Anna M.

Paradowska1
Science and Technology Facility Council,
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,
ISIS Facility,
OX11 0QX, UK
e-mail: anna.paradowska@stfc.ac.uk

John W. H. Price
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Monash University,
Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia

Trevor R. Finlayson
School of Physics,
University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia

Ronald B. Rogge
Ronald L. Donaberger
Chalk River Laboratories,
Canadian Neutron Beam Centre (CNBC),
ON, K0J 1J0, Canada

Raafat Ibrahim
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Monash University,
Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia

Comparison of Neutron
Diffraction Measurements of
Residual Stress of Steel Butt
Welds With Current
Fitness-for-Purpose Assessments
In this research, the neutron diffraction technique was used to investigate the residual
stress distributions in constrained carbon steel welds. Two full penetration welds were
studied using (a) the stringer bead and (b) the temper bead weld techniques in 25 mm
thick plate. The welds were not post-weld heat treated. The focus of the measurements is
on the values of the subsurface and through-thickness strain/stress variation near the
middle of the weld and the toe. The experimental results showed that both processes had
high residual stresses particularly through the thickness. The measurements were compared with current fitness-for-purpose approaches, such as BS7910 and R6. It was found
that the residual stress distribution in the temper bead welded specimen was not as
favorable as suspected and post-weld heat treatment should be recommended to reduce
residual tensile stresses in this type of steel welds. DOI: 10.1115/1.4002162
Keywords: residual stress, stringer and temper bead welding, neutron diffraction,
welding, fitness-for-purpose assessments

Introduction

In welding, residual stresses RS are formed in the structure as

the result of differential contractions, which occur as the weld
metal solidifies and cools to ambient temperature 1. Welding
produces both tensile and compressive residual stresses however,
the tensile stresses can have significant effects on the susceptibility of a material to degradation mechanisms such as fatigue, corrosion, fracture resistance, and creep, in particular, in the weld toe
region.
Assessment of the integrity of pressure and structural components is becoming increasingly important for both economic and
safety reasons. The need for an effective welding technique is
vital and becomes more evident as safety assessment, such as BS
7910 2 and R6 3, require a better understanding of the welding
effect on structural components. Reduction in residual stresses is
normally desirable 4. Residual stresses in weld joints can be
reduced by heat treatment 5 or by mechanical stress relieving
6. A recent survey presented by Gandy et al. 7 on the method
of welding procedure and weld repairs of thick-walled structures
in industry indicated that only 30% of the organizations covered
by the survey appeared to use post-weld heat treatment PWHT.
The review also highlighted that 40% of all repairs cracked again
after return to service.
The welding-procedure-related parameters and restraint condition appear to be more important in analyzing repair welds than in
initial fabrication welds. In many cases, repair welds are highly
restrained and rapidly cooled and are thus likely to have high
residual stresses.
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Pressure Vessel and Piping Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF PRESSURE VESSEL TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received August 12,
2008; final manuscript received September 30, 2009; published online October 1,
2010. Assoc. Editor: Douglas Scarth.

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

Stringer SW and temper bead TBW welding techniques are

commonly used in industry. SW represents a conventional weld
where the cavity is filled up following an appropriate number of
passes stringers, and then when required by code, PWHT treatment is applied.
TBW involves placing a layer of smaller beads on the parent
metal and then welding with the intention of tempering earlier
passes with late passes. The top crown or reinforcement where
the last passes are made is ground off. It is claimed that the TBW
technique can be used when PWHT cannot be applied. In effect,
the strategic sequencing and placement of the weld beads provides
localized PWHT of preceding passes, thus, achieving substantial
tempering of the total weldment. Recent researches 810 have
shown that TBW techniques can provide the required properties of
the weld without PWHT. However, detailed nondestructive measurement of the residual stresses in either SW or TBW welds have
as yet not been reported.
As pointed out by Bouchard and Withers 11, in order to assess
and predict the influence of residual stresses on integrity, it is
essential to quantify accurately the residual stress field. The direct
measurements of residual stress 12 can be either semidestructive
e.g., hole drilling and indenting 13 or nondestructive X-ray
laboratory or synchrotron or neutron diffraction 14,15 ND
and ultrasonic 16. However, ND is outstanding in its ability to
obtain RS nondestructively deep within the interior of components, in three dimensions, in small test volumes and in thick
specimens.
Numerical techniques have been developed to estimate residual
stresses and good correlation between theory and experiment can
now be obtained even on complex weld geometries 9,11. However, a major review still determined that weld RS need more
detailed investigation to develop the required knowledge particularly for highly constrained welds and weld repair 17. In recent

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Table 1 Chemical compositions of the parent and weld metal

in wt %
Parent metal

Weld metal

Max.

Max.

0.15
1.35
0.2813
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.002
.01

0.10
1.70
0.68
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.03
0.04
0.04

Chemical composition
C
Mn
Si
S
P
Ni
Cr
Mo
V

works, some of the authors of this paper have examined the detailed comparison of experimental measurement 18 with theoretical estimates 19.
Nondestructive neutron diffraction measurement is a key issue
in the confirmation of the theoretical work. The technique has
been used to quantify residual stresses in welded plates 2022
and pipes 23,24 including repairs 11,25. In this study, ND has
been used to establish the residual stress in full penetration constrained butt welds carried out by SW and TBW techniques. The
measurements were taken in the as-welded condition. The focus
of the measurements is on the values of the subsurface and
through-thickness strain/stress variations near the middle and the
toe of the weld. The RS are discussed and compared with the
current safety assessment procedures, BS 7910 2 and R6 3.

Fig. 1 Schematic illustration of a preparation for full penetration welds using b sample I SW and c sample II TBW
techniques dotted lines represent the line scans for ND
measurements

Experimental Procedure

2.1 Materials Properties. The parent material used in this

study was a carbon steel AS 1548-7-460 26; the chemical composition of the material and weld metal are shown in Table 1. Two
welds were manufactured. The dimensions of the parent metal
plates were: the length is 250 mm, the width is 150 mm, and the
thickness is 25 mm.
Tensile properties of the parent material were examined in accordance with Australian Standard AS 1391-1991 27 and the
weld metal tensile properties were examined in accordance with
Australian Standard AS 2205.2.2-1997 28. Materials were tested
at ambient temperature. The test specimens were taken from each
weld in the direction longitudinal y to the weld. The average
mechanical properties of the materials used in this investigation
are shown in Table 2.
2.2 Welding Procedure. Experimental work was carried out
on two different welds manufactured using SW Sample I and
TBW sample II techniques. Schematic illustration of the preparation and experimental procedure is shown in Fig. 1. The welds
were produced using a flux-cored arc welding process. The specimens were mounted under an automatic-speed-controlled welding
torch by 12 tack-welds 6 mm fillet welds of 10 mm length
around each specimen to achieve the restraint condition in the
longitudinal and transverse directions. The welding parameters are
shown in Table 3.
Both samples comprised a 60 deg preparation butt weld with a
3 mm gap between the plates Fig. 1a. In the first sample,
Table 2 Typical room temperature mechanical properties
Yield stress 0.2% Tensile strength Elongation
Mechanical properties proof stress MPa
MPa
%
Parent metal
Weld metal

430
460

051503-2 / Vol. 132, OCTOBER 2010

520
580

30
30

sample I, 14 beads were deposited to fill the weld. The root bead
had a heat input of 0.700.81 kJ/mm and the filling beads received
1.041.26 kJ/mm. The sequence of deposited beads is shown in
Fig. 1b.
The second sample, sample II, contains two layers Figs. 1c
and 2 to achieve TBW. The procedure has been proven as an
appropriate one to achieve a tempering effect and this was confirmed by investigation of microstructure, hardness and impact
13,14.
The first layer was deposited manually with the lower heat input of approximately 0.700.81 kJ/mm and containing 18 beads,
as shown in Figs. 1c and 2a. The heat input of the filling layers
was 1.041.26 kJ/mm. After successive welding, attempts were
made to remove the extensive reinforcement in the middle of the
samples by grinding them flat, as is shown in Fig. 2b. The welding parameters are shown in Table 3. There was a preheat of
100 C and an inter-run temperature of less than 150 C was applied to both samples. There was no PWHT.

Residual Stress Determination

Under tensile or compressive stress, the lattice spacing dhkl for

lattice planes hkl in individual grains expands or contracts. At
constant wavelength, this change in lattice spacing is detected as a
shift hkl in the hkl diffraction peak. From the Bragg equation
the strain hkl is given by
hkl =

dhkl d0
= cot hklhkl
d0

where d0 is the strain-free lattice spacing for the hkl planes.

The orientation of the principal strains in any specimen is determined by specimen geometry. The strains xx , yy , zz convert
to the three-dimensional stress xx , yy , zz state 29. For an
isotropic solid, equations of the form
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Table 3 Parameters used in the experimental work

Parameters

Sample I

Root run 1

Runs 214

Sample II

Temper beads runs 118

Runs 1938

Electrode diameter mm
Current range A
Voltage range V
Traverse speed mm/min
Wire feeding speed mm/min
Electrode stick-out distance mm
Gas flow rate l/min
Polarity
Shielding gas

xx =

E
1 xx + yy + zz
1 + 1 2

1.6
1.6
260280
260280
2830
2830
480
360
3600
3600
20
20
20
20
DC+
DC+
ARGOSHIELD 52 CO2 23%, Ar 77%

give stresses in three directions, using xx as an example, where E

is Youngs modulus 207 GPa and is Poissons ratio 0.3.
The incident and diffracted beam slits for measurements in the
transverse and normal directions were 2 mm wide and could be 20
mm high. For measurements of strains in the longitudinal direction the slits can only be 2 mm in width and 2 mm in height. In
the authors previous work 30, the problem of the local d0 of the
weld metal, HAZ and parent metal were discussed. The data suggest that for this particular alloy and weld, there is no significant
effect in the welded region on d0 resulting from microstructural
and/or chemical compositional changes. Therefore, the average of
the base and weld metal stress-free lattice parameters was used to
determine the strains/stresses at all the measurement points in the
weldment. The slits for the stress-free parameters were the same
as those for longitudinal measurements 2 2 mm2. Scans were
made along the surface Fig. 3 across the weld, HAZ and parent
metal x = 0 is the center of the weld. The center of the gauge
volume was 1.6 mm below the top surface. ND was carried out on
the L3 diffractometer at the National Research Universal reactor
located at Chalk River Laboratories, Canada.
This reactor was chosen because the thermal neutron flux is
relatively high, offering the potential to achieve reliable measurements of the residual strain/stress in a relatively small gauge volume of 2 2 2 mm3 in 25 mm thick steel in short time intervals
320 min per point. The 115 planes of a Ge monochromator
crystal were employed to produce a neutron beam of fixed wavelength = 1.53 . At this wavelength the Fe 211 reflection was
detected at a detector angle 2 of approximately 81.7 deg. The
overview of the sample environment on the L3 diffractometer is
shown in Fig. 3. Several surface and through-thickness scans of
the weld were made. At each measurement point, the x, y, and z
components of strain as indicated in Fig. 3 were measured by
appropriately orienting each of the weld specimens.

Fig. 2 Sample II TBW: a first tempering layer on one side of

the joined plates and b overview of the completed sample the
crown or reinforcement is ground off in the center of the weld

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

Residual Stress Estimation

In this research, the residual stresses were compared with two

codes: BS 7910 2 and R6 3. In these codes, the residual stress
distribution is proposed for several weld geometries and different
types of materials. In this research, only butt weld geometry in
ferritic steel will be discussed. The details of the procedures are
described in the following sections.
4.1 BS 7910. Estimates of the distribution of the weld transverse and longitudinal residual stresses are given in the current
safety assessment procedure, BS 7910. According to Section 7.2.4
of BS7910 for a structure in the as-welded condition with a flaw
lying in a plane transverse to the welding direction the tensile
longitudinal residual stress is to be assumed to be a uniform membrane stress equal to the room temperature yield strength of the
material in which the flaw is located. For a flaw parallel to the
welding direction, the transverse residual stress should be assumed to be the lesser of the room temperature yield strength of
the weld or parent material.
4.2 Procedure R6. Three approaches for determining the aswelded residual stress distribution at room temperature are provided in R6. Simple estimates, level 1, enable an initial conservative assessment of a defect to be made; a simple assumption is
that the longitudinal and transverse components of residual
stresses are tensile and uniformly distributed in both the throughthickness and transverse directions with a magnitude equal to the
material yield strength at room temperature. This level is equivalent to the safety assessment procedure described in BS 7910. The
second approach, level 2, identifies published compendia that
characterize a bounding profile for a range of structures. The third
approach, level 3, entails the use of analysis coupled with experi-

Fig. 3 The strain scanning diffractometer at the Chalk River

facility. Samples I SW and II TBW in position to measure the
strain in the transverse x direction. Gray-dotted line represents the locations of the surface scan using ND on both
samples. The gauge volumes were centered 1.6 mm below the
surface of the plate.

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Fig. 4 Comparison of surface residual stress distributions in BS 7910 and R6 level 2 for a ferritic
butt weld a, longitudinal b, and transverse c directions W is the width of observable weld

mental measurements to define the detailed spatial distribution of

residual stress. Note that residual stress distributions in the BS
7910 or R6 levels 1 and 2 are upper bound distributions Fig. 4.
Previous work by Wimpory et al. 31 showed that the extent of
the plastic zone PZ or according to R6 yield zone can be
used to determine the position from the weld toe when the magnitude of residual stress becomes compressive. This estimation of
the plastic zone size is very useful in predicting the residual stress
distributions for welded joints. Parameters r0 and y 0 measured in
mm define the dimensions of the PZ. Based on R6, the PZ varies
with the thickness of the parent material Fig. 4. For a ferritic
steel weld in the longitudinal direction, PZLong is estimated by r0
or y 0, which are based on the recommendation of Leggatt R6 4
for the surface residual stress profile Eqs. 3 and 4.
If r0 t, where t is a plate thickness in millimeter,
r0 =

K
YP

q
v

yield strength or 0.2% of proof strength of the parent metal in

N / mm2 = 106 Pa. Taking the typical value of process efficiency
= 0.8 gives a value of K for ferritic steels of 122 N mm/ J.
In the transverse direction the plastic zone PZTrans is estimated
by thickness, and for a fully restrained sample,
PZTrans = 2t

The through-thickness longitudinal profile, L, is assumed to be

equal to the yield stress of the weld metal. For the transverse
direction, transverse T, the profile can be determined by Eq. 6.

If r0 t,
y0 =

1.033K
YP

* vt

where t is the plate thickness in millimeter and where q is the arc

power in J/s, q = I * V, I is the current in ampere and V is the
voltage in volts, K is a material constant in N mm/ J, v is the
weld travel speed in mm/s and is the process efficiency fraction of the arc power entering the plate as heat, and YP is the
051503-4 / Vol. 132, OCTOBER 2010

Fig. 5 Comparison of through-thickness distributions of residual stress in BS 7910 and R6 level 2 for a longitudinal and
b transverse directions

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Fig. 6 Comparison of NRS distributions for sample I SW with the estimates of BS 7910 and R6 for a longitudinal and b
transverse directions 1.6 mm below the surface

Fig. 7 Comparison of NRS distributions for sample II TBW for a longitudinal and
b transverse directions 1.6 mm below the surface

Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

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Fig. 8 Comparison of through-thickness NRS distribution for samples I SW and II TBW for a longitudinal and b transverse
directions x = 0 the center line of weld, as shown on Fig. 1

T/y z/t = 1 0.917z/t 14.533z/t2 + 83.115z/t3

215.45z/t4 + 244.16z/t5 96.36z/t6

is the yield strength of the lesser of the weld or parent

where
material and z is the depth in the parent metal.
The schematic comparison of BS 7910 and R6 level 2 profiles
for the surface residual stress is shown in Fig. 4 and for the
through-thickness case in Fig. 5.

Results and Discussion

To enable comparison of the results with BS 7910 and R6, the

measured values of residual stress were normalized with respect
to the material yield stress of the weld metal in the weld area and
with the yield stress of the parent metal outside the weld area
Table 2. This is termed normalized residual stress NRS. Figures 6 and 7 show the surface residual stress distributions for
samples I and II, respectively, together with the estimates BS 7910
and R6. Figure 8 shows comparisons of the through-thickness
distributions for samples I and II in the middle of the weld, as well
as at the weld toe.
5.1 Distribution of stresses. Comparisons of experimental
results with the estimates in BS 7910 2 and R6 3 Figs. 6 and
7 show that they underestimate the longitudinal stress within the
weld and HAZ. High residual stress values were found in the
longitudinal direction, reaching or even exceeding the uniaxial
yield value of the parent and weld metal within the weld as well
as the weld toe.
The transverse surface stresses are overestimated by both
codes. The highest residual stresses in the transverse direction
were found within the weld at approximately 40% for sample I
051503-6 / Vol. 132, OCTOBER 2010

Fig. 6b and 60% for sample II Fig. 7b of the room temperature yield stress of these materials. At the surface, a stress distribution value below the yield was achieved in the longitudinal
direction at the toe and the HAZ Figs. 6a and 7a.
Comparisons of the through-thickness residual stress distributions in representative locations at the weld center x = 0 mm, at
the weld toe x = 20 mm sample I, and at x = 0 mm, 20 mm, and
30 mm sample II are shown in Fig. 8. From these comparisons
of the through-thickness residual stress distributions for samples I
and II we can see that the residual stress in sample II is lower at
the toe than that in sample I in both the directions with longitudinal and transverse stresses changing sign to more favorable compressive stresses from the middle of the thickness of the weld. The
neutron diffraction measurements have provided quantitative information about the residual stress in the plate butt welds, which
is consistent with current understanding of such a welds 11,23.
5.2 Fitness-for-Purpose Assessments. An important feature
of the stresses measured in this work is that the stresses encountered are sometimes much lower and more favorably oriented than
those required to be assumed in fatigue and fitness-for-purpose
analyses such as those included in standard BS7910 and R6 level
1, particularly, for the surface transverse direction.
The turning points are where the stresses switch from tension to
compression. According to a previous observation in Ref. 21 the
location of the turning points are close to the extent of the plastic
zone. The calculated plastic zone size for the 25 mm plate, as well
as the observed turning point, is shown in Table 4. The table
shows that the observed turning point is always smaller than the
calculated plastic zone size.
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Table 4 Calculated plastic zone and measured turning point

Sample
I
II

Size of PZLong
Eq. 3 mm
22.5
22.5

Turning point for longitudinal direction

distance from the center of the weld x = 0 mm
Calculated

Observed

Size of PZTrans
Eqs. 5 mm

42.5
52.5

41
43

50
50

From the measurements reported in this paper the transverse

stress, which needs to be considered is somewhat lower at the
surface than those reported in BS 7910 and R6.
The stresses in both the longitudinal and transverse directions
tend to be high in the areas, which have been molten or close by
but an assumption of uniform membrane stress is highly conservative.

Conclusions

The use of a neutron beam as a nondestructive method of measuring residual stress due to welding has been explored. Two types
of full penetration constrained butt welds on 25 mm carbon steel
were examined. The main research findings are as follows.

High values of the longitudinal residual stress occurred in

both types of welds within the fused region of the weld, the
weld toe and HAZ.
Transverse residual stress of approximately 60% of the yield
strength was found within the fused region and the weld toe.
The highest values of residual stress on the surface were in
the stringer weld close to the toe. For the through-thickness
distribution the highest values were found in the middle of
the temper bead welded sample.
The through-thickness distribution at the weld toe of the
temper bead sample has lower stresses than those for the
stringer bead welding.
The highest stresses in the specimens in both the longitudinal and transverse directions tended to be in the areas that
had been molten or near them; the assumption in BS7910 of
uniform membrane stress was highly conservative.
BS7910 was conservative for transverse residual stresses.
However, R6 may underestimate residual stresses through
the thickness.

There are certain benefits in using the temper bead welding

technique as described in the literature review. However, from the
findings of this research if the residual stress is a critical issue, the
temper bead welding method may not be sufficient and post-weld
heat treatment may be still necessary for this type of steel welds.

Acknowledgment
This work was conducted with the assistance of an Australian
Research Council grant supported by the Welding Technology Institute of Australia WTIA. Other assistance has been received
from the Monash University Research Fund and the Australian
Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation ANSTO. We
acknowledge financial support from the access to Major Research
Facilities Programme Award No. 06/07-N-02, which is a component of the International Science Linkages Programme established under the Australian Government innovation statement,
Backing Australians Ability. Special thanks to Dr. R. Hutanu from
the Canadian Neutron Beam Centre CNBC and Richard
Blevins from ANSTO for their assistance during this experiment.
Anna Paradowska would like thank the Australian Institute of
Nuclear Science and Engineering AINSE for financial assistance during her Ph.D. Award No. AINSTU1604 at Monash
University.
Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology

Turning point for transverse direction

distance from the center of the weld x = 0 mm
Calculated

Observed

70
80

49
63

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22 Albertini, G., Bruno, G., Dunn, B. D., Fiori, F., Reimers, W., and Wright, J. S.,
1997, Comparative Neutron and X-Ray Residual Stress Measurements on
Al-2219 Welded Platex, Mater. Sci. Eng., A, 224, pp. 157165.
23 Wang, X. L., Payzant, E. A., Taljat, B., Hubbard, C. R., Keiser, J. R., and
Jirinec, M. J., 1997, Experimental Determination of the Residual Stresses in a
Spiral Weld Overlay Tube, Mater. Sci. Eng., A, 232, pp. 3138.

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24 Edwards, L., Santisteban, J. R., Stelmukh, V., Bouchard, P. J., and Daymond,
M. R., 2001, Measurement of the Residual Stresses Near a Short 20 Degree
Repair in a 19 mm Thick Stainless Steel Pipe Girth Weld, J. Neutron Res., 9,
pp. 173180.
25 Edwards, L., Bouchard, P. J., Dutta, M., Wang, D. Q., Santisteban, J. R., Hiller,
S., and Fitzpatrick, M. E., 2005, Direct Measurement of the Residual Stresses
Near a Boat-Shaped Repair in a 20 mm Thick Stainless Steel Tube Butt
Weld, Int. J. Pressure Vessels Piping, 824, pp. 288298.
26 AS/NZS 3678, 1996, Grade 250, Structural Steel-Hot-Rolled Plates, Floor
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27 AS 1391, 1991, Methods for Tensile Testing of Metals, Standards Australia,
Sydney, Australia.

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28 AS 2205.2.2, 1997, Methods for Destructive Testing of Welds in Metal-AllWeld-Metal Tensile Test, Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia.
29 ISO/TS 21432, 2005, International Organization for Standardization/Technical
Specification, Non-Destructive TestingStandard Test Method for Determining Residual Stresses by Neutron Diffraction.
30 Paradowska, A., Finlayson, T. R., Price, J. W. H., Ibrahim, R., Steuwer, A.,
and Ripley, M., 2006, Investigation of Reference Samples for Residual Strain
Measurements in a Welded Specimen by Neutron and Synchrotron X-Ray
Diffraction, Physica B, 385386, pp. 904907.
31 Wimpory, R. C., Stefanescu, D., Smith, D. J., ODowd, N. P., Webster, G. A.,
May, P. S., and Kingston, E., 2003, Residual Stress Distributions in Welded
Ferritic Steel T-Plate Joints, J. Neutron Res., 11, pp. 201207.

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