together. Some common
cements are quartz, calcite and hematite, but a wide variety of cements are known, such as
aragonite, gypsum, and dolomite. Pressure solution produces locally derived cement, but
many cements consist of new minerals previously in solution in the fluid phase. Cementation
reduces porosity by filling in the pore spaces between the grains.
a) Pack Cementation
Diffusion coatings are formed by depositing a layer of aluminum on the metal surface
and then heating the component in a furnace for a period of time. During this heat treatment,
the aluminum and metal atoms migrate, or diffuse, into each other, which is the reason these
coatings are called diffusion coatings. This processing is usually performed by a pack
cementation process, in which the aluminum deposition and the heat treatment occur
simultaneously.
Pack cementation is widely used to confer oxidation resistance on ferrous alloys.
Usually relatively expensive aluminum or binary alloys grade reagent is used during the pack
process with aluminum as a source. Pack cementation processes include aluminizing,
chromizing, and siliconizing. Components are packed in metal powders in sealed heatresistant retorts and heated inside a furnace to precisely controlled temperature-time profiles.
In the aluminizing process, a source of Al reacts with a chemical activator on heating to form
a gaseous compound (e.g., pure Al with NaF to form AlF). This gas is the transfer medium
that carries aluminum to the component surface. The gas decomposes at the substrate surface
depositing Al and releasing the halogen activator. The halogen activator returns to the pack
21

http://www.eos.ubc.ca/courses/eosc221/sed/sili/cement.html
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/MetalCoatings/PackCement.htm

33

and reacts with the Al again. Thus, the transfer process continues until all of the aluminum in
the pack is used or until the process is stopped by cooling. The coating forms at temperatures
ranging from 700 to 1100oC over a period of several hours.
b) Cementation in Salt Bath
c) Gas Cementation

3.4.5. Nitriding22
Nitriding is a surface-hardening heat treatment that introduces nitrogen into the
surface of steel at a temperature range (500 to 550C, or 930 to 1020F), while it is in the
ferrite condition. Thus, nitriding is similar to carburizing in that surface composition is
altered, but different in that nitrogen is added into ferrite instead of austenite. Because
nitriding does not involve heating into the austenite phase field and a subsequent quench to
form martensite, nitriding can be accomplished with a minimum of distortion and with
excellent dimensional control.
The mechanism of nitriding is generally known, but the specific reactions that occur in
different steels and with different nitriding media are not always known. Nitrogen has partial
solubility in iron. It can form a solid solution with ferrite at nitrogen contents up to about 6%.
At about 6% N, a compound called gamma prime (), with a composition of Fe4N is formed.
At nitrogen contents greater than 8%, the equilibrium reaction product is compound,
Fe3N. Nitrided cases are stratified. The outermost surface can be all and if this is the case, it
is referred to as the white layer. Such a surface layer is undesirable: it is very hard profiles but
is so brittle that it may spall in use. Usually it is removed; special nitriding processes are used
to reduce this layer or make it less brittle. The zone of the case is hardened by the formation
of the Fe3N compound, and below this layer there is some solid solution strengthening from
the nitrogen in solid solution.
Principal reasons for nitriding are:

22

To obtain high surface hardness

To increase wear resistance

http://www.key-to-steel.com/Articles/Art117.htm

34

To improve fatigue life

To improve corrosion resistance (except for stainless steels)

To obtain a surface that is resistant to the softening effect of heat at temperatures up to

the nitriding temperature

3.4.6. Phosphatizing23
Phosphatizing, also called phosphating or phosphate conversion coating, is a metal
pretreatment primarily used to prepare steel for paint or coatings and to prevent
corrosion. Phosphatizing is termed a conversion coating because, unlike paint or traditional
coatings, it does not lie on the surface of the metal, but rather the surface of the metal is
chemically changed to a new substance. The coating will, therefore, not chip- or scratch-off
exposing the base material to corrosion and wear.
Super Shot Peening can provide phosphate coatings for very large (up to 25 feet in
length) and very small parts. Both zinc and manganese phosphate coatings are offered. Both
types produce components with gray or blue-gray, non-reflective, non-metallic, nonconductive, "velvety" finishes.

3.4.7. Cataphoresis Painting24

Cataphoresis painting is a process which provides the immersion of a component into
a bath composed by water thinned paint which completely covers the surface of the immersed
components through the current passage. The new introduced by us is the use of this
particular process in the field of transparent painting for furnishings such as knobs, drawer
pulls, bath accessories, etc. This process has had very positive results. In the furnishings field
it is very important that the covering is perfect, without superficial defects such as orange
peel, color heterogeneity on the surface or color change. All this has been obtained by us
projecting a sofisticate current rectifier which generates current that crosses the bath causing
the adhesion of the painting on the component.

23
24

http://www.superiorshotpeening.com/phosphatizing.htm
http://www.pa-da.it/SitoInglese/Impianti%20di%20verniciatura%20in%20cataforesi.htm

35

4. COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL25

Altering the operating procedures of early NC systems required changing the hardware
of the machine tool itself. In the 1970s CNC systems, controlled by dedicated mini- or
microcomputers, were developed to enable machine tools to be readily adapted to different
jobs by altering the control program, or software. Consequently, CNC machine tools are
25

http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-39169

36

easier to operate and more versatile than their NC counterparts, and their programming is
simpler and can be rapidly tested. Since they have less control hardware, they are cheaper to
maintain and are generally more accurate. CNC systems can be used with a wide range of
machine tools such as milling machines and lathes. Many are equipped with graphic displays
that plot the shapes of the components being machined. Some simulate tool movements, while
others produce three-dimensional views of components.
When several CNC machine tools receive instructions for machining from a large
central computer that stores and processes operational procedures, they are said to be under
direct numerical control(DNC).

5. OPERATION SEQUENCES OF SOME PARTS

5.1. Hydrovac Joint Bracket

Three parts are cut from a sheet metal.

These three parts are sheared in proper dimensions by CNC Punching Machine.

Their edges are bent by 60 Tons Press.

Their other edges are again bent by 60 Tons Press.

37

They are sent to Abcant Press to be bent in a different style.

Then these parts are welded together by Shielded Metal Arc Welding Machine.

Grinding is done.

Cataphoresis is done.

Finally, it is sent to the painting line to complete its operation.

5.2. Front Door Front Panel

A part is cut from a roll of sheet metal.

This part is sheared in proper dimensions by CNC Punching Machine.

It is formed by 160 Tons Press.

Then piercing is done by 150 Tons Press.

Piercing is done again by 160 Tons Press and 150 Tons Press, respectively.

Its edges are bent by CNC Abcant Press in proper styles.

Then grinding is done.

Finally, it is sent to the assembly line to complete the operation.

5.3. Wheel Front Panel

A plate is sheared in proper dimensions by CNC Punching Machine.

Then its edges are bent by CNC Abcant Press in proper styles.

Grinding is done.

Finally, it is sent to the assembly line to complete the operation.

5.4. U Profile

A plate is sheared in proper dimensions by CNC Punching Machine.

Piercing is done by 160 Tons Press.

Piercing is done again by 150 Tons Press.

38

Then its edges are bent by Abcant Press.

Grinding is done.

Finally, it is sent to the assembly line to complete the operation.

5.5. Joint Bracket

A plate is sheared in proper dimensions by CNC Punching Machine.

It is formed by 160 Tons Press.

Piercing is done by 160 Tons Press.

Then its edges are bent by Abcant Press.

Grinding is done.

Finally, it is sent to the assembly line to complete the operation.

6. COST ANALYSIS FOR TWO CHOSEN PARTS

6.1. Hydrovac Joint Bracket

39

Material

Weight (kg)

Steel Plate

9.456

Cost (YTL)
8.3213

Operation

Explanation

Operation Time (min)

Cutting

2.550

2.0371

Part Cutting

2.550

2.0371

10

Shearing

8.859

5.5118

20

Edge Bending

5.120

3.1855

30

Edge Bending

5.120

3.1855

40

Edge Bending

5.250

3.2664

50

Welding

5.850

3.0313

60

Cataphoresis

2.000

1.0355

Total Material Cost

: 8.3213

Total Operation Cost

: 23.2902

TOTAL

: 31.6115

6.2. Front Door Front Panel

Material

Weight (kg)

Cost (YTL)

Steel Plate

1.8912

1.201

Steel Plate

1.8912

1.201

Operation

Explanation

Operation Time (min)

10

Cutting from Roll

0.102

0.0638

Cutting

1.697

1.3554

10

Shearing

4.327

2.6924

20

Forming

3.583

2.2294

30

Piercing

3.583

2.2294

40

Edge Bending

3.803

2.3663

Total Material Cost

: 2.402

Total Operation Cost

: 10.9367

TOTAL

: 13.3387

7. CONCLUSION

40

The summer practice program has a big importance for mechanical engineering third
year students. A manufacturing company was entirely observed during this summer practice
and the theoretical knowledge of the student was improved with practical applications. Also,
an experience is gained in the real working life. Students become more familiar with working
conditions of a company.
Lots of beneficial knowledge is learned by the students. Firstly, students met with a lot
of new systems. Working principles, production procedures and importance of these steps are
learned. The systems of some unique and modern production techniques such as CNC
operations were carefully examined. The production steps of special parts were examined and
the shortest and the most economical way is learned. The general location of each production
unit and the efficiency of processes examined. The main differences between the modern and
traditional manufacturing techniques are practiced. These new systems provide students a
researching and improving view.
The importance of engineering details was learned. The importance of technical
drawings and graphical representation were understood. Moreover, during this summer
practice program students improved their MS Office and Cadkey knowledge.
In conclusion, Otoyol is a generally suitable company for ME 300 summer practice.
Engineers and workers have usually good working conditions. For better efficiency, the latest
industrial machines should be used and more qualified workers should be selected. Also, there
should be more controlling systems that are very important for decreasing operation time of
products.

41

APPENDIX A
LIST OF SOME MACHINES USED IN OTOYOL

NAME

PROPERTIES

42

BUYING
QUANTITY DATE

LATHES AND
MILLING MACHINES
Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Milling Machine
Up Milling Machine
Up Milling Machine
Up Milling Machine
Universal Milling Machine
Copy Milling Machine
CNC Milling Machine
CNC Milling Machine
CNC Milling Machine
CNC Milling Machine
CNC Milling Machine

Adcock Shipley
SXD-200
Induma
Tosfa 4A
Acme FC/4
Acme M/BB-4A
Wanderer 520 RV
Taksan
Lagun
Lagun
Overlikon
Liebher
Churchill-PH250
Lorenz 15150
Demm
Pfauter, 5.5kW
Mazak Mazatech H-630N,
7.5kW

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
2
2
2
1

5
2
1
3

1990

CNC Lathe
CNC Lathe
CNC Lathe

Mazak V-515
Hessapp, 10kW, 9mm
Tezsan
Diedesheim Frontor 60,
55kW(73HP), 600mm
Okuma LB 15, 5.5kW,
Horizontal
Churchill HC4
Churchill CTC4

1988
1990
1990
1990
1986
1986
1975
1994
1994
1994
1980
1990
1988
1990
1998
1994
19941997
19941997
1994
1982

9
1
1

1994
1988
1992

PLANERS
CNC Planer
CNC Planer

Churchill G58
Hurth Z5A 220

2
2

1992
1990

Saimp RP-602
Saimp R15-200
Saimp RCD-1000
Morara, Multimatik I/E
Reinecker

2
1
2
1
1

1976
1976
1976
1994
1994

Schaudt, ZK 11

1992

Fortuna

1994

CNC Milling Center

CNC Milling Center
CNC Milling Center
Lathe
CNC Lathe

GRINDING MACHINES
Hole Grinding Machine
Hole Grinding Machine
Hole Grinding Machine
CNC Hole Grinding Machine
CNC Hole Grinding Machine
CNC Universal
Grinding Machine
CNC Universal
Grinding Machine

43

Surface Grinding Machine

Surface Grinding Machine

Alpa
ELB

1
1

1988
1986

DRILLING MACHINES
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Multihead Drilling Machine
Radial Drilling Machine
Columnar Drilling Machine

Desutter, 16mm
Lusson, 23mm
Elha, 20mm
Valpa, 30mm
Posalux, 30mm
Genko, 35mm
Rosel, 33mm
Mas, 30mm
Saraluce, 36mm
Berardi, 36mm
Taksan, 60mm
Friedrich, 32mm

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1

1976
1981
1980
1985
1984
1994
1992
1986
1996
1998
1985
1990

1
1

1990
1988

1984

Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Press
CNC Hydraulic Press
CNC Abcant Press

Mller, 1250 Tons, 1.4-30mm

Mller, 800 Tons, 14mm
Innocenti, 600 Tons,
1-8mm, Eccentric
Colombo Agostine, 400 Tons
Eccentric
Erfurt, 250 Tons, Eccentric
Repkon, 500 Tons
Wieger, 110 Tons, Hydraulic

1
2
2

1980
1976
1994
1992

CUTTING MACHINES
Guillotine Cutting Machine
CNC Punching Machine
CNC Punching Machine
CNC Flame Cutting Machine

Wieger, 1-8mm
Trumph 500, Photocell
Trumph 600L, Photocell
Tanaka

1
2
1
1

1976
1994
1992
1990

600 Amperes

47

1980

1000 Amperes
2800 Amperes

105
2

1988
1994

BENDING MACHINES
Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic Press

WELDING MACHINES
Resistance Spot Welding
Machine (Hangered)
Gas Metal Arc
Welding Machine
Welding Robot

44

45

APPENDIX B
OTOYOL ORGANIZATION CHART

46

GENERAL
MANAGER

ASSISTANT
GENERAL
MANAGER(CONT
ROLLER)

HUMAN
RESOURCES
MANAGER

DATA
TECHNOLOGY
MANAGER

STRATEGIC
PLANNING&PROJ
ECTS TEAM

EXPORT
MANAGER

ASSISTANT
GENERAL
MANAGER(FINAN
CIAL WORKS)

ASS. GENERAL
MANAGER(PROD
UCTION&TECHNI
QUE)

ACCOUNT
MANAGER

FINANCING
MANAGER

BUDGET&CONTR
OL MANAGER

ASSISTANT
GENERAL
MANAGER(BUYIN
G&LOGISTICS)

LORRY
PRODUCTION
MANAGER

MATERIAL
BUYING
MANAGER

MIDIBUS
PRODUCTION
MANAGER

SOURCE
DEVELOPMENT
MANAGER

TECHNIQUE
SERVICES
MANAGER

MATERIAL
PLANNING&LOGI
STICS MANAGER

QUALITY
ASSURANCE
MANAGER

SPARE PART
COORDINATOR

ENGINEERING
AND R&D
MANAGER

BUYING&LOGISTI
CS COST
ENGINEERING
ADMINISTRATOR

TECHNIQUE
COORDINATOR

IMPORT-EXPORT
APPLICATION
ADMINISTRATOR

PRODUCT&PROD
UCTION COST
ENGINEERING
ADMINISTRATOR

47

AGM(STRATEGIC
PROJECTS&WORK
DEVELOPMENT)

APPENDIX C
DRAWINGS OF SOME CONSTRUCTIONAL PARTS
MANUFACTURED IN OTOYOL

48