Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Died-
Notable Ideas- Positivism, law of three stages, classification of sciences and sociology.
often referred to as a socialist dreamer. Comte became his secretary for which he was getting 300 francs
per month as salary. In course of time, Comte became his co-worker, co-writer and co-thinker. The
friendship between the two lasted only for a few years, that is, up to 1824 only. They jointly published
the work "Plan of the Scientific Operations necessary for the Reorganization of Society" - 1822; [also
known as "The Prospectus of the scientific Works required for the Reorganization of Society] and
thereafter their partnership dissolved.
Comte believed that Saint Simon was not giving him adequate
Comte married in the year 1825 but within 17 years, that is, in 1842, his wife deserted him. He almost led an
isolated life for a long time due to his personal disappointments and quarrels with others. He had to face
economic crisis also. A small group of his admirers invited him to deliver a series of private lectures on
positive philosophy. Good number of learned men including scientists and economists were attending his
lectures His lecture notes were later published (between 1830-42) in six volumes running to 4800 pages
which constituted his masterly work called "Course of Positive Philosophy". This treatise fetched him a
sizeable number of admirers even outside France. J.S. Mill of England, a famous philosopher, for example,
was impressed by his work.
In 1826, Comte thought of a scheme of presenting a series of 72 lectures on his philosophy of life. The
course drew a distinguished audience. It was, however, halted after three lectures when Comte suffered a
nervous breakdown. He was unhappy with his wife whom he had married in 1825 [and who deserted him in
1842]. At one stage in 1827 he sought to commit suicide by throwing himself into the Seine river.
Comte had taken to teaching at the Ecole Polytechnique, During this period Comte worked on the famous six
volume work-running to 4800 pages, known as "Positive Philosophy" ["Course de Philosophic Positive"]. In
that work Comte was the first to use the term "sociology". He also outlined his view that sociology was the
ultimate science. This book fetched him a sizeable number of admirers even outside France.
By 1851, Comte had completed the four Volume book entitled "System of Positive Politics" ["Systeme de
Polytique Positive"]. This book proposed to offer a grand plan for the reorganization of society. Here Comte
tried to apply the findings of theoretical sociology to the solutions of social problems.
Comte had a series of bizarre ideas. He believed in "cerebral hygiene", and to preserve his mental health he
stopped reading the works of other writers. He wanted to suggest proposals for the improvement of society.
But in his attempts to do so he deviated from the path and established the "religion of humanity" claiming
himself to be its high priest.
Comte, whose life was beset with stresses and strains, conflicts and controversies, poverty and isolation,
breathed his last on 5th Sept. 1857. The religion which he started died along with him but the science he set
out continues to flourish.
Main Works of Auguste Comte
1. "The Prospectus of the Scientific Works Required for the Reorganization of Society", 1822 - A joint work
of Comte and Saint Simon.
2. "Positive Philosophy", 1830-1842 - in six volumes.
3. "Positive Polity", 1851-54 - in four volumes.
COMTEAN POSITIVISM
The acknowledged founder of "positivism" or "positive philosophy" is no other than the French
philosopher Comte himself. "Positivism" is nothing but a "philosophy of science." It has its roots in the
"empiricist tradition." It rejects metaphysical speculation in favour of "positive" knowledge based on
systematic observation and experiment. Though Comte is regarded as the founder of positivism, he was
influenced by the writings of David Hume and Claude H. Saint-Simon.
Meaning of Positivism
Positivism refers to "the doctrine formulated by Comte which asserts that the only true knowledge
is scientific knowledge, that is, knowledge which describes and explains the co-existence and
succession of observable phenomena, including both physical and social phenomena." '
Positivism-denotes "any sociological approach which operates on the general assumption that the
methods of physical sciences (example, measurement, search for general laws, etc.) can be carried over
into the social sciences."
Nature of Comtean Positivism
Comte used the term "positivism" in two distinctive ways: (i) positivism as a "doctrine" and (ii) positivism
as a "method".
Positivism As a Doctrine
Positivism as a Way of Thinking: As developed by Auguste Comte, positivism is a way of thinking
based on the assumption that it is possible to observe social life and establish reliable, valid knowledge
about how it works. Such knowledge can be used to affect the course of change and improve the human
condition.
Positivism of Comte which represents a philosophical position states that knowledge can be derived only
from sensory experience. Metaphysical speculation, subjective or intuitive insight, and purely logical
analysis, are rejected as outside the realm of true knowledge. The methods of the physical sciences are
regarded as the only accurate means of obtaining knowledge, and therefore, the social sciences should
be limited to the use of these methods and modeled after the physical sciences.
Positivism As a Method
Positivism Implies the Use of Scientific Method: By the concept of "positivism ", Comte meant the
application of scientific methods to understand society and its changes. Applying this concept to the
modern societies, Comte emphasised that sociology must depend on careful observation, usually based on
statistical measures of social statics and social dynamics. He also recognised that sociology would have to
be less experimental than the physical sciences because of the ethical and practical difficulties
intervening in people's lives.
Comte believed that social life is governed by underlying laws and principles that can be discovered through
the use of methods most often associated with the physical sciences. In choosing the term "positivism",
Comte conveyed his intention to repudiate all reliance on earlier religious or speculative metaphysical
bases of knowledge'. However, Comte regarded scientific knowledge as 'relative knowledge', not
absolute. Absolute knowledge was, and always would be unavailable.
Positivism would essentially mean a method of approach. The methods of science can give us knowledge of
the laws of co-existence and succession of phenomena, but can never penetrate to the inner "essence" or
"nature" of thing. As applied to the human social world, the positive method yields a law of successive
states through which each branch of knowledge must first pass, that is, the theological, then metaphysical, and
finally positive [or scientific] state. Since the character of society flows from the intellectual forms which
predominate in it, this gives Comte a law of the development of human society itself.
Positivism Deifies Observation and Classification of Data: According to Comte, positivism is purely an
intellectual way o looking at the world. He believed that the mind should concentrate on the observation
and classification of phenomena. He believed that both theological and metaphysical speculations as he used
the terms, were as likely to be fiction as truth, and that there is no way of determining which is the cause.
Thus, it would be more profitable if a person would direct his thoughts to the lines of thinking which are most
truly prolific, namely to observation and classification of data. Comte even took the position that it is futile to
try to determine causes. We can observe uniformities, or laws, but it is mere speculation to assign causes to
these uniformities. Positivism deified observation and classification of data. Its weaknesses should not hinder
the student, however, from seeing the importance of its emphasis upon the scientific procedure of observing
and classifying data in an age when dogmatism and speculation were rife.
Comte's work was much admired by John Stuart Mill, amongst others, and positivism became something of a
popular movement in the latter part of the nineteenth century. But Comte's views shifted later in his life,
under the influence of Clotilde de Vaux. He came to see that science alone did not have the binding force for
social cohesion, as he had earlier supposed. He argued that the intellect must become the servant of the heart,
and advocated a new 'Religion of Humanity'.
Impact of Positivism on Social Thinking
Comtes positivism" has its own impact on the world of social thinking. Today, positivism signifies adherence to an
empiricist view of the nature of science. It also projects a scientific approach to the study of social life on the
empiricist model. "As far as the social sciences are concerned, this would mean modelling of the methods of
social sciences on those of natural science. It also signifies an attempt to discover social laws similar to the
law-like regularities discovered by natural sciences and an absolute insistence on the separation of facts and
values.
Criticisms Against Positivism
Positivism is Not Influential at Present: Positivism has had relatively little influence in contemporary
sociology for several reasons. Current views argue that positivism encourages a misleading emphasis on
superficial facts without any attention to underlying mechanisms that cannot be, observed. For example, we
cannot observe human motives or the meaning that people give to behaviour and other aspects of social life,
but this does not mean that meaning and motive are nonexistent or irrelevant. Some argue that the nature of
social life is such that the methods used in the physical sciences are simply inapplicable and must be replaced
with a less rigid approach.
2. Methological Gulf Between the Physical and Social Sciences : Criticisms of positivism commonly focus
on the inappropriateness of natural-scientific methods in the human or social sciences. Consciousness, cultural
norms, symbolic meaning, and intentionality, etc., are variously held to be distinctive human attributes which
dictate a methodological gulf between natural science and the study of human social life.
3. Problem of Verification: Methodologically, a central problem of positivism arises from the so-called
'problem of empiricism'; the lack of any conclusive basis for 'verification' in 'inductive logic'. A further telling
criticism - the so-called 'paradox of positivism' - is that the verification principle is itself unverifiable.'
only one god. Slowly feelings and imaginations started giving place to thinking and rationality.
Monotheism is the climax of the theological stage of thinking. This kind of thinking was suited to the
military society.
(ii) The Metaphysical Stage
The metaphysical thinking is almost an extension of the theological thinking. Rationalism started growing
instead of imagination. Rationalism states that God does not stand directly behind every phenomenon. Pure
reasoning insists that God is an Abstract Being. Reasoning helped man to find out some order in the natural
world. The continuity, regularity and infallibility found in the natural order were attributed to some
"Principles" or "Power". Thus, principles and theories gained ascendency over feelings and speculations.
Even these metaphysical explanations were unsatisfactory to the mind. Still this kind of thinking corresponded
with the legal type of society, Comte maintained.
(iii) The Positive Stage
The positive stage represents the scientific way of thinking. As Comte stated, "In the final, the positive
stage, the mind has given over the vain search after Absolute notions, the origin and destination of the
universe, and the causes phenomena, and applies itself to the study of their laws - that is, their invariable
relations of succession and resemblance."
Comte developed his concept of positivism, which is a purely intellectual way of looking at the world. He
stressed the need for observation and classification of phenomena. He even said that it is futile to try to
determine causes. "We can observe uniformities, or laws, but it is mere speculation to assign cause to these
uniformities " - he stated. Positivism actually glorified observation and classification of data. The positive
thinking suits the needs of the industrial society.
STAGES IN SOCIAL ORGANISATION AND PROGRESS
Comte not only identified three stages in the development of human thinking but also observed three stages
in the development of society or social organisation. Each of these modes of thinking -the theological,
metaphysical and the positive - determines and corresponds to a type of social organisation. This
explanation of Comte could be regarded as another major contribution of his to social thought.
Comte declared that theological thinking leads to a military and monarchical social organisation. Here the
God would be there as the head of the hierarchy as King, of Kings and a mighty warrior. The human beings
would be arranged in a military organisation. Divine sanction rules. This divine sanction could hardly be
questioned or challenged. Dogmatism would prevail here and its challengers would be punished or
threatened with severe punishments.
Theological Stage
Metaphysical Stage
Positive Stage
Nature of Society:
Military Society
aLegal Society
Industrial Society
Unit of Society:
Family
N Nation
Entire Humanity
Basic Principle:
Love of Family
Mutual Co-Existence or
Universality or
Or Type of Order
Or Domestic order
Collective order
Universal Order
AAffection or
Mutual Respect or
Kindness or
AAttachment
Veneration
Benevolence
Prevailing
orsentiment:
Type of Order
CLASSIFICATION OF SCIENCES
Comte's theory relating to the "classification of sciences" is directly related with his "Law of Three Stages."
Just as mankind progresses only through certain determined stages, so also scientific knowledge passes through
similar stages of development. But all the sciences do not attain progress with the same rate of speed. Hence, he
felt the need to provide a hierarchy of sciences. The classification of the sciences with sociology as the latest and
greatest of the group, occupies the third phase in the Comtean system of thought.
Existence of "Classification of Sciences" - Prior to Comte
The idea of the "classification of sciences" did not originate with Comte. It did exist prior to Comte. From
times immemorial thinkers have been trying to classify knowledge on some basis. The early Greek thinkers
undertook to classify all knowledge under three headings: (1) physics, (2) ethics, and (3) politics.
Later on, Bacon made the classification on the basis of the faculties of man namely, (i) memory, (ii) imagination,
and (iii) reason. The science based upon memory is history; the science based upon imagination is poetry, and
the knowledge based upon reason is physics, chemistry, etc. Comtean classification of sciences has its own
specialties among which the following may be noted
Special Features of Comtean Classification of Sciences
1. Linkage with the "Law of Three Stages"
Comtean classification of sciences, as it is already stated, is linked with his famous contribution to the social
thought namely, the law of three stages. The logic of the link is that - as with individuals and societies, so with
the sciences themselves - they all pass through the same stages.
2. The Main Purpose of the Classification
It could be inferred that Comte had a specific purpose in providing a classification of sciences. The main aim of
the classification of knowledge by Comte was to prepare the background and the basis for the study of
"sociology a new science founded by him. On the basis of this principle he also determined the methodology of
sociology. It also helped him in establishing the relation between sociology and other sciences. It tried to
establish the fact that by discovering some general principles, it is possible to establish relationship among
various sciences.
3.
Classification
of Knowledge
on
the Basis
Comte chose "the order of increasing dependence" as his principle of classifying knowledge. Comte
"arranged the sciences so that each category may be grounded on the principal laws of the preceding category,
serve as a basis for the next ensuing category. The order, hence is one of increasing complexity and decreasing
generality. The most simple phenomena must be the most general - general in the sense of being everywhere
present."'
This principle could be stated in simple words in this way: The facts pertaining to different sciences differ in
complexity. Some facts are simple while others are complex. The complex facts being dependent on simple
facts are, general and are present everywhere. The sciences based upon complex sciences are, in turn, dependent
upon simple sciences Thus, each science is, in some measure, dependent upon some other science and by itself
forms a basis of some other science. On this basis Comte presented a serial order of sciences.
Comte was of the opinion that the more complex sciences in the course of their development will ultimately attain
the positive stage. He thus stated: "Any kind of knowledge reaches the positive stage early in proportion to its
generality, simplicity and independence of other departments. "Hence astronomy, the most general and
simple of all natural sciences, develops first. In time, it is followed by physics, chemistry, biology, and finally
sociology. Each science in this series depends for its emergence on the prior developments of its predecessors in
Hierarchy marked by the law of increasing complexity and decreasing generality."
4.
Comte considers mathematics the basic tool of the mind. "With mathematics as its chief tool the mind of man
can go anywhere in its thinking. Mathematics is the most powerful instrument which the mind may use in the
investigation of natural laws. "*
According to Comte, mathematics occupies the first place in the hierarchy of the sciences. Mathematics, in the
Comtean scheme, is not a constituent member of the group of sciences. It is the basis of them all. It is the oldest
and most perfect of all the sciences.
Comte gives importance to mathematics for yet another reason. He says that mathematics is "the science." It is the
science that measures precisely the relations-between objects and ideas. It ascertains the relationships between
things, a process which is basic to scientific thinking in all fields. Comte confidently asserts: "Education that is
based on any other method is faulty, inexact, and unreliable. It is only through mathematics that we can
understand sciences. "
Increasing Specificity
Physiology (Biology)
Complexity
Increasing Specificity
Physiology (Biology)
Complexity
Chemistry
synthesis
Physics
Relative Simplicity
Generality
Mathematics
Analytical
Hierarchy of Sciences : According to this view of the sciences, first proposed by Comte, the sciences can
be arranged in ascending order of complexity, with sciences higher in the hierarchy dependent, but not only
dependent, on those below. Thus, sociology makes assumptions about the physical and biological world, but
at the same time also involves an "emergent" level of analysis different from and not reducible to those
below.
6. Classification of Sciences into Inorganic and Organic
Comte stated that the classification of knowledge could be done in another manner by making use of
mathematics as the tool. Thus all natural phenomena could be categorized into two grand divisions: inorganic
and organic. Comparatively speaking, inorganic sciences [for example, astronomy, physics, chemistry] are
simpler and clearer. Organic sciences such as biology are more complex. "It involves the study of all life and
the general laws pertaining to the individual units of life.
Concluding Comments
1. Though the classification of sciences presented by Comte is not free from certain limitations, it still holds
some importance today. In this scheme of classification Comte found an appropriate place for sociology and
gave that discipline its name.
2. Comte successfully established through his classification of sciences that sociology is also a positive science.
He also stressed that sociology must be a theoretical discipline. "The conversion of sociology into a positive
science completed the system of positive philosophy thus marking the onset of the positive stage of development
of the human mind and human society. It meant, in Comte's view, the real "positive revolution, the victory of