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SASTRA UNIVERSITY
(A University established under section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956)
THANJAVUR 613402, TAMIL NADU.

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

BIBCBT - 507
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY MANUAL

SURFACE EVAPORATION
Aim
To determine the mass transfer coefficient for the evaporation of liquid into air under
natural convection conditions.
Theory
When a liquid is heated in an open container an increase in the vapor pressure of
liquid exerted at the surface of liquid with respect to temperature results. When the vapor
pressure reaches the value of atmospheric pressure, the liquid begins to boil and the
corresponding temperature is known as boiling point.
When the temperature of the liquid is higher than that of the atmosphere a driving
force exists due to difference in the vapor pressure of the liquid and partial pressure of vapor
in the air. Hence the transfer of mass from the surface of liquid to air occurs. From the
fundamentals and the rate of transfer, mass transfer coefficient can be calculated.
Procedure
The beaker is filled with sufficient amount of water and placed on the left side of a
balance.
2. The weight of the beaker with water is noted.
3. The immersion heater is inserted in to the beaker in such a way that the heater is not
in direct contact with beaker and balance.
4. The heater is switched on and water is heated to the desired temperature. The
temperature of water is maintained using a RTD.
5. The pan is balanced by adjusting the weights in the right side pan till the balance
comes to equilibrium.
6. Two grams is removed from the right side pan and the stop watch is started. The time
taken to reach the equilibrium position of pans is noted. This is due to the evaporation
of water in the left side pan into the air.
7. The procedure is continued by successively removing weights from the right side pan
and noting the time taken to reach the equilibrium position.
8. The ambient dry bulb temperature, pressure and relative humidity are measured.
1.

Observations
Diameter of the beaker (D) =
Surface area of the beaker
=
(For evaporation)
Volume of water taken
=
Initial weight of the system =
Capacity of the heater
=
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) =
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) =
Relative Humidity (RH)
=
TABULATION - I

S. No

Mass of
beaker and
water, (g)

Average
Temperature
of water

Temperature of water
(C)

Time taken for

evaporation of 5
gm of water, t (s)
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

Model Calculations
1. Rate of evaporation
N = 5/t =
(g/s)
Note:
To calculate the vapor pressure of water at a particular temperature, the constants A, B &
C in the Antoine Equation for water must be chosen in such a way that the units for
temperature and vapour pressure are in K and kPa respectively.
2. Vapor Pressure of water at temperature T,

PA = e

B
A

T C

3. Vapor Pressure of water at ambient temperature DBT

PA, amb

A

DBT C

PA,amb = e
=
*
4. Partial Pressure of water vapor in air PA = (RH * PA,amb) / 100 =
5. Mass transfer coefficient, kl =
TABULATION- II
Avg. Temp of
water
S. No
(K)

N
=
*
PA PA
(PA PA*)
(kPa)
PA
PA PA*

Evaporation
Rate, N
(kg/s)

Mass transfer
Coefficient, kl
(g/m2s. kPa)

Result
The mass transfer coefficient for evaporation of water into air under natural
convection conditions =

MOLECULAR DIFFUSION
Aim
To determine the diffusion coefficient of the given organic liquid.
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a T-tube made up of glass with graduations on the vertical
limb. The vertical limb of the tube can be filled with a liquid and the air is allowed to flow
through the horizontal line which is connected through a regulator to an air supply. The
amount of liquid diffusing at a particular time can be calculated by reading the liquid level.
Theory
When a gas-liquid interface is present, the transfer of liquid to the gas phase takes
place by molecular diffusion. This continues till the equilibrium is reached. The substance
moves from position of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. The rate at which
a solute moves at any point in any direction must therefore depend on the concentration
gradient at the point in that direction.
Procedure
1. The setup to the air line connection is made after filling the graduated tube with the given
organic liquid to a convenient level.
2. Air is allowed to pass over the liquid surface for some till the steady state is reached.
3. The initial level of the liquid is noted and the stop watch is started simultaneously.
4. The time taken for certain drop in the level of the liquid is noted.
5. The experiment is repeated to take five to six readings. The barometric pressure and the
ambient temperature are noted.
Observations
Density of organic liquid ( )
=
Molecular weight of organic liquid =
Dry bulb temperature (DBT)
=
TABULATION
Height (cm)
S. No

DAB (cm2/s)

Time, t (s)
Initial Z1

Final Z2

Model Calculations
1. Average temperature of organic liquid (T)
2. Partial pressure of organic liquid in air (PA1)
3. Total Pressure (Pt)

=
=
=

Note: To calculate the vapor pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature, the constants A,
B & C in the Antoine Equation for that liquid must be chosen in such a way that the units for
temperature and vapor pressure are in K and kPa respectively.
4. Vapor Pressure of organic liquid at temperature, T
5. PB1
6. PB2
7. PBM

= Pt PA1 =
= Pt PA2 =
PB 2 PB1
=

ln PB 2

P
B1

8. Diffusivity of the given organic liquid, DAB =

PA2 = e

B
A

T C

RTPBM Z 22 Z 12
2 Pt PA2 PA1 tM

Result
The diffusion coefficient of the given organic liquid (diethyl ether) =

DRYING IN A CURRENT OF HOT AIR

Aim
To draw a rate of drying curve for a given sample (wet brick) at constant drying
conditions and also to find the mass transfer coefficient and heat transfer coefficient using
current of hot air.
Apparatus
1. Drying Equipment (Blower, Heater, Drying chamber, Weighing balance)
2. Wet and Dry bulb thermometer.
Equipment Description
The drying equipment consists of a blower supplying air at constant flow rate and is
connected to an air heater, where the temperature of the air is raised to about 60-62 C. The
equipment is well insulated. Wet brick is attached through a thread to a counter poise balance
kept over the drying chamber.
Theory
Drying is the removal of relatively small amounts of moisture from a wet solid by
passing hot dry air. Water or other liquids may be removed from the solids mechanically by
presses or centrifuges or thermally by vaporization. It is generally cheaper to remove liquid
mechanically than thermally. The liquid content of a dried substance varied from product to
product occasionally the product contains no liquids and is called bore-drying. More
commonly the product thus contains some liquid. Drying is usually the final step in a series
of unit operations and the product from the drier is often ready for final packaging.
The rate of drying (moisture evaporated per unit area of drying surface) curve with
moisture content on the X-axis and the rate of drying is expressed as N plotted on the Y-axis.
In the beginning, the wet solid surfaces are usually colder than the ultimate surface
temperature (Ts), as evaporation rate increases the surface temperature raises to maximum
during the warming up period (the temperature of the solid becoming equal to the
temperature of the drying air). Consequently, constant rate period occurs during which the
layer of water on the surface of the solid is being evaporated. The amount of moisture
evaporated per unit time per unit area of drying surface, remains constant called constant
rate period. In these periods, the humidity of the surface equals the saturation humidity.
Then, the falling rate period (that is the amount of moisture evaporated per unit time per unit
area of drying surface) occurs due to some dry patches have started forming on the surface of
the solid. The rate of drying decreases for the unsaturated portion and hence rate for total
surface decreases. The moisture content at which, the change of constant rate period to
falling rate period (i.e., constant rate period ends and falling rate period starts) is called as
critical moisture content. Ultimately the drying becomes nil when equilibrium moisture
content is reached. The rate of drying depends on velocity, temperature and humidity of the
drying air and surface area of the solids. Drying operation may be carried out for reducing
the transportation cost, for making the material more suitable for handling and storage, in
some cases for preventing corrosion arising due to presence of moisture and reduce the
activity of the microorganisms.

Procedure
1. The blower is switched on.
2. The air heater is switched on and the temp. of the air is brought to around 60-62 C.
3. The mass of dry brick is noted. (W0)
4. The brick is wetted in a mug of distilled water for about 15 minutes so that it will be
saturated. The brick is removed out and the draining water is shaken off.
5. The brick is attached to the hook held in the thread, which is hanging from the
counterpoise balance.
6. The mass of wet brick is noted (W1) and then the stop clock is started. Two grams of
weight is removed from one pan and the time taken to reach the centre position is
noted.
7. The procedure is repeated until the entire moisture of the brick is removed. The heater
is switched off and after three minutes, the blower is switched off.
Graphs:
Graph-1: Plot Moisture content [X(t)] Versus Time(t) and draw the tangents for each point in the
curve and to determine their slopes.
Graph-2: Plot Rate of drying [N(t)] Versus Moisture content [X(t)] and to determine the critical
moisture content (Xc), constant drying rate (Nc)& equilibrium moisture content (X*).
Graph-3: Plot Rate of drying [N(t)] Versus time(t)] and it indicates how long each drying period
lasts.

Observations
1. Length of the brick (l)
=
2. Width of the brick (w)
=
3. Height of the brick (h)
=
4. Area of the brick (A)
=
5. Weight of dry brick (Wd)
=
6. Weight of wet brick (Ww)
=
7. Weight of the moisture content (Wmc) =
8. Wet bulb temperature (WBT)
=
9. Dry bulb temperature (DBT)
=
10. Steady state temperature (Tss)
=
11. Latent heat of vaporization of water (at Tss) =
TABULATION
Time taken for the
Weight of the
Moisture content (Xt)
removal of 2 gm of
S. No
wet brick (Wt)
moisture content
(g)
g of H2O/g of dry brick
(sec)

Drying rate
(Nt)
g of H2O/m2s

Model Calculation
1. Initial Moisture Content X (0)
2. Moisture Content at any time t, X (t)
3. Area of the brick (A)

= (Wt Wo)/Wo =
= (Wt - W0)/W0 =
= 2 x (l x w + h x w + l x h) =

4. Drying rate at any time t, N(t)

Ys =
Y=

dx(t )W0
=
dtA

(find the absolute humidity, corresponding to wet bulb temperature)

(find the absolute humidity, corresponding to dry bulb temperature)

5. Mass transfer coefficient (Ky)

6. Heat transfer coefficient (hg)

Nc
(Ys Y )
Nc
=
(Tg Ts)
=

7. Psychometric ratio

= [hg / Ky]

8. Duration of Constant rate period

(From graph 3)

9. Duration of Falling rate period

(From graph 3)

Result
Thus, the rate of drying curve for a given sample has been plotted and the following
parameters were determined.

1. The critical moisture content (Xc)

2. The constant rate of drying (Nc)

3. The equilibrium moisture content (X*)

4. Mass transfer coefficient (Ky)

5. Heat transfer coefficient (hg)

6. Psychometric ratio [hg / Ky]

SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Aim
To verify Rayleighs equation by conducting a batch distillation.
Theory
Distillation is the method adopted for separation of one of the components of two
miscible components in a liquid mixture. In differential distillation, the vapors generated by
the boiling liquid is withdrawn from contact with the liquid as fast as it is formed. This
operation is explained using Rayleighs equation given as
X

F
dx
F
Ln
W XW y * x
where F is the no. of moles of the feed, W is the number of moles of the residue, xf is the
mole fraction of more volatile component in the feed and x w is the mole fraction of more
volatile component in the residue.
Apparatus
The setup consists of a distillation flask, to which a condenser is attached. The
distillate is collected in a receiver through on adaptor. The still is heated by an electric hot
plate and a thermometer is used to measure the distillation temperature.

Procedure
1. A series of samples of 10ml of binary mixture A and B is made up and their densities
determined using a specific gravity bottle and an electronic balance.
2. A calibration curve is plotted between the densities and the volume fraction.
3. The distillation flask is charged with the given mixture and is heated at a slow,
uniform rate.
4. The heating is continued till approximately 45-50 % of total feed is collected as
distillate.
5. The hot plate is switched off and the flask is allowed to cool.
6. The densities of the distillate and the residue are measured using specific gravity
bottle and an electronic balance.
Observations
1. Volume of feed (Vf)

2. Volume of methanol (A) in feed (VA)

3. Volume of water (B) in feed (VB)

4. Volume of residue (Vr)

5. Volume of distillate collected (Vd)

TABULATION
Composition of mixture
S. No Volume % of Volume % of
A
B
1

100

20

80

40

60

60

40

80

20

100

VAD

VBD

VAW

VBW

Weight of empty
specific gravity
bottle, W0 (g)

Weight of bottle +
liquid mixture, W1
(g)

Density
(g/cm3)

Graphs:
Graph -1: Plot density versus volumetric composition of A
Graph II: Plot 1/(y*-x) versus x diagram for the components A in equilibrium with B
Model Calculation
Moles of methanol in feed (mAf)

VA A
MA

Moles of water in residue (mBf)

VB B
MB

Total Moles of feed (F)

= mAf + mBf

Mole fraction of methanol in feed (xf)

=mAf/F

Density of distillate
Density of residue

=
=

Volume fraction of methanol in residue (vAr)=

Volume fraction of water in residue (vBr) = 1- vAr

(from graph)

Moles of methanol in residue (mA)

Moles of water in residue (mB)

v Ar Vr A
MA
v Br Vr B
=
MB
=

Total moles of residue (W)

= mA+ mB

Mole fraction of methanol in residue (xw)

= mA / W

RHS of Rayleighs equation (Area under the curve)

Area = (No. of squares of 1mm2 area) (Scale on x-axis) (Scale on y-axis) (0.01)
LHS of Rayleighs equation
ln(F/W) =
% error
% error = (RHSLHS)/LHS
=

Result
Rayleighs equation is verified and the percentage error is found to be

10

TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Aim
To Calibrate the given thermometer systems.
Apparatus
1. Vapour Pressure thermometer
2. Mercury in steel thermometer
3. Bimetal thermometer
4. Mercury in glass thermometer
5. Resistance thermometer digital
6. Water bath
7. Stirrer
8. Stop clock
Procedure
1. Immerse the bulbs of the thermometer at a level of equal distance from the
bottom of the water bath and close to each other.
2. Raise the temperature of water bath gradually and steadily up to a temperature of
600C.
3. At known time intervals, simultaneously observe the temperature in all the
thermometer systems. Continue the observation up to 600C in the RTD system.
Stop heater.
4. Start cooling cycle at equal time intervals. Plot the temperature Vs Time for both
heating and cooling cycles. This measures the hysteresis effect, if any in the
Thermometer system.
TABULATION -I
I. During Heating
Time
S. No
Sec

Resistance
thermometer
Digital(RTD)
C

Vapour
pressure
thermometer
C

11

Bimetallic
thermometer
C

Mercury in
glass
thermometer
C

Mercury in
steel
thermometer
C

TABULATION - II
II. During Cooling
Time
S. No
Sec

Resistance
Vapour
thermometer
pressure
Digital(RTD) thermometer
C
C

Bimetallic
thermometer
C

Mercury in
glass
thermometer
C

Mercury in
steel
thermometer
C

Graphs
1. Plot Temp. Vs Time on same graph for the entire thermometer with different
columns.
2. VPT, BMT, MGT Vs RTD (For three thermometer systems, plot the temperature
measured at known time intervals against RTD).

Result
Thus the given thermometers systems are calibrated by using RTD and the graphs
were plotted.
S. No

Type of Thermometer

1.

Vapor pressure Thermometer

2.

Bimetallic Thermometer

3.

Mercury Glass Thermometer

Heating Period

12

Cooling Period

LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION
Aim
To determine the extraction efficiency of water to separate acetic acid from its solution
in benzene in single stage and double stage extraction.
Apparatus
1. Separating funnel
2. Beakers
3. Burette
4. Pipette
5. Std. sodium hydroxide solution of 0.1N
Discussion
Extraction is an operation in which two miscible liquids are separated by the use of a
third liquid that preferentially dissolves one of them. When separation of miscible liquids is
difficult by distillation, extraction method is considered. Close boiling mixtures or substances
that cannot withstand the temperature of distillation, even under a vacuum may often be
separated from impurities by extraction, which uses chemical differences instead of vapour
pressure differences. Extraction is widely used for the purification of petroleum products,
penicillin recovery and in nuclear effluent treatment.
Extraction equipments may be operated as batch or continuous units. Similarly they
can be operated in single stage and multi stage modes. Extraction involves mixing a known
quantity of feed with the known quantity of solvent in an agitated vessel, after which the
layers are separated as extract and raffinate. Extraction efficiency depends on the intimacy of
contact of the phases and on the number of stages of contact, permissible by economy.
Procedure
Single Stage extraction
1. 50 ml of benzene and 25 ml of glacial acetic acid are mixed well and taken as feed in
a stopper bottle
2. 30 ml of water is added to the bottle and the contents are mixed thoroughly by
shaking the bottle
3. After 15 minutes , the contents of the bottle are transferred to a separating funnel
4. The extract layer is carefully removed from the separating funnel and transferred to a
beaker and its volume is measured
5. A known volume of the extract sample is titrated against 0.1 N NaOH solution and
the volume of NaOH consumed is determined
13

Two Stage Extraction

1. 50 ml of benzene and 25 ml of glacial acetic acid are mixed well and taken as feed in
a stopper bottle
2. 15 ml of water is added to the bottle and the contents are mixed thoroughly by
shaking the bottle
3. After 15 minutes the contents of the bottle are transferred to a separating funnel
4. The extract layer is carefully removed from the separating funnel and transferred to a
beaker and its volume is measured
5. A known volume of the extract sample is titrated against 0.1 N Std. NaOH solution
and the volume of NaOH consumed is determined
6. The raffinate from the first stage is transferred to another stopper bottle to which 15
ml of water is added and the bottle is thoroughly shaken to mix the contents well
7. After 15 minutes, the contents of the bottle are transferred to a separating funnel.
8. The extract layer (from the second stage) is carefully removed from the separating
funnel and transferred to a beaker and its volume is measured
9. A known volume of the extract sample is titrated against 0.1 N Std. NaOH solution
and the volume of NaOH consumed is determined.
Observations
Single Stage Extraction
Volume of acetic acid in the feed (Vf)
Volume of benzene in the feed
Volume of the extract (Ve)
Volume of raffinate (Vr)

=
=
=
=

TABULATION - I
S. No

Volume of extract
taken for titration
(V2) ml

Normality of
NaOH (N1) N

Volume of NaOH
consumed (V1) ml

Model Calculations
Normality of extract (Ne)
Amount of acetic acid in the extract layer (W)
Single stage extraction efficiency ()

= (V1 N1)/V2
= (60VeNe) / 1000
= (100 W) / (Vfa)

Two stage extraction

First stage
Volume of extract (Ve1)
Volume of raffinate (Vr1)

=
=
14

Indicator

TABULATION - II
Volume of extract
S. No taken for titration
(V21) ml

Normality of
NaOH (N1) N

Volume of NaOH
consumed (V11) ml

Normality of extract (Ne1)

= (V11 N1)/V21

Amount of acetic acid in the extract layer (W1)

= (60Ve1Ne1)/1000

Indicator

Second stage
Volume of extract (Ve2)
Volume of raffinate (Vr2)
TABULATION - III
Volume of extract
S. No
taken for titration
(V22) ml

=
=

Normality of
NaOH (N1) N

Volume of NaOH
consumed (V12)
ml

Normality of extract (Ne2)

= (V12 N1) / V22

Amount of acetic acid in the extract layer (W2)

= (60Ve2Ne2) / 1000

Single stage extraction efficiency ()

= 100 (W1+W2)/(Vfa)

Indicator

Result
The extraction of acetic acid from benzene using water is conducted in single stage
and in two stages and the separation efficiencies are reported as follows
Efficiency in Single stage extraction

Efficiency in Two stage extraction

15

STEAM DISTILLATION
Aim
1. To verify the law of vapor pressure of immiscible liquids and to calculate the
vaporization efficiency and thermal efficiency of the steam distillation process.
2. To calculate the molecular weight of the given liquid by steam distillation.
Discussion
The process of steam distillation is applicable to liquids that are not miscible with
water. The phase rule states that the number of degrees of freedom (F), the number of
components (C) and the number of phases (P) are related by the equation,
F+P=C+2
In a system of two immiscible liquids the number of components is two and the
number of phases is three. Substituting these values in the above equation, we get F = 1, i.e.
the degrees of freedom is one. Fixing either the pressure or the temperature completely
defines such a system. For example, if the temperature of the system is fixed, the total vapor
pressure of the system is fixed as well as the vapor pressures of the individual components.
On the other hand, if the pressure is fixed, then the temperature at which the distillation takes
place is fixed.
From the above discussion, it can be seen that for a system comprising of two
immiscible liquids A and B the sum total of the vapor pressures equals the external pressure
(P). Thus, if PA is the vapor pressure of the component at the boiling point, the vapor
pressure of the second component, PB is equal to P-PA. If the vapor in equilibrium with such
a mixture is condensed, then the number of molecules of each component in the condensate
will be proportional to PA and PB and the mass of each component will be in the ratio,
WA PA M A

WB PB M B
Where WA and WB are the masses of A & B, MA and MB are the molecular weights of the
components A & B respectively.
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a steam generator, a condenser, a steam still and a receiver.
The condensate eliminator is attached to the steam still which contains the liquid to be a
condenser and a receiver for collecting the distillate. Provision is made for reading the
temperature of the vapor issuing out of the steam still. The apparatus is completely lagged
except the condenser and receiver to prevent heat loss due to radiation.
Procedure
1. The apparatus is set and 100 ml of the given organic liquid is taken in the still and the
steam is bubbled through the liquid.
2. The liquid mixture is allowed to boil and the temperature of the vapor mixture is
noted.
3. The condensate is collected in the receiver.
4. The steam supply is stopped and the steam still is allowed to cool down to the room
temperature.

16

5. The condensate and the residue are poured in two separate measuring jars and allowed
to stand for some tine till the mixture separates in to two clear layers.
6. The volumes of the organic liquid and water are noted in both the condensate and the
residue.
7. The barometric reading is noted which gives the atmospheric pressure and the
densities of water and the organic liquid ate the room temperature.
Observations
1. Volume of aniline in the feed (VBF)
2. Temperature at the start of distillation (T)
3. Volume of distillate collected (VD)
4. Volume of residue collected (VR)
5. Volume of water in distillate (VA,D)
6. Volume of aniline in distillate (VB,D)
7. Volume of water in residue (VA,R)
8. Volume of aniline in residue (VB,R)
9. Density of aniline (B)
10. Density of water (A)
11. Molecular weight of aniline (MB)
12. Molecular weight of water (MA)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Model Calculations
Note: To calculate the vapor pressure of a liquid at a particular temperature, the constants A,
B & C in the Antoine Equation for that liquid must be chosen in such a way that the units for
temperature and vapor pressure are in K and kPa respectively.
1. Vapor Pressure of water at temperature, T
PA

=e

B
A

T C

2. Vapor Pressure of aniline at temperature, T

PB = e

B
A

T C

3. Theoretical ratio of mass of aniline collected per unit mass of water

WB
PM

B B
WA t PA M A
4. Actual ratio of mass of aniline collected per unit mass of water
V
WB

B , D B
WA a V A , D A

17

5. Vaporization efficiency ()

WB

WA a
=
100
WB

WA t

WB

PA M A
WA a
6. Molecular weight of the given liquid (MB) =
PB
7. Heat Input = Heat content of steam + Heat content of aniline in feed
= VA, D VA,W A c p100

Heat content of steam

is the latent heat of vaporization of water at 100 C , whose value is 2256.9 kJ/kg
cp,B is the heat capacity of aniline given by the equation, cp,B = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
Note: The above expression for is to be integrated as follows to determine the heat
content of aniline in feed, in residue and in vapors. Similar equation with different
constants is to be used to determine the heat content of water in residue and vapor.
Heat content of aniline in feed

= VB , D VB ,W B

T f 273

pB

dT

273

8. Heat Output
Heat content of residue

= Heat content of Residue + Heat content of vapors

= Heat content of water in residue
+
Heat content of aniline in residue

Heat content of water in residue

= VA,W A

T 273

= VB ,W B

T 273

dT

dT

pA

273

Heat content of aniline in residue

pB

273

Heat content of vapors = Heat content of water vapor + Heat content of aniline vapors
Note: To calculate the heat of water and aniline vapors, latent heat of vaporization of
respective liquids at the temperature of start of distillation have to be found out using
Watson equation as follows:

T T

Watson Equation is T C
1 TC T1

0.38

Where TC, T1, T are critical temperature, normal boiling point & the temperature at the
start of distillation at which is to be determined, respectively.
1 is the latent heat of vaporization of liquid at its normal boiling point

18

Heat content of water vapor

Heat content of aniline vapors

9. Thermal Efficiency

T 273

= VA, D A c pAdT T , A
273

T 273

= VB , D B c pBdT T , B
273

= Heat output / Heat input

Result
1. Vaporization Efficiency
=
2. Molecular weight of aniline =
3. Thermal Efficiency
=

19

HORIZONTAL CONDENSER
Aim
To determine, the individual and overall heat transfer coefficients for a horizontal
condenser.
Apparatus Required
1. Single tube horizontal condenser
2. Steam boiler
3. Thermometers
4. Bucket
5. Stop clock
6. Weighing Machine
Theory
A fluid may exist in gas, liquid, vapour phase. The change from liquid to vapour is
called evaporation and the change from vapour to liquid is called condensation. The quantity
of heat involved in condensation is identical for a pure liquid compound at given pressure.
The changes from vapour to liquid or liquid to vapour occur at one temperature called as
saturation or equilibrium temperature. The cooling water passes through the tube and hot
vapors are condensed outside the tube.
Condensation occurs at very different rate of heat transfer by either of two distinct
physical mechanisms.
1. Drop wise condensation
2. Film wise condensation
When a saturated pure vapour comes in contact with cold surface, it condenses and
may form liquid droplets on the surface. These drops may fall from the surface leaving bare
surface which successive droplets of condensate may from, when condensation occurs by this
mechanism is called as drop wise condensation. The condensation mostly resembles drop
wise and begins to form at microscopic nucleation sites. Typical sites are tiny pits, scratches
and dust specks. The drop grows coalesce with their neighbors to form visible fine drops and
gradually run into droplets under the action of gravity, sweep away and clear the surface for
fresh droplets.
Sometimes or usually the condensate may from a coating like film on the surface
instead droplets. Additional vapour is required condense in to the liquid film rather from
directly on surface. This phenomenon is called as film wise condensation.
Mainly drop wise condensation occurs when the vapour is a mixture. Usually the
vapors of hydrocarbons and steam form drop wise condensation. In most of the cases the
initial condensation is film wise, then it will turnover to drop wise. Drop wise condensation
will have a higher heat transfer coefficient.
Condensers are used in both the ways horizontally or vertically. The value of
condensing film coefficient for a given quantity of vapour on the given surface affected by
the position of the condenser. The horizontal condenser film coefficient should be 3.7 times
as great as the vertical condenser. The condensers, which are design for high overall heat
transfer coefficient or usually installed horizontally to facilitate the distribution of the vapour
and removal of the condensate.
Single tube horizontal condensers are commonly used in process industries. The heat
transfer coefficient higher with drop wise condensation compared to film wise condensation.

20

The demerit here is that the condenser occupies large amount of available horizontal space,
when compared to vertical condenser.
Procedure
1. The cold water from the overhead tank is allowed to flow through an inside pipe of
condenser at several flow rates during experiment.
2. The inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water are noted. The flow rate is noted by
using bucket for collection of water for a known time.
3. The steam is gradually opened and is allowed to flow through the annular space of the
condensers and pressure maintained constant in the range of 0.5-1.5 Kgf/cm2, gauge
for several runs.
4. The condensate is collected for known steam temperature. The procedure is repeated
for different flow rates of water.
5. The experiment is repeated for few steam pressure in the range of 0.5-1.5 Kgf/cm2.
Observation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Length of the pipe (L)

=
Inner diameter of the inner pipe (di) =
Outer diameter of the inner pipe (do) =
Thickness of the inner pipe (Xi)
=
Inner diameter of the outer pipe (Di) =
Outer diameter of the outer pipe (Do)=
Thickness of the outer pipe (Xo)
=

TABULATION I
Gauge pressure
S. No

Kgf / cm2

bar

Temperature in C

Inlet (T1)

Outlet (T2)

21

dT = (T2-T1)
C

Mass flow
rate of water
(mw), kg/sec

Mass flow rate

of condensate
(ms), kg/sec

TABULATION - II
Stea
m
Ts
w in
S.N Press
ure
o
kg/m
bar
C
3

S.
No

Kw

w/m m2/
C
s

Vw

Npr

m/s

dTH
Qs

2O,

Cpw

avg

KJ/
kg

NRe

NN
u

kJ/k
gk

dTH

Twal

2O

Tf

kg/
m3

m2 /
s

Tw

dT
for
hs

dT
for
hw

hw

w/m w/m w/m

2
K 2K 2K

hw

hs

Uexp

w/m
C

w/m2
K

w/m2
K

w/m
2
K

TABULATION - III
Model Calculation
I. DETERMINATION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (hexp):

I.1 Water side heat transfer coefficient (hw)exp:

(1) dTH2O, avg = [(Tin Tout)/2]
(2) Twall
= [(0.75 x Ts) + (0.25 x dTH2O, avg)
(3) dT
= Twall-TH2O, avg
(4) Ai
= diL
(5) Heat gained by water, (Qw)
Qw
= mwCp dT
(6)
(hw)exp = [Qw / Ai .dT]
I.2 Steam side heat transfer coefficient (hs)exp:
1. Steam pressure
=
Kgf/cm2
=
bar
2. Absolute pressure
=
Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
=
bar

22

Uexp

all

hs

3. From Steam Table, Temperature base (corresponding to the above pressure)

3.1 Steam temperature, (Ts)
=
3.2 Latent heat of steam, (s) = hfg =
4. Heat supplied by steam, (Qs)
= ms* s
5. Surface area of steam side (Ao)
= doL
6. dT
= Ts-Twall
7. (hs)exp
= [Qs/Ao .dT]
I.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient, (Uexp)
Uexp

= [(1) / {(1/hw) + (1/hs*(di/do))}]

II. DETERMINATION OF THEORETICAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (htheo):

II.1 Water side heat transfer coefficient (hw)theo:

1. Cross sectional area of the pipe, Ap = di2/4
2. Velocity of water, Vw
= mw/wAp
3. Reynolds Number, NRe
= [diVww /w] or [diVw /w]
4. Prandtl Number, Npr
= [Cp/K] or [/]
5. For Turbulent flow (inside) condition, we can use Dittus-Boelter equation
NNu = 0.023 [NRe] 0.8 [Npr]0.4 =
NNu = hwdi / Kwall
(hw)theo = [NNu * Kwall /di]
6. Reference film temperature, Tf = 0.25 Ts + 0.75 Twall
II.2 Steam side heat transfer coefficient (hs)theo:
(hs)theo
= 0.725 [(ks 3s 2gcs) /(dos To)]
II.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient, (Utheo):
Utheo

= [(1) /{(1/hw,theo)+ (1/hs,theo*(di/do)}]

Result
Thus the overall heat transfer coefficient and individual heat transfer coefficient
for a horizontal condenser was determined.
I. By experimentally,
I.1 The individual heat transfer coefficient for water side (hw)exp =
I.2 The individual heat transfer coefficient for steam side (hs)exp =
I.3 The overall heat transfer coefficient (Uexp)
=
II. By Theoretically,
I.1 The individual heat transfer coefficient for water side (hw)theo =
I.2 The individual heat transfer coefficient for steam side (hs)theo =
I.3 The overall heat transfer coefficient (Utheo)
=

23

VERTICAL CONDENSER
Aim
To determine, the individual and overall heat transfer coefficients for a horizontal
condenser.
Apparatus Required
1.Single tube vertical condenser
2.Steam boiler
3.Thermometers
4.Bucket
5.Stop clock
6.Weighing Machine
Theory
A fluid may exist in gas, liquid, vapour phase. The change from liquid to vapour
is called evaporation and the change from vapour to liquid is called condensation. The
quantity of heat involved in condensation is identical for a pure liquid compound at given
pressure. The changes from vapour to liquid or liquid to vapour occur at one temperature
called as saturation or equilibrium temperature. The cooling water passes through the
tube and hot vapors are condensed outside the tube.
Condensation occurs at very different rate of heat transfer by either of two distinct
physical mechanisms.
3. Drop wise condensation
4. Film wise condensation
When a saturated pure vapour comes in contact with cold surface, it condenses
and may form liquid droplets on the surface. These drops may fall from the surface
leaving bare surface which successive droplets of condensate may from, when
condensation occurs by this mechanism is called as drop wise condensation. The
condensation mostly resembles drop wise and begins to form at microscopic nucleation
sites. Typical sites are tiny pits, scratches and dust specks. The drop grows coalesce with
their neighbors to form visible fine drops and gradually run into droplets under the action
of gravity, sweep away and clear the surface for fresh droplets.
Sometimes or usually the condensate may from a coating like film on the surface
instead droplets. Additional vapour is required condense in to the liquid film rather from
directly on surface. This phenomenon is called as film wise condensation.
Mainly drop wise condensation occurs when the vapour is a mixture. Usually the
vapors of hydrocarbons and steam form drop wise condensation. In most of the cases the
initial condensation is film wise, then it will turnover to drop wise. Drop wise
condensation will have a higher heat transfer coefficient.
Condensers are used in both the ways horizontally or vertically. The value of
condensing film coefficient, for a given quantity of vapour on the given surface affected
by the position of the condenser. The horizontal condenser film coefficient should be 3.7
times as great as the vertical condenser. The condensers, which are design for high

24

overall heat transfer coefficient or usually installed horizontally to facilitate the

distribution of the vapour and removal of the condensate.
Single tube vertical condensers are commonly used in process industries. The heat
transfer coefficient higher with drop wise condensation compared to film wise
condensation. The advantage of vertical condenser occupies less space and it gives more
heat transfer coefficient when compared to horizontal condenser.
Procedure
1. The cold water from the overhead tank is allowed to flow through an inside
pipe of condenser at several flow rates during experiment.
2. The inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water are noted. The flow rate is
noted by using bucket for collection of water for a known time.
3. The steam is gradually opened and is allowed to flow through the annular
space of the condensers and pressure maintained constant in the range of
0.5-1.5 Kgf/cm2, gauge for several runs.
4. The condensate is collected for known steam temperature. The procedure
is repeated for different flow rates of water.
5. The experiment is repeated for few steam pressure in the range of 0.5-1.5
Kgf/cm2.
Observation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Length of the pipe (L)

Inner diameter of the inner pipe (di)
Outer diameter of the inner pipe (do)
Thickness of the inner pipe (Xi) =
Inner diameter of the outer pipe (Di)
Outer diameter of the outer pipe (Do)
Thickness of the outer pipe (Xo) =

=
=
=
=
=

TABULATION - I
Gauge pressure
S. No

Kgf/cm

bar

Temperature in C

Inlet (T1)

Outlet (T2)

25

dT = (T2-T1)
C

Mass flow
rate of water
(mw), kg/sec

Mass flow rate

of condensate
(ms), kg/sec

TABULATION - II

S. No

Steam
Pressure

Ts

dTH

w in

kg/m3

KJ/k
w
g

Qs

Cpw

2O,
avg

bar

kJ/k
gk

dTH
2O

dT
Twall for
hs

dT
for
hw

hw

hs

Uexp

w/m
2
K

w/m
2
K

w/m
2
K

TABULATION - III

Kw

w/m
C

m2 /
s

Vw

S.No
m/s

Npr

NRe

NN
u

Tf

kg/
m3

m2 /
s

26

Twa

hw

hs

Uexp

w/m
C

w/m2
K

w/m2
K

w/m2
K

ll

Model Calculation
I. DETERMINATION OF EXPERIMENTAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (hexp):

I.1 Water side heat transfer coefficient (hw)exp:

(1) dTH2O, avg
(2) Twall
(3) dT
(4) Ai

= [(Tin Tout)/2]
= [(0.75 x Ts) + (0.25 x dTH2O, avg)
= Twall-TH2O, avg
= diL

(5) Heat gained by water, (Qw)

Qw
= mwCp dT
(6)
(hw)exp = [Qw / Ai .dT]
I.2 Steam side heat transfer coefficient (hs)exp:
=
Kgf/cm2
=
bar
2. Absolute pressure
=
Gauge pressure+ Atmospheric pressure
=
bar
3. From Steam Table, Temperature base (corresponding to the above pressure)
3.2 Steam temperature, (Ts)
=
3.2 Latent heat of steam, (s) = hfg =
4. Heat supplied by steam, (Qs)
= ms* s
5. Surface area of steam side (Ao)
= doL
6. dT
= Ts-Twall
7. (hs)exp
= [Qs/Ao .dT]
1. Steam pressure

I.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient, (Uexp)

Uexp

= [(1) / {(1/hw) + (1/hs*(di/do))}]

II. DETERMINATION OF THEORETICAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT (htheo):

II.1 Water side heat transfer coefficient (hw)theo:

1. Cross sectional area of the pipe, Ap = di2/4
2. Velocity of water, Vw
= mw/wAp
3. Reynolds Number, NRe

= [diVww /w] or [diVw /w]

4. Prandtl Number, Npr

= [Cp/K] or [/]

27

5. For Turbulent flow (inside) condition, we can use Dittus-Boelter equation

NNu = 0.023 [NRe] 0.8 [Npr]0.4 =
NNu = (hw)theo di / Kwall
(hw)theo = [NNu * Kwall /di]
6. Reference film temperature (Tf)
Tf
= 0.25 Ts + 0.75 Twall
II.2 Steam side heat transfer coefficient (hs)theo:
(hs)theo
= 0.943 [(ks 3 s2 gc s) / (Ls To)]
II.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient, (Utheo):
Utheo = [(1) /{(1/hw,theo)+ (1/hs,theo*(di/do)}]

Result
Thus the overall heat transfer coefficient and individual heat transfer coefficient for a
horizontal condenser was determined.
I. By experimentally,
I.1 The individual heat transfer coefficient for water side (hw)exp =
I.2 The individual heat transfer coefficient for steam side (hs)exp =
I.3 The overall heat transfer coefficient (Uexp)

II. By Theoretically,
I.1 The individual heat transfer coefficient for water side (hw)theo =
I.2 The individual heat transfer coefficient for steam side (hs)theo =
I.3 The overall heat transfer coefficient (Utheo)

28

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH HELICAL COIL IN A VESSEL

Aim
To determine the heat transfer coefficient through tube of coils held in a vessel of
Stainless Steel.
Apparatus
1.
2.
3.
4.

Jacketed vessel with electrical heating

Thermostat
Stop Clock
Thermometers

Theory

Heat transfer through coils is widely followed in chemical operations. Cooling water
or heat transfer fluids are generally sent through coils immersed in the medium to be cooled
or heated. The heat transfer is efficient, because the coil material is usually copper or Brass.
Viscous fluids that could not be heated by direct firing are generally heated through helical
coils.

Procedure
The tank is filled and the volume is noted. The thermostat is switched on and the
water is heated to required temperature between 50 and 60 C. The temperature is set at
thermostat. The cooling water is now emitted inside the coil is started. Note down inlet and
outlet temperatures of the coil. Also, the flow rate is measured by collecting water in a
weighed bucket for a known time. The procedure is repeated for different water flow rates,
allowing steady state after each change. Similarly different bath temperatures are adjusted
and the experiment is repeated.
Observation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Vessel diameter (Dv)

=
Height of water in the vessel =
Diameter of the coil (Dc)
=
Number of coils (N)
=
Inner diameter of tube (di) =
Outer diameter of tube (d0) =
Thickness of the tube wall (xw) = (d0 di) / 2 =
Thermal conductivity of copper (Kw)

29

TABULATION - II

I. Natural convection

S. No

Bath
temperature
C

Water temperature
C
Inlet T1

Out let T2

Mass flow rate

Kg/2min

Kg/sec

TABULATION - II
II. Forced convection
Water temperature in C
S.No

Bath
temperature
in C

Inlet T1

Out let T2

30

Mass flow rate

Kg/2min

Kg/sec

Model Calculation
I. Calculation of theoretical heat transfer coefficient (hth, Coil)
1. Tavg = (T1+T2) / 2
2. Ai = (di2)/4
3. u = m* / Ai
[we know that, m* = uAi]
4. NRe = [diuw /w] or [diu /w] or [m* di/ Ai]
5. NPr = [Cp/K] or [/]
6. NNu = 0.023 (NRe)0.8 (Npr)0.4
[for inside flow, turbulent conditions]
7. hth, Straight = NNu (K/di)
8. hth, Coil = hth, Straight [ 1+ 3.5(di/Dc)]

II. Calculation of Experimental heat transfer coefficient (hexp, Coil)

1. L = DcN
2. As = d0L
3. T1 = (Ts T1)
4. T2 = (Ts T2)
5. TLMTD = (T1 T2 ) / ln(T1 / T2)
6. Q* = m* Cp (T2 T1)
hexp, Coil = Q* / { As (Ts TLMTD)}

Natural Convection

S.N
o

Tavg
C

Cp
J/kg k

Q
w

Npr

NRe

NNu

31

K
w/mk

TLMTD

hexp
Kw/m2k

hthoe
Kw/m2k

Forced Convection

S.No

Tavg
C

Cp
J/kg k

Q
w

Npr

NRe

NNu

K
w/m
k

TLMTD

hexp
w/m2
k

hthoe
w/m2
k

Result
Thus, the Heat Transfer coefficients for a tube of coil fitted in a vessel of stainless
steel were conducted and results were tabulated.
1. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient in straight tube (hth, Straight)

2. Theoretical heat transfer coefficient in coils (hth, Coil)

3. Experimental heat transfer coefficient in coils (hexp, Coil)

32

TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION

Aim
To verify transient heat conduction law with constant flux and to determine
theoretical temperature at t seconds.
Formula used
n

2

l
T Ta
x
n

x
2
e

2
1

(1 / n) sin
Ts Ta
l

l
n 1

Where
T is the temperature at distance x
Ts is the steam temperature
Ta is the water temperature
is the thermal diffusivity
L is the length of rod
X is the distance from the hot end
Procedure
1. The water is allowed to flow through the experimental set up by opening inlet valve.
2. Place the thermometer in the thermo well at the locations.
3. Open steam inlet valve & maintain steam pressure at 0.1 kg/cm2 gauge by adjusting
Steam valve.
4. Start the stop watch simultaneously as soon as steam is allowed.
5. Note down temperature at each locations at regular intervals till steady state is
attained.
6. Repeat for other two rods provided.
TABULATION - I
Length of the rod (L)
Thermal conductivity of stainless steel
FOR STAINLESS STEEL
Time
S. No
sec
T1

=
=
Temperature C
T2
T3
T4

33

T5

TABULATION - II
Length of the rod
Thermal conductivity of mild steel
FOR MILD STEEL
Time
S. No
sec

=
=

T1

T2

Temperature
C
T3

T4

T5

TABULATION III
Length of the rod
=
Thermal conductivity of brass =
FOR BRASS
S. No

Time
sec

Temperature
C
T2
T3

T1

34

T4

T5

Model Calculations
I. Stainless steel

T Ta

1.
2.
3.
4.

Ts Ta

1 x

(1 / n) sin nx
n 1

e
l

n
l

X=
X=
X=
X=

II. Mild steel

T TaTsTa 1 x l 2 (1/ n) sinnx l e

T TaTsTa 1 x l 2 (1/ n) sinnx l e

n 1

1.
2.
3.
4.

X=
X=
X=
X=

III. Brass

n 1

1.
2.
3.
4.

X=
X=
X=
X=

Graph: Plot the experimental and calculated temperature versus Distance from hot end
Result
The theoretical temperature at given time are calculated and results are tabulated
below

S. No

Material

Temperature C
T1

T2

35

T3

T4

T5

BARE TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER

Aim
To find the steam side heat transfer coefficient and air side heat transfer coefficient
Apparatus
1. Steam boiler
2. Bare heat exchanger
3. Stop clock
4. Measuring gauge
5. Thermometer
6. Bucket
7. Balance
8. Length of tube 1 m, outside diameter of tube 10.3cm, inside dia of tube 10cm,material
construction SS 304
Theory
Heat exchangers are important equipments in process synthesis .Their designs have
been well developed .Heat exchangers come under different names depending on the process
example boilers, condensers, dryers, regenerative furnaces, recuperators, jacketed vessels,
coil type heat exchangers, plate tight heat exchangers ,evaporators and so many. Apart from
steam heating fluids, hot flue gases, hot air, molten metals etc serve as medium. Heat
exchanger medium performance is affected by many parameters like material of construction,
tube length, bottle spring, no pf passes, pressure deep due to flow of fluids etc many
standards like TEMA (tubular exchanger manufacturers association) ASTM(American
society for testing material) , ASME API Unfired Pressure Vessel Code (American Society
of Mechanical Engineers-American Petroleum Institute), I.S. Code (Indian Standards) are all
available now for structural and mechanical design of heat exchangers. For details refer to
McCabe and Smith V edition.
Procedure
1. The steam is allowed into the heat exchanger at a constant steam pressure (0.2 to 1
kg/sq cm) by regulating steam inlet valve.
2. The valves on the top of the exchanger are opened partially and the exchanger is
allowed to stabilize with surroundings .The exit valve is opened.
3. The condensate is simultaneously collected in the bucket or bare tube for a known
time. The volume of condensate is measured.
4. The procedure is repeated for different steam pressures.
Observation
1. Length of tube (L)
2. Outer diameter (do)
3. Inner diameter (di)
4. Atmospheric pressure
5. Ambient temperature (Tamb)

=
=
=
=
=

36

TABULATION - I

S. No

Gauge pressure

Atmospheric
pressure

Kgf/cm2

atm

bar

bar

Steam
temperature
TsC

Bare tube condensate

Kg / 2 min

Kg/sec

Model Calculation
I. For theoretical calculation
1. Tf = (Ts+Twall)/2 (Taking the property of the air, corresponding to film temperature, Tf).
2. Twall = (Ts+Tamb)/2
3. T = (Twall +Tamb)/2
4. = 1/T
5. NGr = (gL3T)/2
6. NPr = [Cp/K] or [/]
7. NGa = Npr.NGr
8. Nu = 0.59 (NGa)0.25
9. hair = Nu*(K/L)
10. hs = 0.943 [K32gs / LT]0.25
11. Utheo
= 1/(1/hs+1/hair (di/do))
II. For experimental calculation:
1. Steam pressure
2. Absolute pressure =
=

=
Kgf/cm2
=
bar
Gauge pressure+ Atmospheric pressure
bar

3. From Steam Table, Temperature base (corresponding to the above pressure)

Steam temperature, (Ts)
Latent heat of steam, (s)
4. Heat supplied by steam, (Qs)
5. Surface area of steam side (Ao)
6. T = (Ts - Tamb)
7. Uexp = Qs/AoT

=
= hfg =
= ms s
= doL

37

TABULATION - II
S.
No

Gauge
pressure

Absolute
pressure

ms
kg/s

NNu

Uthoe
K
hair

hs
Uexp
2
w/m
k
w/mk w/m2k Kg/m3 w/m2k w/m2k

Qs
Kw

Ts
C

Tf
C

dT
C

Twall
C

C-1

m2/s

s
kg/s

TABULATION - III
S.
No

T
C

Npr

NGr

Result
Thus the steam side and air side heat transfer coefficients were determined. The
values are given below,
1. The individual heat transfer coefficient for air side, hair =
2. The individual heat transfer coefficient for steam side, hs=
3. The theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient is, Utheo =
4. The experimental overall heat transfer coefficient is, Uexp =

38

INFRA RED RADIATION DRYING

Aim
To study the drying characteristics of given sample using infra red radiation.
Equipment Description
The apparatus consist of an infra red lamp with reflector which can be illuminated in a
controlled amount using a variac. The material to be dried is placed on a tray and spread as a
thin layer. The tray is placed on the balance pan and the loss in weight is recorded as a
function of time.
Theory
Infra red radiation is one of the special drying methods. The radiation is usually
applied by infra red lamps, and the material to be dried passes through a tunnel lined with
banks of such lamps. This procedure is suitable for drying thin film on the surface of the
material. It is used for drying paint on automobile bodies and for drying certain food and
pharmaceutical products in their final stages to make them immune to bacterial attack, and
for heat sensitive materials.
Procedure
1. The tray is placed on the balance and its empty weight is found out.(W0)
2. About 250 g of finely sized sand is taken in the tray and weighted (W1)
3. Water is sprinkled over the sand that the solid is just wet and the excess water is
drained off without the loss of sand. The weight of this wet sand is found
out.(W2)
4. The infra red lamp is switched on and stop clock is started simultaneously. The
intensity of radiation is adjusted using the variac.
5. A weight of 2g is removed from one of the pans and the time taken for the pans to
get balanced is noted.
6. The procedure is continued till the dry weight of sand is reached.
Graphs:
Graph-1: Plot Moisture content [X(t)] Versus Time(t) and draw the tangents for each point
in the curve and to determine their slopes.
Graph-2: Plot Rate of drying [N(t)] Versus Moisture content [X(t)] and to determine the
critical moisture content (Xc), constant drying rate (Nc)& equilibrium moisture content (X*).
Observations
1. Length (l)
2. Width (w)
3. Height (h)

=
=
=

39

TABULATION
Weight of the
solid with pan,
S. No
(Wt)
(g)

Time taken for the

removal of 2 gm of
moisture content, (t)
(sec)

Moisture content (Xt)

g of H2O/g of dry
material

Drying rate
(Nt)
g of H2O/m2s

Model Calculation
1. Initial Moisture Content X (0)
2. Moisture Content at any time t, X (t)
3. Mass transfer Area (A)

= (Wt Wo)/Wo =
= (Wt - W0)/W0 =
= LB =
m2

4. Drying rate at any time t, N(t)

dx(t )W1 W0
=
dtA

Result
Thus, the rate of drying curve for a given sample has been plotted and the following
parameters were determined.

1. The constant rate of drying (Nc)

2. The first critical moisture content (Xc1)

3. The second moisture content (Xc2)

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