Fluid Flow Fundamentals

Full appreciation of developments in production logging requires an understanding of the complex

mechanics of fluid flow. This article outlines the basics of both monophase and multiphase flow.

Grard Catala
Bernard Thron
Clamart, France
Gilbert Conort
Montrouge, France
John Ferguson
Cambridge, England

Researchers have sought for years to understand and model the complex flow regimes
found within oil wells. The advent of
increased high-angle and horizontal wells
has only served to make this task harder.
Today, detailed theoretical work coupled
with extensive experimentation has
expanded the frontiers of fluid mechanics
knowledge, which in turn has helped in the
development of new production logging
sensors and analysis (see Revitalizing Production logging, page 44).
Although many key advances have been
made in understanding multiphase flow, it is
first necessary to be familiar with the key
elements of monophase flow.
For help preparing this article, thanks to Christian
Besson, Ken Stephenson and Colin Whittaker,
Schlumberger Cambridge Research (SCR), Cambridge,
England.
1. Dynamic fluid viscosity indicates a fluids resistance
to flow, caused by shear resistance primarily across an
interface. Kinetic viscosity is defined as dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid.
2. Some shallow wells produce low-gravity crudes
where water-in-oil emulsions occur. The viscosity of
these fluids may exceed 100 to 1000 cp, and in these
situations laminar flow may be expected.

Winter 1996

Monophase Fluid Flow

How fluids flow in a pipe depends largely

on the pipe diameter D and on the physical
characteristics of the fluid: velocity V, density , and dynamic viscosity .1 Inside pipe,
monophasic fluid flow is either turbulent or
laminar (right).
In laminar flow, the fluid layers slide
smoothly over each other. Momentum
exchange is at the molecular scale. Instabilities are damped by viscosity, producing viscous shear forces that resist the relative
motion of adjacent fluid layers. The velocity
profile of laminar flow increases uniformly
in a parabolic fashion from the pipe wall
inward across the pipe.
Typically, laminar flow is encountered
only under slow-flowing conditions, for
example near the bottom of the borehole.
For a typical well with a 358-in. casing,
water would have to flow less than about
8 in./sec [20 cm/sec] to maintain laminar
flow. For most flowing wells, turbulent flow
is the norm.2 In turbulent flow, the fluid
exhibits erratic motion with a violent
exchange of momentum and locally circulating currentsvorticesresulting in a flatter velocity profile across the pipe.
A wellbores fluid-flow character is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds number, N Re, the ratio of the fluids inertial

Laminar Flow

Dye

Turbulent Flow

Dye

Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles

visualized using marker dye. Laminar flow
(top) is characterized by unmixed parallel
fluid streams of increasing velocity starting
from stationary fluid at the inside surface of
the pipe to the most rapidly moving fluid at
the center. The velocity profile across the
pipe is parabolic. Turbulent flow (bottom)
shows a rapid mixing and exchange of
fluid volumes across the pipe. The resulting
velocity profile is relatively uniform across
the pipe cross section.

forcesmomentumto its static frictional

forcesviscosity:
NRe =

VD

If NRe is less than about 2000, the fluid flow

will be laminar, and if NRe is greater than
4000, the flow will be fully turbulent, with
a transition region between. In the transition
region, the flow profile depends on whether
the fluid is free of disturbances, especially
in the fluid inlet area.

61

Top

ng
ixi r
M laye

w L
at o
er ca
ho l
ld
u

Velocity

il
O

The mixing layer thickness is:

For a given pipe deviation = constant
For a horizontal pipe 0
For a vertical pipe

er
at
W

Decreasing
average
water holdup

Nearly vertical well

Oil and water (mixed)
everywhere across the
section of the pipe.
Smooth velocity
profiles.
Almost linear holdup
profiles.

Top

Increasing
average
water holdup

Multiphase flow structures. Downhole

multiphase flow consists of a mixing layer
of bubbles between two monophase layers. The mixing layer thickness ()
depends on the pipe diameter and inclination. In vertical wells, the mixing layer is
infinitely large, and mixing is uniform
across the pipe. For horizontal wells with
stratified flow, there is essentially no mixing layer. In deviated wells, as average
water holdup increases, the mixing layer
moves up across the pipe as shown by the
position of the local water holdup profile
(blue line) within the red box.

62

Bottom

Velocity

Deviated well
Very complex flow
structure.
Monophasic water
phase at the bottom
of the pipe.
Dispersed oil phase at
the uppermost of the
pipe.
Large velocity and
holdup gradients.

Top

Bottom
Holdup

Top

Bottom

Velocity

Multiphase Flow Dynamics

In general, production logs are used to

diagnose unwanted water or gas entries at
downhole conditons, where: oil and water
are immiscible; gas is miscible with water,
in small quantities; and gas is miscible with
oil, in large quantities. At a given pressure
and temperature, oil and water can absorb
a given amount of gas until they are saturated with gas. Above this gas saturation concentration limit, gas cannot mix further and
stays as a separate gas phase. So for a given
pressure and temperature, there can be up
to three phases: oil with gas in solution
traditionally called oil; water with a small
quantity of gas in solutiontraditionally
called water; and free gasgas.3
When more than one phase is flowing in a
pipe, gravity ensures that the light phase
travels at a faster speed than the heavier
phase. The speed difference is called the slip
velocity. This phenomenon generates a difference between the phase flow-rate ratios
and the phase concentrationsfor example,
in an oil-and-water system, the water cut is
always smaller than the water holdup.

Bottom
Holdup

Top
Nearly horizontal well
Almost stratified flows.
Monophasic oil at the
top and monophasic
water at the bottom.
Narrow mixing layer.
Oil and water streams
flow at different
velocities.

Flow structures changing with deviation.

Holdup and velocity profiles are determined by the pipe deviation, average
water holdup and the size of the mixing
layer. In nearly vertical wells up to 20
(top), the mixing layer is large and extends
across the pipe diameter. There is a
smooth varying mix of oil and water across
the pipe. As pipe deviation is slightly
increased, gravity ensures there is a higher
concentration of oil in the upper section.

Bottom
Holdup

Top

Bottom

3. Flow structure and speed are phase-steering mechanisms that may accelerate or slow down the physicalchemical equilibrium of the three fluid phases. Empirical equations are used for transforming the quantities
seen downhole to surface, ambient conditions. These
corrections are small and approximate, and therefore
it is appropriate to neglect these steering effects at logging conditions.
4. The holdup profile can be approximated by a linear
function.

In moderate to highly deviated wells of 20

to 85 (middle), portions of the pipe have
monophasic fluid flow. The multiphase fluids segregate by gravity with the heavy
fluid at the bottom of the pipe. The mixing
layer moves towards the top of the pipe,
and this domain has the most complex
flow structure with large gradients of velocity and holdup distributions. At low flow
rates, backflow may occur, where water is
recirculated. The water velocity will be
negative in the lowest portion of the pipe.
In nearly horizontal and horizontal wells,
from 85 to 95, the mixing layer becomes
small, almost disappearing at 90 (bottom).
The flow is monophasic oil at the top of the
pipe and monophasic water at the bottom
of the pipe. As soon as the well deviates
slightly from 90, the monophasic oil and
water streams flow at different velocities.

In a system with multiphase flow, buoyancy due to pipe deviation causes different
density phases to separate with a mixing
layer of dispersed bubbles in between.
Separation into at least two different immiscible phases with a mixing layer in between
leads to what is called a flow structure.
Multiphase flow structuresat least in
two-phase floware characterized by the
width of the mixing layer. Under these conditions, another parameter of the flow system becomes critical to understanding the
flow structure: deviation angle of the pipe
from vertical. The mixing layer thickness is
fixed for a given pipe diameter and borehole
deviation. As the overall fractional volume
of water in the pipewater holdup
changes, the position of the mixing layer
moves across the pipe diameter (above left).
Even with a relatively simple two-phase
system, such as water and oil, the effect of
borehole deviation on mixing and flow
structure is complicated. At least three types
of flow structures can be defined based on
the pipe deviation angle.
First, in vertical wells, the oil and water
phases are fully mixed across the entire pipe
cross section. Even for wells with a deviation
less than 20, the mixing layer is large and
the two phases are mixed across the pipe
with a smooth velocity profile. However, as
soon as the pipe is deviated further, gravity

Oilfield Review

6000

Oil

Total flow rate, B/D

Water

1500

Oil
Water

600

Oil
Water
80

89

90

91

Deviation from vertical

The Schlumberger-Cambridge Research

(SCR) flow loop. Built in 1985, the flow loop
can handle two- and three-phase fluid
flows to over 6000 B/D in 100-ft [30-m]
clear, high-strength pipes. The flow loop
can be tilted to simulate borehole deviations from horizontal to vertical.

creates a higher concentration of oil in the

upper section of the pipe. The profile of local
water holdup is slowly varying across the
pipe (previous page, right).4 With this kind of
flow structure, averaged measurements
across the pipe using traditional PL sensors
fullbore spinner and gradiomanometerare
adequate to determine velocity and holdup.
Second, in deviated wells between 20 to
85, portions of the pipe cross section have
monophasic flow, but the overall flow structure is complex. Heavy phase, typically
water, due to gravity, segregates at the bottom of the pipe, and the mixing layer is now
located at the uppermost part of the pipe
with dispersed bubbles of oil or gas. In
mixed gas-liquid flow, the structure can be
more complex. The gas can flow in slugs
instead of small bubbles. This flow structure
has large gradients in the velocity and local
holdup distributions. At low flow rates,
water is frequently recirculated, and the
water velocity at the bottom of the pipe may
be negative in some areas.
At high flow rates, differential acceleration
of phases due to the shear forces between
the different fluid phases can lead to instabilities know as Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities, almost causing a breakdown in stratification. Under these conditions, production
logging sensors that yield average answers

Winter 1996

are not sufficient to understand the flow

structure. Local measurements made across
the pipe diameter are needed to clarify the
velocity and holdup profiles.
Last, for horizontal wells, with deviation
from approximately 85 to 95, the flow
structure becomes completely stratified,
with little or no mixing. Water flows at the
bottom, and the oil or gas phase flows at the
top. At low flow rates, the flow behavior has
a strong dependence on the well deviation.
As soon as the borehole deviates slightly
from 90, the monophasic oil and water
streams flow at different velocities.
At Schlumberger Cambridge Research,
Cambridge, England, controlled flow-loop
experiments with equal flow rates for oil
and water demonstrate the dramatic effects
of borehole deviation. (above left). At 90,
oil and water velocities and holdup are
nearly equal. At 89, the oil, which is lighter
than the water, accelerates under the action
of the buoyancy forces, and as a consequence the water velocity decreases and the
interface level rises (above right).
In this case, the water holdup is high. The
effect is large, even at 89, because the longitudinal buoyancy forces are already large
compared to the frictional shearing forces.
Here the water is flowing uphill, and therefore flows more slowly than the lighter oil.

Water-oil stratified flow in the SCR flow

loop. These experiments show a strong
dependence of the flow behavior on well
deviation at low flow rates. The structure
of the flow, holdup and velocity profiles
change completely between 89 and 91
(lower rightmost figures). Here the oil and
water flow rates are both equal at 300 B/D
in a 5 12-in. pipe.

At 90, oil and water velocities, shown by

arrows, and holdups are nearly equal. Oil
viscosity is slightly higher than water,
leading to oil velocity and holdup being
slightly slower and larger than water. With
a borehole deviation of only 89, the heavier water, which is flowing uphill, slows
down. As a result, water holdup increases
to maintain the same flow rate. Lighter oil
will speed up to maintain the same flow
rate. Effects at 89 are large, because longitudinal buoyancy forces are already
large compared to frictional forces. At a
borehole deviation of 80, the change in
flow continues, but not as fast as the
change between 90 and 89.
If the borehole deviates upwards to 91,
heavier water now flowing downhill
speeds up, while holdup decreases to
maintain the same flow rate. Oil does the
opposite, slowing down in the 91 borehole, with an accompanying increase in
holdup. The dependence on the deviation
is smaller at high flow rates, because frictional forces against the pipe wall and at
the fluid interface increase at higher velocities to become the predominant forces
(middle figures). At high flow rates, the
interface between the two phases is no
longer flat, but wavy and bubbly showing
emerging shear instabilities (top).

63

Pure oil
Pure water

90
3
4

2
1

Deviation

Pure
oil

Pure
water

0
0%

100%
Average water holdup

Four domains of flow derived from flow

structure variation with deviation and
holdup. The traditional PL environment
Domain-1 has small borehole deviations
and a large mixing layer across the entire
pipe. Holdup and velocity profiles are
slowly changing. Domain-2 has deviated
wells with high water holdup and complex
water velocity profiles. In highly deviated
and horizontal wells, Domain-3, the mixing
layer is small and the flow consists of stratified flow with monophasic regions at the
bottom and top of the pipe. Domain-4 has
deviated holes and low water holdup.

64

At 91, the water flows downhill much

faster than the oil because its density is
higher. The oil-water interface level drops,
and the water holdup is low. At high flow
rates, the dependence on borehole deviation is smaller because the increasing shear
frictional forces against the wall and interface dominate. Under high flow-rate conditions, the position of the interface, and
therefore average water holdup, is not as
dependent on borehole deviation as is the
case in lower rates of flow.
In multiphase flow, the flows are usually
considered turbulent, although laminar flow
can occur when the borehole is perfectly
horizontal. As soon as the borehole is no
longer horizontal, one phase accelerates
and generates turbulence. The Reynolds
number, which is clearly defined in a pipe
with monophasic flow, can be redefined in
multiphase flow in several ways by using the
mixture velocity or the velocity of each
phase and slip velocity. At present, there is
no general consensus on what to use for an
appropriate definition of Reynolds number
in multiphase flow.
The types of flow structures, discussed here,
can be classified into four domains, with
respect to the borehole pipe deviation and
the average water holdup. (left).
In Domain-1, the lowest region of the plot,
are the traditional production logging measurements and techniquesapplied to vertical and nearly vertical wells. These wells
have simple velocity and holdup profiles,
where average measurements are sufficiently accurate to determine fluid-flow
rates. In the right region of the plot,
Domain-2, are deviated wells with high

water holdup. Here the velocity profiles are

complex, sometimes changing direction
across the pipe, and detailed measurements
are necessary to accurately determine the
multiphase flow rates. In Domain-3, in the
upper region of the plot are the nearly horizontal wells, and their special problems
with stratified fluid distributions and flow.
Here, detailed holdup and velocity flow
information is needed to determine accurate
flow rates.
Finally, there is Domain-4 in the leftmost
region, where development is still ongoing
to understand flow velocity and holdup
distributions. Generally speaking, this
domain is symmetrical to Domain-2. The
top of the pipe cross section is filled by
monophasic oil and the bottom by a bubbly mixture. The velocity profile across the
pipe is complex. This is currently an area of
active research.
Modeling in the Future

An increasingly sophisticated understanding of the mechanisms of different types of

fluid flow is helping to improve production
logging services. Fluid-flow models, based
on a better understanding of the different
flow structures, are routinely used to help
interpret PL measurements.
However, the current models are still too
limited to accurately tackle all the constantly changing flow structures actually
seen within oil wells. The challenge is to not
only develop these improved models, but
also to introduce appropriate new logging
measurements that adapt to every possible
flow structure.

Oilfield Review