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ABSTRACT
This experiment was conducted to determine the total head loss and loss coefficient of
fluid flow through a 90 degree elbow and to compare the flow measurement using venturi,
orifice and rotameter. The other objective was to compare the pressure drop against each device.
The flow rate through a pipe can be measured by using the orifice meter, venturi meter
and the rotameter. From the energy equation, it can be deduced that when pressure head reduces,
the velocity head will increase. In the orifice and venturi meters, the cross-sectional area
available for flow is restricted. Therefore, an increase in velocity will result in a decrease in
pressure at a point from the energy equation.
The same principle can be applied to the rotameter but the difference is that the areas
available for the flow is variable while the pressure drop across the restriction is keep constant.
This can be achieved through a tapered tube and float arrangement. As flow increases, the flow
will raise until the dynamic force of the fluid balances the gravitational force acting on the float.
The flow is directly dependent on the height of the float.
From the results that we obtained, the venturi meter is closer to the value of the actual
flow rate compared to the orifice meter and the value of its flow rate percentage error is smaller
compared to the orifice meter and rotameter. This can be caused by the fact that venturi flow
meter has a smaller head loss compared to the orifice meter by its design.
2.0
INTRODUCTION
Flow is defined as the rate (volume or area per unit time) at which a substance travels
through a given cross section and is characterized at specific temperatures and pressures. The
instruments used to measure flow are termed flow meters (Miryala, 2006). SOLTEQ Flow
meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus is designed to operate together with a
basic hydraulic bench or any water supply. It is to familiarize the students with typical methods
of flow measurement of an incompressible fluid.
The apparatus is able to demonstrate the flow measurement comparison by using a
venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter. By using Gravimetric or Volumetric Method, the flow
comparison can be further used to compare against the flow measurement of the hydraulics
bench, depending on the type of hydraulics bench in use. Other features of the flow apparatus
include a 90 degree elbow with pressure tapping before and after this elbow. The purpose of
these features is to provide an added function to this apparatus to allow students to calculate the
total head loss and loss coefficient when fluid flows through these devices.
Venturi meter
difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure difference is correlated
with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the
entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
Orifice meter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element with
low pressure drop and no electrical connection that gives direct reading of flow rate for a wide
range of liquids and gases. Basically, a rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube
through which fluid flow upward. Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pumpbob shape. When there is no flow, the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow
commences, the float rises until upward and buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight.
The float rises only a short distance if the rate of flow is small, and vice versa. The points of
equilibrium can be noted as a function of flow rate. With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the
level of the float becomes a direct measure of flow rate.
3.0
OBJECTIVES
1. To familiarize the students with typical methods of flow measurement of an
incompressible fluid
2. To compare flow measurement using venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter and
determine the most accurate device
3. To determine the total head loss and loss coefficient of fluid flow through a 90 degree
elbow
4. To compare the pressure drop against each device
4.1
THEORY
Applications of the Bernoulli equation yield the following result, which applies for both
the Venturi meter and the Orifice meter.
Bernoulli Equation:
P1
(V 1)2
+
+ Z1 =
g
2g
P2
g
(V 2) 2
2g
+Z
Z1=Z2
P1
g +
(V 1) 2
2g
P 1P 2
g
P2
g
( V 2 ) 2( V 1 ) 2
2g
(V 2)2
2g
. (1)
A2V 2
)
A1
2g
( V 2 ) 2(
=
( 2 2)(
A2V 2
)
A1
2g
V2 =
1
2P
.
A1
1(
)2
A2
P
g
. (3)
Q = CdA2V2 .. (4)
Substitute (3) into (4):
A1 2
A2
1
Flow rate, Qv =
Cd A 2
Where
2 P
= 2 g h
Where;
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings for the appropriate meter
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.98)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)
The discharge coefficient, Cd must be used in order to simplify assumptions made when
applying the Bernoulli equation. The assumed values used in this experiment are:
Venturi meter Cd: 0.98
Orifice meter Cd: 0.63
The energy loss that occurs in a pipe fitting is usually expressed in term of head loss and
can be determined from the manometer readings. For this experiment, theoretically assumed the
head loss for venturi meter and rotameter is low while for orifice meter is medium. Theoretically,
venturi meter is the most accurate equipment to measure the flow rate of fluid in the pipe
compared to orifice meter and rotameter as it has the lowest value of head loss and percentage
error.
5.0
APPARATUS
In order to complete this experiment, a few equipment is needed:
1. Flow meter Measurement Apparatus (Model: FM101) apparatus
2. Hydraulic bench - enables the measurement of flow by timed volume collection
3. A stopwatch to determine the flow rate of water
5
1
8
9
1. Manometer tubes
6. Rotameter
2. Discharge valve
7. 90 elbow
3. Water outlet
8. Orifice
4. Water supply
9. Venturi
5. Staddle valve
2. Hydraulic bench
3. Stopwatch
6.0
PROCEDURES
6.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
totally closed.
With the maximum measurable flow rate, the readings on manometer (AJ) and
rotameter are noted (readings on manometer (I-J) are noted for 90 degree elbow
8.
experimental data).
Step 7 is repeated for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both
bench valve and discharge valve. The manometer level is adjusted to demonstrate similar
9.
6.2
1.
2.
Shut-down Procedures
The water supply valve and the venturi discharge valve are closed.
The water supply pump is switched off and the water from the unit is drained off when
not in use.
7.0
RESULTS
7.1
Table 7.1: Demonstration of the operation and characteristics of three different basic types of
flow meter
7.2
Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow
Volume
Time
Flow
rate,
V2/2g
(l)
(min)
(mm)
(m/s)
(mm)
(l/min)
0.69
4.35
0.14
1.00
0.34
8.82
0.28
4.00
0.22
13.64
0.43
9.42
3
0.17
17.65
6
0.55
15.42
Table 7.2: Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow
7.3
Flow rate of fluid (m3/s) and flow rate percentage error (%)
Timed
(Qt)
7.2510-
Rotameter
(QR)
8.3310-5
-11.56
-15.42
-11.22
-15.83
13.61
10.13
13.27
13.00
Venturi (hA-hC)
0.006
0.03
0.07
0.122
Average
0.057
Table 7.4: Head loss at every flow meter
Rotameter (hI-hJ)
0.001
0.001
0.004
0.006
0.003
8
f(x) = 0.39x
R = 0.99
0
0
Coefficient of loss, K =
Slope K = 0.394
h
V2
2g
10
12
14
16
18
8.0
CALCULATIONS
Venturi meter
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings (hA hC)
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.98)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)
q = Cd A2
A1 2
A2
2 g h
2.011 104 2
5.309 104
1
q = (0.98) (2.01110-4)
2.011 104 2
5.309 104
1
q = (0.98) (2.01110-4)
[ 2 g ( 0.2400.234 ) ]
[ 2 g ( 0.2400.234 ) ]
m3/s
1000l
1
min
60
q = 4.38 l/min
Orifice meter
h: head difference in meter (m) from the manometer readings (hG hH)
g: acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
Cd: discharge coefficient for meter (0.63)
A1: inlet area (5.309x10-4 m2)
A2: throat area of the meter (2.011x10-4 m2)
1
A1
1(
)2
A2
2g h
2.011 104 2
5.309 104
1
q = (0.63) (2.01110-4)
[ 2 g ( 0.2400.232 ) ]
m3/s
2.011 104 2
5.309 104
1
q = (0.63) (2.01110-4)
[ 2 g ( 0.2400.232 ) ]
q = 3.26 l/min
Flow rate Calculation (m3/s)
Volume collected
Time taken
0.003m3
41.4 s
= 7.2510-5 m3/s
Rotameter flow rate, QR =
5 l /min
60000
= 8.3310-5 m3/s
4.38 l/min
60000
= 7.310-5 m3/s
3.26 l/ min
60000
= 5.4310-5 m3/s
l
min
1 min
60 s
1 m3
1000 l
= 7.2510-5 m3/s
( D)2
4
1000l
1
min
60
7.25 105
3 2
(26 10 )
4
V=
V = 0.14 m/s
Calculation of velocity head
2
V
2g
(0.14)
2 9.81
= 1.00 mm
Q v Qt
Qt
100
100
= 0.69
Orifice:
Q oQt
Qt
100
= -25.10 %
7.25 105
100
Rotameter:
Q RQ t
Qt
100
100
= 14.90 %
Rotameter:
= h A - hC
= hI - hJ
= 0.240 0.234
= 0.235 0.234
= 0.006 m
= 0.001 m
Orifice:
= hG hH
= 0.240 0.232
= 0.008 m
9.0
DISCUSSION
From the experiment conducted, we are able to observe the operation and characteristics
of the three different types of flow meter that are venturi meter, orifice meter and rotameter.
During this experiment, all the experimental data are recorded in order to determine which
device gives the most accurate measurement of the system flow rate. Besides, we are also able to
determine the flow rate percentage error and the total head loss of the three devices.
After the experiment has been conducted, we are able to calculate the value of flow rate
and the flow rate error from the three devices based on the data recorded. Based on the results,
the average flow rate for venturi meter is
2.08 104
4
m3/s and 1.59 10
Apart from that, we also have calculated the average flow rate percentage error for the
three devices. From the results obtained, the average flow rate error for venturi meter is 8.29%,
-15.83% for orifice meter and 12.98% for rotameter. The negative sign can be dropped to
compare the error value of each device. From the theory stated earlier, the accuracy of a flow
meter depends on the flow rate percentage error which indicates the most efficient flow meter
has the lowest flow rate percentage error. Therefore, the results show that the venturi meter has
the lowest percentage error with value of 8.29%.
The values of head loss for the three flow meters are also obtained throughout the
experiment. From the theory, it has stated that the venturi meter has a low value of head loss,
followed by the rotameter and lastly the orifice meter. From the results, the average head loss for
venturi meter is 0.057 m, followed by the rotameter that is 0.085 m and 0.003 m for the orifice
meter.
However, the result for head loss is the opposite of the theory stated earlier. Venturi meter
should have the lowest head loss value followed by rotameter and then orifice meter. Hence, it
can be said that there must be some errors happened during the experiment was done as the
outcome does not support the theory.
Some factors that might contribute to the error include the presence of air bubbles in the
manometer tubes that will affect the accuracy of the reading taken. Other than that, the error can
be caused by the wrong position of the eyes during the manometer reading that is not parallel to
the reading scale.
10.0
CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, it can be said that venturi meter is the most accurate flow meter
compared to the orifice meter and the rotameter with the lowest value of flow meter percentage
error (8.29%). The theory stated that the most accurate and efficient flow meter is the one with
lowest percentage error and it is proved through this experimental result.
11.0
RECOMMENDATION
After the experiment has been conducted, we can see that the value of head loss does not
obey the theory of this experiment. From the theory, the venturi meter is said to have the least
value of head loss but the results showed that the rotameter has the lowest head loss. Therefore,
certain precautions should be taken to improve the accuracy of the results obtained.
The first recommendation is to make sure that there is no air bubbles trapped in the
manometer tubes and the pipeline. The air bubbles may cause the reading of the flow meter less
accurate. Secondly, make sure the position of the eyes are parallel to the reading scale during the
measurement is taken as this will affect the whole calculation if it is wrong. This is because to
calculate the head loss, the values in the specific manometer tubes are being subtracted. Next,
make sure there is no presence of small particles in the fluid as some of the devices are sensitive
to these particles.
12.0
1.
REFERENCE
Lab manual 1; Flow meter Measurement Apparatus, Model: FM 101
2.
3.
Helmenstine, A.M. (Ed.). (2014). How to calculate percentage error. Retrieved October
11,
2014,
http://chemistry.about.com/od/workedchemistryproblems/a/percenterror.htm
13.0
APPENDICES
from