REVIEWER IN ECOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Adaptation

adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in

response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their
effects or impacts
Alien species

are plants, animals and microorganisms from one part of

the world that are transported beyond their natural range
and become established in a new area. They are
sometimes also called "exotic," "introduced," "nonnative," "non-indigenous" or "invasive" species.
Amensalism

any relationship between organisms of different species in

which one organism is inhibited or destroyed while the
other organism remains unaffected.
Ammonification

breakdown of organic matter such as dead animals and

plants or waste materials
Batesian Mimicry

form of mimicry typified by a situation where a harmless

species has evolved to imitate the warning signals of a
harmful species directed at a common predator.
Biogeochemical cycle

cycling of chemical elements required by life between the

living and nonliving parts of the environment.
Biology

natural science concerned with the study of life and living

organisms, including their structure, function, growth,
evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
Camouflage

use of any combination of materials, coloration or

illumination for concealment, either by making animals or
objects hard to see
Carrying capacity

the maximum population size of the species that the

environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food,
habitat, water and other necessities available in the
environment.
Climate

measure of the average pattern of variation in

temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,
precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other
meteorological variables in a given region over long
periods of time.
Climax community

Climax Community is a more or less permanent and final

stage of a particular succession. It is characterized by slow
rates of change, compared with more dynamic, earlier
stages. Most ecologists think that climax communities are
not attainable because climates keep changing, and it
takes a long time for a succession to reach in its climax.
Clumped distribution

pattern of distribution in a population in which individuals

have a much higher probability of being found in some
areas than in others; in other words, individuals are
aggregated rather than dispersed.
Community

An assemblage of populations of two or more different

species that live in a particular area or habitat.

Involves interaction between different groups of species.

Competition

It is an interaction between organisms or species, in which

the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of another.
Competition is not always straightforward, and can occur
in both a direct and indirect fashion.
Deforestation

clearance / removal of a forest or stand of trees where the

land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use.
Denitrification

process of nitrate reduction (performed by a large group

of heterotrophic facultative anaerobic bacteria) that may
ultimately produce molecular nitrogen (N2) through a
series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products.
Dispersal

refers to both the movement of individuals (animals,

plants, fungi, bacteria, etc.) from their birth site to their
breeding site
Disturbances

temporary change in average environmental conditions

that causes a pronounced change in an ecosystem.
Dominant species

The species that predominates in an ecological

community, particularly when they are most numerous or
form the bulk of the biomass.
Ecology

study of interactions among organisms and their

environment, such as the interactions organisms have with
each other and with their abiotic environment.
Ecosystem

includes all of the living things in a given area, interacting

with each other, and also with their non-living
environments.
Ecotone

transition area between two biomes. It is where two

communities meet and integrate. It may be narrow or
wide, and it may be local (the zone between a field and
forest) or regional (the transition between forest and
grassland ecosystems).
Ectoparasite

A parasite that lives on the surface of a host organism

Edge species

species of animal or plant living primarily in an ecotone

Endangered species

a species of animal or plant that is seriously at risk of

extinction.
Endoparasite

a parasite, such as a tapeworm, that lives inside its host

Energy pyramid

graphical representation of the trophic levels (nutritional)

by which the incoming solar energy is transferred in an
ecosystem.
Epiphyte

any plant that grows upon or is in some manner attached

to another plant or object merely for physical support.
Eutrophication

a process where water bodies receive excess nutrients

that stimulate excessive plant growth.
Food chain

A diagram or structure that shows the relationship

between animals in a habitat and the foods they eat.

Series of stages that energy goes through in the form of

food.

Food web

A network of many interlinked food chains composed of

producers, consumers and decomposers.

A complex sequence that shows the feeding relationship

of organisms.
Greenhouse effect

is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary

surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and
is re-radiated in all directions.
Homeostasis

the tendency of a system, especially the physiological

system of higher animals, to maintain internal stability
Keystone species

species that has a disproportionately large effect on its

environment relative to its abundance.
k-selected species

possess relatively stable populations and tend to produce

relatively low numbers of offspring; however, individual
offspring tend to be quite large
Lichens

composite organism that emerges from an algae or

cyanobacteria living among the filaments (hyphae) of a
fungus in a mutually beneficial (symbiotic) relationship.
Limiting factors

environmental influences that constrain the productivity

of organisms, populations, or communities and thereby
prevent them from achieving their full biological potential
which could be realized under optimal conditions.
Migration

moving of individuals of a species from one place to

another
Mullerian mimicry

occurs in nature when two or more harmful species look

very similar in order to ward off potential predators.
Niche

relational position of a species or population in an

ecosystem.
Nitrification

process by which ammonia is converted to nitrites (NO2-)

and then nitrates (NO3-)
Non-renewable resource (finite)

is a resource that does not renew itself at a sufficient rate

for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human
time-frames.
Parasitism

non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species,

where one species, the parasite, benefits at the expense of
the other, the host.
Pioneer species

hardy species which are the first to colonize previously

disrupted or damaged ecosystems, beginning a chain of
ecological succession that ultimately leads to a more
biodiverse steady-state ecosystem.
Primary succession

assembly of ecosystems on barren landscapes following

severe disturbances that leave little or no biological legacy
Random distribution

also known as unpredictable spacing, is the least common

form of distribution in nature and occurs when the
members of a given species are found in homogeneous
environments in which the position of each individual is

independent of the other individuals: they neither attract

nor repel one another.
Reforestation

natural or intentional restocking of existing forests and

woodlands that have been depleted, usually through
deforestation.
Renewable resource

organic natural resource that can replenish in due time

compared to the usage, either through biological
reproduction or other naturally recurring processes.
r-selected species

are those that place an emphasis on a high growth rate,

and, typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches, and
produce many offspring, each of which has a relatively low
probability of surviving to adulthood
Saprophyte

organisms that act as the rainforests decomposers,

competing with the heavy rainfall which constantly washes
away nutrients on the forest floors.
Secondary succession

series of community changes which take place on a

previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat.
Survivorship curves

graph showing the number or proportion of individuals

surviving at each age for a given species or group
Uniform distribution

also known as even distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform

distributions are found in populations in which the
distance between neighboring individuals is maximized.
Weather

state of the atmosphere at a given time and place, with

respect to variables such as temperature, moisture, wind
velocity, and barometric pressure.
TERRESTRIAL BIOME
Arid

characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the

extent of hindering or preventing the growth and
development of plant and animal life.
Biome

a large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal

groups, which are adapted to that particular environment.
Boreal Forest

vegetation composed primarily of cone-bearing, needleleaved, or scale-leaved evergreen trees, found in regions
that have long winters and moderate to high annual
precipitation.
Condensation

change of water from its gaseous form (water vapor) into

liquid water.
Coniferous forest

composed primarily of cone-bearing, needle-leaved, or

scale-leaved evergreen trees, found in regions of the world
that have long winters and moderate to high annual
precipitation.
Deciduous Forest

Forests where a majority of the trees lose their foliage at

the end of the typical growing season
Desert

barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and

consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and
animal life.

Evergreen

forest consisting entirely or mainly of evergreen trees that

retain green foliage all year round.
Forest Floor

ls called detritus, duff and the O horizon, is one of the

most distinctive features of a forest ecosystem. It mainly
consists of shed vegetative parts, such as leaves, branches,
bark, and stems, existing in various stages of
decomposition above the soil surface.
Grasslands

are generally open and continuous, fairly flat areas of

grass. They are often located between temperate forests
at high latitudes and deserts at subtropical latitudes.
Habitat

ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a

particular species of animal, plant, or other type of
organism.
Humidity

amount of water vapor in the air

Permafrost

permanently frozen soil, and occurs mostly in high

latitudes.

cryotic soil is soil at or below the freezing point of water 0

C (32 F) for two or more years.
Precipitation

primary mechanism for transporting water from the

atmosphere to the surface of the earth.
Rainforest

forests characterized by high rainfall, with annual rainfall

between 250 and 450 centimetres
Savanna

grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees being

sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not
close
Subsoil

Layer (stratum) of earth immediately below the surface

soil, consisting predominantly of minerals and leached
materials such as iron and aluminum compounds.
Taiga

biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting

mostly of pines, spruces and larches.
It is the world's largest terrestrial biome.
Transpiration

process of water movement through a plant and its

evaporation from aerial parts, such as from leaves but also
from stems and flowers.
Tundra

treeless regions found in the Arctic and on the tops of

mountains, where the climate is cold and windy and
rainfall is scant.
Understory

in forestry and ecology refers to plant life growing beneath

the forest canopy without penetrating it to any extent.
Abyssal organisms

The organisms that live at the extreme depths of the

ocean are highly specialized to survive in conditions of
high pressure and total darkness. They have slow
metabolisms and are able to live in water with very little
dissolved oxygen.
Algae

very large and diverse group of eukaryotic organisms

Algal bloom

rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae

(typically microscopic) in an aquatic system

Aphotic zone

portion of a lake or ocean where there is little or no

sunlight.
Benthic zone

ecological region at the very bottom of the sea. It includes

the sediment surface and some subsurface layers.
Benthos

Marine organisms living in benthic zone

Coral reefs

diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium

carbonate structures secreted by corals.
Corals

marine invertebrates in the class Anthozoa of phylum

Cnidaria. They typically live in compact colonies of many
identical individual polyps.
COMMUNITY ECOLOGY
artificial selection

intentional breeding of plants or animals. It means the

same thing as selective breeding.
Biodiversity

term used to describe the variety of life found on Earth

and all of the natural processes.
Coevolution

used to describe cases where two (or more) species

reciprocally affect each other's evolution.
ecological succession

observed process of change in the species structure of an

ecological community over time.
endemic species

species which is only found in a given range or location in

the world.
Epidemic

rapid spread of infectious disease to a large number of

persons in a given population within a short period of
time, usually two weeks or less.
Evolution

change in the inherited characteristics of biological

populations over successive generations.
Extinct

the end of an organism or of a group of organisms (taxon),

normally a species
instinct

an innate, typically fixed pattern of behavior in animals in

response to certain stimuli.
Interspecific

refers to the competition between two or more species for

some limiting resource.
Intraspecific

conflict over resources between members of the same

species.
Mutation

change in DNA
native species

a species is defined as native (or indigenous) to a given

region or ecosystem if its presence in that region is the
result of only natural processes, with no human
intervention.
natural selection

gradual process by which biological traits become either

more or less common in a population as a function of the
effect of inherited traits on the differential reproductive
success of organisms interacting with their environment. It
is a key mechanism of evolution.

Reflex

involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in

response to a stimulus.
resource partitioning

is the dividing up of scarce resources so that species with

the same requirements use them at different times, in
different ways, or in different places.
secondary consumer

Animals that eat other animals or CARNIVORES

Speciation

Is a lineage-splitting event that produces two or more

separate species.
survival of the fittest

a phrase that originated in evolutionary theory as an

alternative (but less accurate) way of describing the
mechanism of natural selection.
Symbiosis

the relationship between two different kinds of living

things that live together and depend on each other

It is close and often long-term interaction between two or

more different biological species. Sometimes it is used
only for cases where both organisms benefit; sometimes it
is used more generally to describe all varieties of relatively
tight relationships.
tertiary consumer

a carnivore at the topmost level in a food chain that feeds

on other carnivores
threatened species

are any species (including animals, plants, fungi, etc.)

which are vulnerable to endangerment in the near future.
AQUATIC BIOME
Estuaries

Is a partially enclosed body of water formed where

freshwater from rivers and streams flows
into where
it mixes with salty seawater.

A body of water formed where freshwater from rivers and

streams flows into the ocean, mixing with the seawater.

A transition zone between the land and sea.

Groin

a rigid hydraulic structure built from an ocean shore (in

coastal engineering) or from a bank (in rivers) that
interrupts water flow and limits the movement of
sediment.
Intertidal zone

also known as the foreshore and seashore and sometimes

referred to as the littoral zone, is the area that is above
water at low tide and under water at high tide (in other
words, the area between tide marks).
Littoral zone

part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore.

Nekton

refers to the aggregate of actively swimming aquatic

organisms in a body of water (usually oceans or lakes) able
to move independently of water currents.
Photic zone

depth of the water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to

sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.
Phytoplankton

the autotrophic components of the plankton community

and a key factor of oceans, seas and freshwater basins
ecosystems.

Polyps

one of two principal body forms occurring in members of

the animal phylum Cnidaria

approximately cylindrical in shape and elongated at the

axis of the vase-shaped body.
Profundal zone

a deep zone of an inland body of freestanding water, such

as a lake or pond, located below the range of effective
light penetration.
Wetland

land area that is saturated with water, either permanently

or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a
distinct ecosystem.
Zones in marine biomes
1. Benthic Zone The benthic zone is the ecological region at the
very bottom of the sea. It includes the sediment surface and some
subsurface layers. Marine organisms living in this zone, such as
clams and crabs, are called benthos.
Marine benthic environments are divided further into zones based
on their depth. From the shallowest to the deepest, these include
(CSC 2008):

shelf

deep

Littoral or Intertidal zone - area between high and low tide

Sublittoral zone - from low tide to shelf break, continental
Nearshore and estuarine zones - less than 200 meters
Bathyal zone - 200 to 2,000 meters
Abyssal zone - 2,000 to 6,000 meters
Hadal zone - over 6,000 meters deep

2. Demersal Zone - The demersal zone is just above the benthic

zone. It can be significantly affected by the seabed and the life that
lives there.
3. Pelagic Zone - The word "pelagic" is derived from Greek
(plagos), meaning "open sea". In deep water, the pelagic zone is
sometimes called the open-ocean zone and can be contrasted with
water that is near the coast or on the continental shelf.
Zones of a lake
1. Littoral Zone - sustains a fairly diverse community
- several species of algae (like diatoms)
- rooted and floating aquatic plants
- grazing snails
- Clams
- Insects
- Crustaceans
- Fishes
- Amphibians
2. Limnetic Zone
- well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by plankton,
both phytoplankton and zooplankton
- plankton are small organisms that play a crucial role in the food
chain most life would not be possible without them
- variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone
3. Profundal Zone
- Plankton have short life spanswhen they die, they fall into the
deep-water part of the lake/pond
- Animals found are decomposers

Zooplankton

heterotrophic (sometimes detritivorous) plankton.

Plankton are organisms drifting in oceans, seas, and bodies
of fresh water.