Drying: Principles and Practice

InternationalWorkshoponDryingofFoodand
Biomaterials

Bangkok June67,2011

ProfessorA.S.Mujumdar
NationalUniversityofSingapore

Contents
Introductiontofoodprocessing;drying Fundamentals
Classificationgeneralideas
Whysomanydryertypes?
Keycriteriaforclassification
Criteriafordryerselection
Differentdryertypes
Energyrelatedissuesindrying
Special/Innovativedryers
Closure

FoodProcessing
Needoffoodprocessing toavoidthespoilageoffoodsduetovarious
reasons;toincreaseshelflife;tomakefoodproductsavailable through
outtheyear
Thespoilagecouldbeduetophysicaldamage,chemicaldamage,
microbialattack
Variousfoodprocessingmethods Freezing,canning,preservingin
syrup,foodirradiation,salting,vacuumpackaging,dehydration
canningandfreezing bestwaytoretainthetaste,appearance,and
nutritivevalueoffreshfood(Costinvolvement)
Drying/Dehydration verymuchcosteffective;producttakesmuch
lessstoragespacethancannedorfrozenfoods;Somedehydrated
productshaveverygoodrehydrationproperties

Drying Fundamentals
Removalofaliquidfromasolid/semisolid/liquidtoproducesolid
product by thermal energy input causing phase change
(Sometimesconvertssolidmoistureintovaporbysublimationeg.
Freezedryingwithapplicationofheat.)
Neededforthepurposesofpreservationandstorage,reductionin
costoftransportation,etc.
Mostcommonanddiverseoperationwithover100typesof
dryersinindustrialuse
Competeswithdistillationasthemostenergyintensive
operation

Drying Fundamentals
Dryingparticle

MoistureOutputby

EnergyInputby

Conduction
Convection
Radiation
MicrowaveandRadio
FrequencyFields
Combinedmode

Liquiddiffusion
Vapordiffusion
Capillaryflow(Permeability)
Knudsendiffusion(Meanfree
path<poredia.)
Surfacediffusion
Poiseuille flow
Combinationofabove

DryingaComplexProcess
Multicomponent
Moisturetransport

Coupledwith
mass
transfer

Changeofphysical
structure

Changein
quality

DRYINGASA
COMPLEX
THERMALPROCESS

Input
Continuous/
intermittent

Transient

Shrinkage

Chemical/
biochemical
reactions

Phasechange

Dryingbasedonheatinput
I.Direct(Convective)
Hotgas
Wetproduct

Direct
Dryer

Humidgas
Dryproduct

Dryingmediumdirectlycontactsmaterialtobedriedandcarries
evaporatedmoisture.
II.Indirect(Contact,Conduction)
Gasflow(low)

Vacuumorlowgasflow

Wetproduct

Dryproduct

Heatsupplied
byheatexchanger
(throughmetalwall)

Dryingbasedonheatinput
III.Radiant
Heater(radiant)

Wetfeed

Dryproduct

Vacuumorlowgasflowtocarryevaporatedmoistureaway.
IV.MicrowaveorRF
Electromagneticenergyabsorbedselectivelybywater(volumetric heating)
Typicallylessthan50%oftotalheatsuppliedinmostdirectdryers
isusedforevaporation.Wateristhemostcommonsolventremoved
indryers.

Basicterms

Non-hygroscopic
100

Relative
humidity

Nearly
nonhygroscopic
Hygroscopic
porous
Colloidal

T = CONST.

Colloidal, infinitely swelling

0
X, kg water / kg dry solid

Equilibrium moisture content curves for various types of

solids

Basicterms
Unusual Drying Rate Curves
RDF

vapor-lock

R, kg/m h

Through/impingement
drying
2

Casehardening

Textbook DRC

SHD
0
0

X*

X crit

X, kg water/kg dry solid

Basicterms

Unusual Drying Rate Curves*

Crystallization

Reasons for non-textbook shapes

change of mass

boundary heating

volumetric heating

m
iu

glass transition

ed

precipitation

dure
s

shrinkage

ting
proc
e

ng
yi

Puffing

H ea
Dr

skinning

Chem
ical
chan
ges

Physical structure

Melting

SHS

air
hi temp.

change of physical
structure

low temp.

* Constant drying conditions

Basicterms(wateractivity)
WATER ACTIVITY ( aw ):

Partial pressure of water over wet solid

Equilibrium vapor pressure of water at same temp.

State of water in bio-product:

- Free water - intra-cellular water; nutrients and dissolved
solids needed for living cells
- Bound water - water built into cells or biopolymer structures
Needs additional energy to break "bonds" with solid. Bound
water also resists freezing
For safe storage, bio-products must be dried to appropriate
levels and stored under appropriate conditions

Whysomanydryertypes?
Over500reportedinliteraturestudies;over100commercially
available
Over50,000materialsaredriedcommerciallyatratesofafewkg/hrto
30T/hrormore
Dryingtimes(residencetimeswithindryingchamber)canrangefrom
1/3sec.tomonths
Temperatureandpressurerangefrombelowtriplepointtosuper
critical
Numerousconstraintsonphysical/chemicalpropertiesoffeedaswell
asdriedproductrequireabewilderingarrayofdryerdesigns
Widerangeoffeeds(liquid,solid,semisolid,particulate,pasty;sludge
like;stickyetc);widespecsondriedproduct

Whysomanydryertypes?
Differentsourcesofenergyinput(conduction,convection,
radiation,MW,RFetc)
Energyinputcontinuousorintermittent
Batch,continuousorsemicontinuousoperation
Quality iskeyparameterformanyproducts
Limitednumberusedinpharma industry
Needtoreducethecost
Needtoconsiderdryingsystemratherthandryer,i.e.Pre andpost
dryingstagesareimportantandoftencostmorethandryer
Environmentalregulationsdemandnewdryingtechniques

DryerSelection

Andclassification

Criterionforselectionofdryers
Numerouscriteria,withdifferentweights
Manydryerscantypicallymeetspecs;henceseveraldryerscandoa
givenjobingeneral.
Choicedependsonmodeofoperation,physicalformoffeedand
driedproductdesired;heatsensitivity;qualityrequirements;
productionrate;whethernonaqueoussolventsarepresentinfeed;
whethermaterialistoxic/inflammableorfriableetc
Keycriterion dryermustbeabletohandletheproduct moveit
fromfeedtoexit!Othercriteriafollow
Forpharma products qualityisNO1criterion!

Criterionforselectionofdryers
DryerSelection:Ablackartorscience?
Littlepublishedworkonsubject
Inviewoftremendousdiversityofdryers,buyermustknowmore
aboutdryersanddrying
Mostvendorsspecializeinselecteddryertypes;sobuyerneedsto
makechoice
Multiplechoicesarepossibleandcanmakeselectionprocesscomplex
Expertiseneededtomakerightchoice!
Energy,environment,safetyandcostareimportantconsiderationsin
selection.
Specialcareneededwhenhandlingnonaqueous solventsinwet
material

Whyselectdryercarefully?
Canaffectbottomline..
Productquality,energyusageaffectedbychoice
Chooserightdryingsystemnotjutdryer
Weakestlinkdecidesultimategoodnessofsystemchoice
Surveyof10largestpharma andchemicalcompaniesinEuropein
1990sidentifieddryerselectionasmainproblemfacingindustry!
Expertsystemsexistforselection.Differentexpertsystemsgive
differentselections
Knowproductandprocesswellbeforechoosingdryingsystem;
imitationcancauseproblems!
Simpledecisiontreessuggested(SPS)

Somenotesfordryerselection
Mustexaminedryingsystem costratherthandryer costforfinal
selection.
Largelyuntestedinindustrialpractice trendistorepeat
history
Donotcopydryerordryersystemusedelsewherewithout
criticalevaluationfromsquare1!
Nickeloreconcentrateisdriedindifferentplacesusingspray,
fluidbed,rotaryandflashdryers/WhichonedoyouCOPY?
Localfuelavailabilityandrelativecostsofdifferentenergy
sources,environmentalrequirementsaswellaslegislationcan
changeselectionofdryerforsameapplication

Maindryerclassificationcriteria
Criterion

Types

Modeofoperation

Heatinputtype

Stateofmaterialindryer

Operatingpressure

Dryingmedium
(convection)

Batch
Continuous*
Convection*,conduction,radiation,
electromagneticfields,combinationofheat
transfermodes
Intermittentorcontinuous*
Adiabaticornonadiabatic
Stationary
Moving,agitated,dispersed
Vacuum*
Atmospheric
Air*
Superheatedsteam
Fluegases

Maindryerclassificationcriteria
Criterion

Types

Dryingtemperature

Relativemotionbetween
dryingmediumand
dryingsolids

Belowboilingtemperature*
Aboveboilingtemperature
Belowfreezingpoint
Cocurrent
Countercurrent
Mixedflow

Numberofstages

Residencetime

*Mostcommoninpractice

Single*
Multistage
Short(<1minute)
Medium(1 60minutes)
Long(>60minutes)

Typicalchecklistforselectionofindustrialdryers
Physicalformoffeed

Granular,particulate,sludge,crystalline,liquid,pasty,
suspension,solution,continuoussheets,planks,oddshapes
(small/large)
Sticky,lumpy

Averagethroughput

kg/h(dry/wet);continuous
kgperbatch(dry/wet)

Expectedvariationin
throughput
(turndownratio)
Fuelchoice

Oil
Gas
Electricity

Pre andpostdrying
operations
(ifany)
Forparticulatefeed
products

Meanparticlesize
Sizedistribution
Particledensity
Bulkdensity
Rehydrationproperties

Typicalchecklistforselectionofindustrialdryers
Chemical/biochemical/
microbiologicalactivity
Heatsensitivity
Inlet/outletmoisture
content

Meltingpoint
Glasstransitiontemperature

Drybasis
Wetbasis

Sorptionisotherms
(equilibriummoisture
content)
Dryingtime

Dryingcurves
Effectofprocessvariables

Specialrequirements

Materialofconstruction
Corrosion
Toxicity
Nonaqueoussolution
Flammabilitylimits
Firehazard
Color/texture/aromarequirements(ifany)

More guidelines for

Dryer Selection

PrincipalDataNeeded
Includeasmuchrelevantdataaspossible
Solidsthroughput

MassflowWs
Turndownratio

Moisturecontent

InletX1,
OutletX0,variation

Particleproperties

Size,sizedistribution
Density,rp,rs

Dryingkinetics

Dryingcurves
E.M.C.data

Temperaturelimits

longterm
Instantaneous

Gasandsolvent

Identity
Physicalproperties

Otherfeatures

Safety,easeofhandling,attrition,etc.
Qualityaspects
Toxicity,flammability

AdditionalQualitativeDataNeeded
Firesanddustexplosions
Toxicity
Potentialforenvironmentaldamage
Productvalue
Needforcontainment
Capitalcost
Attrition,hardnessandfriability
Cohesion,adhesion,agglomeration
Operatingtime
Needforsizereduction/enlargement
PostdryingoperationsandPredryingfactors

SmallScaleLabTests
Smallscaletestsgivevaluableinformation:
Dryingkinetics dryingrates(parametriceffects)
Equilibriummoisturecontent effectofT,humidity
Microscopicexamination surface,agglomeration
Labscalerotaryevaporator overheating,balling,adhesion
Rotatingdrumtester attrition,dustiness
Cohesionandadhesion handling,stickypoint
Vitaltohavearepresentativesampleoffinalmaterial
Notnecessarytocarryoutallofabovetestsinallcases

BasicChoice:FormofFeed
Feedandproductcanbeinoneofthesemainbasic
forms:
Particulatesolids(bed/layer/ordispersed)
Sheetorfilm
Blockorslab
Slurryorsolution(feedonly)orpaste

Mostlyrequirecompletelydifferenttypesofdryer
Widestchoiceavailableforparticulatesolids
Specificationoffinalproductalsocriticalinselection

BasicChoice:BatchorContinuous
Batchdryersfavoredby:
Lowthroughput(under50kg/h)
Longresidencetime(i.e.mainlyfallingratedrying)
Batchequipmentupstreamanddownstream
Requirementforbatchintegrity

Continuousdryersfavoredby
oppositeconditions
Matchproductionmadeoffeedwherepossible

BasicChoice:InformationFromKineticData
Interpretationofdryingcurvesassistschoice:
Unhindereddryingperiod favorsconvective/dispersion
Longhindereddryingperiod favorscontactdrying
Estimateofrequiredsolidsresidencetime
Maximumlikelydryingrate
Indicationofmechanismscontrollingdrying
Differencebetweeninitialandfinaldryingrates *
*(Ifhigh,favorswellmixed,parallelflowortwostage)

Dryers:SolidExposuretoHeatConditions
Dryers

Typicalresidencetimewithindryer
010
sec

1030
sec

510
min

1060
min

16
hr

Convection
Beltconveyordryer

Flashdryer
Fluidbeddryer
Rotarydryer
Spraydryer
Traydryer(batch)
Traydryer(continuous)
Conduction
Drumdryer
Steamjacketrotarydryer
Steamtuberotarydryer
Traydryer(batch)
Traydryer(continuous)

X
X

X
X

ProductClassificationandDryerTypes
Dryers

Fluid,
Evap.Rate
liquid
(kg/m2/h
r)
suspensio
n

Pastes Powders

Granule
s,pellets

Operation

Forced
Convection
(through
flow)

7.5

Good

Batch

DoubleCone

10

Poor

Fair

Poor

Batch

FBD

130

Good

Good

Continuous

Band

30

Fair

Good

Continuous

FilmDrum

22

Good

Fair

Continuous

Flash

750

Fair

Good

Fair

Continuous

Rotary
(indirect)

33

Poor

Good

Fair

Continuous

SpinFlash

185

Good

Good

Fair

Continuous

Spray

15

Good

Continuous

Different Industrial Dryer Types

TurboTrayDryers

Suitableforgranularfeeds,operatewithrotatingshelvesand force
convectionofairabovetheshelves.
TheDryercanhave30+traysandprovidelargeresidencetime.
Hermeticsealingispossibleforsolventrecovery.

RotaryDryer

Combinedcascademotion
withheat&masstransfer.
Largecapital&operatingcost.
Usedinfertilizers,
pharmaceutical,lead&zinc
concentrateforsmelting,
cement.
Size0.3to5mdiameter&
2to90mlength.

SteamTubeRotaryDryer

FluidBedDryers Variations

FluidBedDryers Modifications

HomogeneousFBwithoutchannelingorbubbles;
highgasvelocitypossible
Deeperbeddepthispossibleifthebedis
agitatedNotcommonlyused

Centrifugal/rotatingFB flowing
gasradially rotatingcylindrical
perforateddistributor.
promisingcontactingUmf andUt
canbecontrolled

Rotocone Dryers(Batch)

Dryingofpharmaceuticals tableting formulation

Maximumcapacity10m3.
Evaporationrate27kg/hr.m2

MicrowaveDryers

Usedinceramicsindustries,
foods&pharmaceuticalsto
driveofffinaltracesof
moisture.

VacuumDryers HeatSensitiveMaterials

YamatoTACORotaryDryer

SuperheatedSteamDrying
steam from boiler

Recycled steam
Direct use of
steam

Energy recovery via

heat exchanger

Fan/blower

purged steam
Heater
Removal of
condensate
Closed steam
drying system

TypicalSSDset-up

SuperheatedSteamDrying
SaturatedSteamExhaust
Backto100C,1bar;H=2,690kJ/kg

Dryingchamber

SaturatedSteamFeed
Assume100C,1bar;H=
2,690kJ/kg

Bleedingofffor
otheruses

Steam
Superheater
SuperheatedSteam
Assume110C,1bar;H=2,720kJ/kg

SuperheatedSteamDrying
PossibleTypesofSSD

Flash

Conveyor

Spra

Fluid bed

Rotary

Flash dryers with or without indirect

heating of walls
FBDs with or without immersed heat
exchangers
Spray dryers
Impinging jet dryers
Conveyor dryers
Rotary dryers
Impinging stream dryers

Selection of Fluid Bed Dryer

Some case studies

FBDSelection ComplexProcedure
GroupA,B

GroupC,D

Solutions,Pastes

Goodfluidization
quality

Poorfluidization
quality

Liquid

Crystalline

Fragile

Surfacemoisture

VFBD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Colloidal,Porous

Fine

Large

Surface+internal
moisture

GroupC

GroupD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Liquids

Spray FBD

Pastes/Slurries

AFBD

VFBD

SBD

AFBD

ISFBD

Surface
ITFBD moisture

Surface+
internal
moisture

PFFBD

WMFBD MSFBD WMFBD

SBD

SBD

SBD

VFBD

VFBD

VFBD

MSFBD

VFBD

VFBD

SBD

SBD

PFBD

SBD

BFBD

FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast

Goodfluidizationqualitywhendry
Containssurfaceandinternalmoistures
Heatsensitive
Monosized,particlesize=200m(aeratable)
Noteotherdryertypescanalsobeusedforthisapplication

FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast
GroupA,B

GroupC,D

Solutions,Pastes

Goodfluidization
quality

Poorfluidization
quality

Liquid

Crystalline

Fragile

Surfacemoisture

VFBD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Colloidal,Porous

Fine

Large

Surface+internal
moisture

GroupC

GroupD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Liquids

Spray FBD

Pastes/Slurries

AFBD

VFBD

SBD

AFBD

ISFBD

ITFBD

Surface
moisture

Surface+
internal
moisture

PFFBD

WMFBD

MSFBD

WMFBD

SBD

SBD

SBD

VFBD

VFBD

VFBD

MSFBD

VFBD

VFBD

SBD

SBD

PFBD

SBD

BFBD

FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast
FBDtobeselectedfromfollowingalternates:
Multistagefluidizedbeddryer
VibratedFluidizedbeddryer
SpoutedFluidizedbeddryer

Monosized,
Particlesize=200m(aeratable);density=???
Useamultistagefluidizedbeddryer
Canconsiderwellmixedfluidizedbeddryerfollowedbyplug
flowfluidizeddryerandcooleratthefinalstage

FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts

Solution
Liquid
Note:Asidefromphysicalform,modeofoperation,capacity
required,heatsensitivityaffectthedryerchoice.Infactthe
initialandfinalM.C.,dryingkinetics,toxicity,fragilityof
materialalsoinfluencedryerselection.

FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
GroupA,B

GroupC,D

Solutions,Pastes

Goodfluidization
quality

Poorfluidization
quality

Liquid

Crystalline

Fragile

Surfacemoisture

VFBD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Colloidal,Porous

Fine

Large

Surface+internal
moisture

GroupC

GroupD

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

Liquids

Pastes/Slurries

Spray FBD

AFBD

VFBD

SBD

AFBD

ISFBD

ITFBD

Surface
moisture

Surface+
internal
moisture

PFFBD

WMFBD

MSFBD

WMFBD

SBD

SBD

SBD

VFBD

VFBD

VFBD

MSFBD

VFBD

VFBD

SBD

SBD

PFBD

SBD

BFBD

FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
FBDtoselect:
Spray FBD
WhattypeofFBD?

Notefollowing:
Powderscontaininternalmoisture,porous
Heatsensitive

FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
GroupA,B

GroupC,D

Solutions,Pastes

Goodfluidization
quality

Poorfluidization
quality

Liquid

Crystalline

Fragile

Surfacemoisture

VFBD

Heat
sensitive

Colloidal,Porous
Surface+internal
moisture

Fine

Large

Liquids

Pastes/Slurries

GroupC GroupD

Spray FBD

AFBD

VFBD

SBD

AFBD

ISFBD

Heat
resistant

Heat
sensitive

Heat
resistant

PFFBD

WMFBD

MSFBD

WMFBD

SBD

SBD

SBD

VFBD

VFBD

VFBD

MSFBD

VFBD

VFBD

SBD

SBD

PFBD

SBD

ITFBD

Surface
moisture

BFBD

Surface+
internal
moisture

FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
FBDtoselect:
Multistagefluidizedbeddryer
Vibratedfluidizedbeddryer
Spoutedbeddryer

Polydispersed
Usevibratedfluidizedbeddryer
Needtosieveproducts;finesrecycled,coarsecrushedand
recycled,sizedproductcollected

AdvancedDryingMethods
Atmosphericfreezedrying
Heatpumpdrying
Hybriddrying
Intermittentdrying
Sprayfreezedrying
Pulsecombustiondryers
Multistagedryers
Multiprocessingdryers

AdvancedDryingMethods
HybridDryingTechnologies

Combined
modeofheat
transfer

Convective/conduction
(Agitatedfluidbeddryer)

Convectivewith MW/RF/IR
Continuousorintermittent
Eachstagewithsamedryertype
(Twostagefluidbed)

Fluidizedbed
dryers

Multistage
drying
systems

Differentdryersateachstage
(Sprayandfluidbeddryeror
flashandfluidbeddryer)
Differentdryingtechnologies
ateachstage(superheated
steamdrying/byairdrying)
Filtercumdryer

Multiprocess
ingdryers

Drying&cooling(inplugflow
fluidbeddryer
Dryingandagglomeration(spray
followedbyfluidbed)

Closure
Veryimportantstep(afterestablishingneedtodryandoptimalflowsheet
fornonthermaldewatering)
Wrongchoiceleadstoseverepenalties startupcosts,downtimeandneed
toreplace
Usermustdohomework fist;vendorsvaluablethereafter
Severaldryersmaydothejob samequality,costetc.
Selectiondoesdependoncostoffuel,relativecostofdifferentenergy
sources;geographicallocation;legislativeregulations;emissioncontrol;
safety,etc.
Considernewtechnologiesaswell whenavailableandproven
Expertsystemsnowavailable(e.g.SPS)toaidinselection stilla
combinationofart(experience)andscience!
Selectionmaybedominatedbyjustonecriterioninsomecasese.g.quality
forpharma products
Severaldifferentdryerscandosamejobatsamecostinsomecases
Choicecandependongeographiclocation,costofenergyetc

Closure
Energyisaimportantpointtobeconsideredindryingwhichishighly
energyintensiveunitoperation
Differentroutescanbeusedtominimizetheenergylosses
Carbonfootprintscanbeminimizedbymakingthedryingsystemenergy
efficient
Developingenergyintensivemethodswithsustainability needtodevelop
innovativedryingtechniques
Someoftheadvanced/innovativewaysofdryingarediscussed

Books/monographsbyProf.
ArunS.Mujumdar
During2010
Visitusat:
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun

Selectedbooksandjournalsin
dryingandtransportphenomena
edited/authoredbyProf.Arun
S.Mujumdar,
Visitusat:
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun

Visitusat
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun/
http://www.mujumdar.net78.net/