THE INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF ATHLETIC MALE OFFSPRING

by John Girdwood

Michigan State University

Department of Sociology

Word count: 5019

Michigan State University • Department of Sociology

316 Berkey Hall Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824-1111
John Girdwood FINAL PROPOSAL SOC 820

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ABSTRACT

Extending the Essential Father Theory, this proposal seeks to conduct research
that will provide explanations of outcomes when levels of influence that fathers
contribute to the development of their sons vary. This examination of successful
outcomes will advance sociological research in regard to both occupation and
health. I hypothesize that fathers are essential to positive child development by
helping (a) set status attainment goals from ages 8 - 12 years; and (b) provide
achievement motivation from ages 13 - 17 years. In addition to those
developmental periods, I will look closely at the influence that fathers'
socioeconomic backgrounds play throughout both periods. I will conduct
interviews with sons who either are professional athletes, former professional
athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes. I will also
perform media content analysis of athletes' descriptions of fatherly influence
when the subject matter is similarly related to that of the research interview
questions. Combining both methods, I can propose better understanding of
paternal influence on the development of athletic children.

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THE INFLUENCE OF PATERNAL RELATIONSHIPS ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF ATHLETIC MALE OFFSPRING

RESEARCH PROBLEM

When analyzing life choices of the American male, it is imperative to look

at adolescence as a crucial period of decision-making. The transition to

adulthood represents an important area of sociological research in part because

it constitutes a critical time in the formation of life pathways (Johnson 2002).

Once it is agreed upon that adolescence is a formative period then elements of

the decision-making process can begin to be examined.

In this proposal, I assume that positive outcomes occur when goals are

set and subsequently attained. Fathers, participatory or not, contribute varying

levels of influence on the formation and attainment of the goals of their sons.

These ambitions take many forms: scholastic, professional, athletic, etc. This

research will examine a blended ambition, one that pairs occupational and

healthy objectives, the development of athletic children.

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES

Positive and negative outcomes, usually critiqued by others, tend to be

defined by those who are outside the father/son relationship. Whether a father

produced a successful son can be judged by friends, relatives, and on some

occasion the news media. However, the most appropriate judges of relationship

quality are those who participate in the relationships.

The essential father theory simply states that fathers are essential to

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positive child development (Silverstein and Auerbach 1999). Positive child

development is different from reaching general lofty financial positions,

educational distinction, or having great life-course gains in wealth and

socioeconomic status. For purposes of this research, I define "positive child

development" as parent/child goal setting and accomplishment of those goals,

particularly occupational goals. I will explain later in the article how status

attainment goals are formed between ages 8 - 12 years and then achievement

motivation occurs during the teen years.

The father's socioeconomic background frequently has been found to

have long-term effects on adult intellectual, occupational, and economic

outcomes (Scarr and Weinberg 1978). Sociologists frequently study changes

across cohorts in the consequences of family socioeconomic background,

gender, education, and cognitive ability for occupational outcomes. Other

studies focus on how the consequences of these variables change within the

course of individuals' lives (Warren, Sheridan, and Hauser 2002). I expect to

find that status attainment goals initiated between ages 8 - 12 years

consequentially have an effect on achievement motivation during ages 13 - 17

years.

Structural models of educational attainment specify how differences in

family socioeconomic background are translated into varying educational

attainment, with family socioeconomic background having both direct and indirect

effects on schooling (Teachman 1987). Thought has also been given to the

motivations of vocational choices. Given that work values are important

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determinants of vocational choice and actual occupation destinations, it is

important to understand their origins (Mortimer, Ellen Efron Pimentel, Ryu, Nash,

and Lee 1996). However, work values may not be the only driver behind

occupational destination. I hypothesize that paternal influence, in the form of

status attainment goal setting during ages 8 - 12 years and followed by

achievement motivation during ages 13 - 17 years, maintains a heavy influence

on occupational destination in the male offspring cohort.

Achievement motivation likely drives occupational choice. Achievement

motivation has been defined as "the redintegration of affect aroused by cues in

situations involving standards of excellence. Such standards are typically

learned from parents who urge the child to compete against these standards,

rewarding him when he performs well and punishing him when he fails." (Rosen

1961) Of course, competition is a key component of athletic involvement. I

expect to find that different levels and forms of achievement motivation during the

teen years have varying effects on positive outcomes in the male offspring

cohort.

No change is more visible during adolescence than physical growth and

development. Athletic prowess is fundamentally enhanced in most sports by

strength and fitness. During the crucial decision making period of adolescence,

achievement motivation could make or break a father/son relationship. The

father may push athletic development, like weight lifting, too rigorously and

alienate the son. Conversely, the father may motivate passively creating the

son's perception that the father is uninterested. This study will examine the

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influence of paternal relationships on the development of athletic male offspring

by studying those sons who are either professional athletes, were former

professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming professional athletes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Research has been performed that analyzes fatherly influence on

occupational choice, socioeconomic achievement, and child development in

general. Additional research is needed to examine positive outcomes in the

development of sons through their relationships with and influences of their

fathers. Specific studies can lend new perspectives. I propose to analyze the

relationships of fathers and sons and how the fatherly influence affects goal

setting and attainment within the scope of athletics, including aspirations to

professional athleticism.

Previous research has proposed many theoretical perspectives about why

father involvement could have positive consequences for child development.

Four of those perspectives are: attachment theory, social capital theory,

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory, and 'essential father' theory (Pleck 2007). I

will critique the Essential Father Theory through an analysis of the father/son

relationship. This critique will focus on goal setting and attainment.

Status Attainment

During the past 50 years of sociological study, two established traditions

of research on jobs and occupations have been significant. One tradition is

represented by stratification studies of status attainment (Hauser, Tsai, and

Sewell 1983; Warren et al. 2002). A central feature of attainment research is the

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scientific force with which it has identified and given structure to the major

dimensions of social origins that precede the transition to adulthood and that

shape adult socioeconomic achievement (Halaby 2003). The second tradition

consists of studies, mostly in the social psychology of work (Johnson 2002; Kohn

and Schooler 1969; Mortimer et al. 1996), of individual beliefs about the

properties that make a job desirable.

This study will closely examine the formation of status attainment goals

and the influences during the period that precedes the transition to adulthood.

The presumption is that status attainment goals are formed generally early on,

before a specific vocation has been chosen (by the son). This study will provide

an analysis of status attainment goal formation during the period the sons were

ages 8 - 12 years old.

Achievement Motivation

After status attainment goals have been formed, performance measures

can begin to develop. The well-known Wisconsin model of achievement posits

that the influence of socioeconomic origins on educational, occupational, and

economic attainment is largely mediated by academic performance, social

influences and aspirations in secondary schooling (Hauser et al. 1983). This

study will explain the transition from status attainment goal formation periods to

aspirational performance goals.

Specific performance goals are driven by achievement motivation. The

presumption is that distinct vocations have been envisioned sometime during the

period of 13 - 17 years of age. However, it can be stated with confidence that

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clear-cut lifelong vocations are not typically solidified at this age. Rather, there is

heavy influence on the clarifying of occupational goals during this time.

Socioeconomic Background of the Father

The socioeconomic background of the father plays a major part in the

development of adult intellectual, occupational, and economic outcomes. "Social

class is consistently related to men's values - both their values for themselves

and those for their children - and to their orientation to work, society, and self.

Basic to all these class relationships is the distinction between self-direction and

conformity to external authority, the former more highly valued by men of higher

social class position, the latter by men of lower social class position." (Kohn and

Schooler 1969) For purposes of this research, self-direction and conformity to

external authority will be examined and some thought will be given to the claims

of Kohn and Schooler in regard to social class position. The research may

support the fact that social class is related to men's values - both their values for

themselves and those for their children. The subject matter of this research,

aspiration to professional athletics, can be said to involve all three elements of

orientation that Kohn and Schooler present: work, society, and self.

Essential Father Involvement

The essential father theory simply states that fathers are essential to

positive child development. Some research suggests that responsible fathering

is most likely to occur within the context of heterosexual marriage (Silverstein

and Auerbach 1999). This research does not seek to discover the rates of

essential fathers in heterosexual versus homosexual marriages. Although this

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perspective is generating a range of governmental initiatives designed to provide

social support preferences to fathers over mothers and to heterosexual married

couples over alternative family forms, it is the goal of this research to discuss the

role of any father in the relationship with his son.

I propose that the essential father theory is a valid interpretation of

empirical research when applied to a particular group: sons who have obtained

the rank of or are on track to become professional athletes. Using a wide range

of cross-generational, cross-cultural, and social science research, I will argue

that fathers are essential to child development through goal setting and

achievement motivation. Furthermore, this study will demonstrate that

participatory fathering can contribute to a greater likelihood of successful

professionally athletic sons who have reached goals defined by both the sons

(self-directed) and their fathers (external authority). The research will summarize

indicators of fathering characteristics that correspond with successful athletic

outcomes. The conclusion will offer findings for application.

METHODS

Sample

Interviews will be conducted with sons who are either professional

athletes, were former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming

professional athletes. The sample is limited to those willing to participate in the

research and every effort will be made include a diverse group. Interviews will be

held with an assorted group of individuals consisting of participants differing in

race, geographic location, age, and athletic status (professional or amateur).

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Interviews

Previous interviews have been conducted across a wide occupational

spectrum. I will cover some of those interviews below and explain how each will

help form the interview questions used during the research for this proposal. All

of these interviews involve popular and famous subjects. This is in congruence

with the research proposed because professional sports in America are very

popular and success in professional athletics typically goes hand in hand with

fame.

Country Music - Father Did Not Provide Specific Tools for Success

Brad Paisley is a successful American country music performer. His

father was mentioned in an interview in People Magazine (2009). "Of all the

things Brad Paisley has learned from his dad, singing and playing guitar are not

among them. Doug Paisley has a deep devotion to family, which he instilled in

Brad." (Bartolomeo and West 2009) In Paisley's case, his father was not a

famous country singer and his father did not teach him the skills necessary to

become a proficient musician. This interview contributed to the formation of the

following interview question for this research.

QUESTION 1: What specific skills, if any, did your father teach you that

were outside the scope of athletics?

Pop Music - Father Provided Beneficial Tools Outside Scope of Profession

Michael Jackson, American pop singer, is often cited as having one of the

most intense professionally driven childhoods. Jackson's father Joe is widely

known as driving his five sons (and two daughters) into show business with

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ruthless motivation. Says Jackson, "You probably weren't surprised to hear that I

did not have an idyllic childhood. The strain and tension that exists in my

relationship with my own father is well documented. My father is a tough man

and he pushed my brothers and me hard, from the earliest age, to be the best

performers we could be. He had great difficulty showing affection. He never

really told me he loved me. And he never really complimented me either. If I did

a great show, he would tell me it was a good show. And if I did an OK show, he

told me it was a lousy show. He seemed intent, above all else, on making us a

commercial success. And at that he was more than adept. My father was a

managerial genius and my brothers and I owe our professional success, in no

small measure, to the forceful way that he pushed us. He trained me as a

showman and under his guidance I couldn't miss a step." (Curry 2009) This

interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this

research.

QUESTION 2: Do you feel that those (non-athletic) skills were beneficial to

you in your professional development? How so?

Politics - Friendly Relationships and the Results of Friendly Conversations

Family relationships are vital in politics. The same might be said for

professional sports. For example, the son of an athlete may have preference in

being admitted to a college the father attended or being drafted by a team owner

who once employed the father. American politics can show the importance of

friendships within families and how a father/son friendship might benefit the son

later on in professional life. Ted Kennedy Jr., in a eulogy for his father, stated:

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"I'm simply compelled to remember Ted Kennedy as my father and my best

friend. Here's one you may not know: Out of Harvard he was a Green Bay

Packers recruit but decided to go to law school instead." (Kennedy 2009) As a

friend, Ted Kennedy Sr. may have had a unique influence on his son's

occupational decision (Kennedy Jr. is now an investment banker, lawyer, and

entrepreneur). This friendly relationship may have led to father/son discussions

about career choices, like that between a life pursuing professional sports versus

becoming a lawyer. Kennedy’s description of his father contributed to the

formation of the following interview question for this research.

QUESTION 3: Did you and your father ever have friendly conversations

about career choices? If so, did you talk about professional sports as an option

and what were some of the other occupations that your father may have

suggested as possibilities?

The previous three questions refer to relationships in which the father was

predominantly present. The following political father/son relationships show how

fathers can have influence on sons when the father is less present.

Politics - Absent Fathers' Contributions in Terms of Introducing Others of

Influence

A large number of presidents have come from essentially fatherless

families, or they have had very strong, powerful relationships with their fathers

(Meacham 2008a). John McCain, former American presidential candidate, was

asked during an interview, "How important was the relationship with your dad to

making you the kind of man you are right now?" McCain replied, "[My father]

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was absent a lot - World War II, Korean War, when he was assigned sea duty,

even in peacetime. He was gone a great deal. My mother did a good job of

keeping him alive for us - your father this, your father that. She was very good at

reminding us of him and of his example. And of course when he was home, not

only did I get to know him but his fellow naval officers." (Meacham 2008a) This

interview contributed to the formation of the following interview question for this

research.

QUESTION 4: When your father was absent, who do you feel influenced

you the most and how? When your father did come around, did the two of you

have one-on-one conversations or did your father come by with others? In both

situations, what sort of influence did your father have on you (solo and those

others)?

Politics - Absent Fathers' Contributions in Terms of Participatory Influence

Currently, President Obama serves as a role model for many young black

youth. This is similar to his role models growing up. Obama's father was not

present and so he had to gain influence from the situation as opposed to direct

interaction. "When Obama was a toddler, his father had declined a scholarship

to New York University that would have supported the whole family in order to go

to Harvard. The Ivy League was, it seems, more important to the ambitious

Obama Sr. than his wife and child." (Meacham 2008b) This fact contributed to

the formation of the following interview question for this research.

QUESTION 5: Was your father ambitious? What were your father's

aspirations? Do you feel that those dreams influenced what you sought to

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become?

Organized Crime - The Son's Desire (or lack thereof) to Form Bond with Father

Often, sons will develop their own motivation even though they may have

spent very little time with their fathers directly. It is this indirect and conceptual

influence that is apparent in the description given by the son of Mafia Boss "Big

Tony." "The truth is that I've often cast myself in relation to my father, even

recognizing him as a kindred spirit whose story, if I'm being honest, I've

sometimes traded on for personal gain: to impress college coeds, admissions

officers, professors, and even prospective employers with what I've had to

overcome. His story has also given me a strong sense of direction. Then again,

I'm also ashamed of my colorful past, and angry that a comfortable life slipped

from my fingers." (Dokoupil 2009) This fact contributed to the formation of the

following interview question for this research.

QUESTION 6: Outside of sports, and aside from any of the direct

conversations you've had with your father, can you explain how your father has

influenced your sense of direction, sense of purpose, or any other subtle gains

that your father may have brought to your life?

Amateur Sports - Direct Influence in the Form of Lessons

Writer Molly Lyons, although she never became or aspired to become a

professional athlete, describes how her dad taught her the game of golf. "My

dad's lessons were comprehensive: how to grip the club, how to line up a shot,

how to stand, where to put your weight, how to turn your hips, how to bring your

arms back, how to keep your head down, how to do it all in reverse and not

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forget to follow through, how to let the club do the work, how to use the strength

of your core, how to relax, why not to sway, how to stay coiled, how to keep your

eye on the ball, how not to lift your head until you've swung through. Oh, and

how to do all of this at the same time, every time, until you've hit about 100 balls.

And yet instead of getting frustrated, I got hooked. My dad was a gentle and

earnest teacher; I felt terrible that I wasn't always able to execute what he so

clearly wanted to do himself." (Lyons 2009) The lessons here were both specific

but also relaxed. These facts contributed to the formation of the following

interview question for this research.

QUESTION 7: When you were a teenager, did your dad teach you how to

play? If so, how did he teach you? Where were the lessons held? Was he

rigorous in his approach?

Organized Crime - The Son's Desire (or lack thereof) to Repeat Acts of Father

No matter how successful the father or son became in life, influence can

be assessed as "good" or "bad" (effective/ineffective) by whether or not the son

will use the styles of the father with the next generation. The son of Mafia Boss

"Big Tony" explains, "As an adult, I've tried to erase the darker aspects of my

double helix. I've married a woman far classier than myself, and with a little luck,

my son will get all the things I lost too soon: the nice house, the exotic vacations,

the great school, a decent dad with a moral compass. When he gets older, I'll tell

him about his grandfather, although I doubt they will ever meet. When I told Big

Tony that he would soon have a grandson, he was of course overjoyed. Were

we thinking of calling him Anthony, he asked. "No, Dad," I said. "I don't think so."

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(Dokoupil 2009) The preceding questions have all discussed the role of the

father during the relationship. The final interview question for this research will

examine the perpetuity of the father's influence. This interview contributed to the

formation of the following interview question for this research.

QUESTION 8: Would you have done anything differently than your dad as

far as raising you to achieve your own ambitions? Would you use the same

tactics on your son to help him obtain his goals in life?

Content Analysis

The bulk of the research for this project will be through interviews with the

sons. These interviews will provide an excellent summary of how the athlete

holds an internal perception of his father's influence on goal setting and

attainment. In addition to the data obtained through direct interview, I propose

that it is appropriate and valuable to examine similar data presented in the mass

media.

I will examine mass media content in an effort to find answers to the

proposed interview questions. This additional data will provide an alternative

approach to data origin. Whenever possible, such data will be taken from

interviews similar to those questions proposed in the primary research. At other

times, answers to the questions may be presented subtly in commentary.

CONCLUSION

By applying Essential Father Theory to male offspring who have obtained

the rank of or are on track to become professional athletes, this proposal seeks

to explain outcomes when varying levels of fatherly influence contribute to the

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development of their sons. Examining successful outcomes will advance

sociological research on the subjects of occupation and health. This study will

emphasize that fathers are essential to positive child development by helping (a)

set status attainment goals from ages 8 - 12 years; and (b) provide achievement

motivation from ages 13 - 17 years. In addition to those developmental periods, I

will take a closer look at the influence that fathers' socioeconomic backgrounds

play throughout both periods.

Interviews will be conducted with sons who are either professional

athletes, were former professional athletes, or who are very close to becoming

professional athletes. Media content analysis will be conducted regarding

athletes' descriptions of fatherly influence when the subject matter is similarly

related to that of the research interview questions. Combining both methods will

lead to better understanding of paternal influence on the development of athletic

children.

The essential father theory is a valid interpretation of empirical research

when applied to this particular group: male offspring who have obtained the rank

of or are on track to become professional athletes. Using a wide range of social

science research, an argument will be made as to how fathers are essential to

child development through goal setting and achievement motivation.

Furthermore, this study will show how participatory fathering can contribute to a

greater likelihood of successful professionally athletic sons who have reached

goals defined by both the sons (self-directed) and their fathers (external

authority). This research is expected to show that fatherly participation is more

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contributory to the son's athletic advancement than is the level of athletic rank

achieved by the father.

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APPENDIX A

List of Interview Questions

The following questions relate to status attainment goals formed between ages 8
- 12 years.

QUESTION 1: What specific skills, if any, did your father teach you that were
outside the scope of athletics?

1A - Did those skills relate to any goals that were expressed before you were a
teenager?

1B - Were there any (other) goals for you that your father expressed between
ages 8 - 12 years? If so, what were they?

QUESTION 2: Do you feel that those (non-athletic) skills were beneficial to you in
your professional development? How so?

2A - Were there any non-athletic goals that your father set for you, professionally
or otherwise?

2B - What level of professional success did your father expect from you,
athletically or otherwise?

QUESTION 3: Did you and your father ever have friendly conversations about
career choices?

3A - Did you talk about professional sports as an option for your adult career
choice?

3B - What were some of the other occupations that your father may have
suggested as possibilities?

QUESTION 4: When your father was absent, who do you feel influenced you the
most and how?

4A - When your father was present, did the two of you have one-on-one
conversations about your life goals or did your father come by with others?

4B - In either, presence and/or absence, what sort of influence did your father
have on your early career goals (himself and those he associated with)?

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APPENDIX B

List of Interview Questions

The following questions relate to achievement motivation occurring between

ages 13 - 17 years.

QUESTION 5: Was your father ambitious?

5A - What were your father's aspirations?

5B - Do you feel that those dreams influenced what you sought to become?

QUESTION 6: Outside of sports, and aside from any of the direct conversations
you've had with your father, can you explain how your father has influenced your
sense of direction, sense of purpose, or any other subtle gains that your father
may have brought to your life?

6A - In general, how did your father motivate you?

6B - In general, what did your father expect you to achieve professionally?

QUESTION 7: When you were a teenager, did your dad teach you how to play?
If so, how did he teach you? Where were the lessons held?

7A - During lessons about sport play, was your father rigorous or laissez-faire in
his approach?

7B - Was your dad more often (i) pleased when you succeeded, or (ii) upset
when you failed?

QUESTION 8: Would you have done anything differently than your dad as far as
raising you to achieve your own ambitions?

8A - Would you use the same tactics on your son to help him obtain his goals in
life?

8B - Describe what you believe to be the most effective means of motivation to

produce achievement.

8C - Did your father carry out what you just described during your teen years?

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APPENDIX C

List of Interview Questions

The following questions relate to the father's socioeconomic background as it

was between ages 8 - 17 years.

QUESTION 9: Please rank the following in order of how your father valued these
things, from highest to lowest value.

(i) scholastic achievement

(ii) choosing the right career
(iii) financial success
(iv) making correct decisions on your own
(v) respecting your father

QUESTION 10: Please mark yes/no for all of the following.

i. You achieved your father's goals for you professionally.

ii. You achieved your father's goals for you athletically.
iii. You achieved your own goals for yourself professionally.
iv. You achieved your own goals for yourself athletically.
v. You view yourself as successful.
vi. Your father views you as a success.
vii. Society views you as a success.
viii. You view your father as successful.
ix. Your father views himself as a success.
x. Society views your father as a success.

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Bartolomeo, J., & West, K. (2009). Country Stars and their Families. People, 30.

Curry, G. (2009, August 13). Another Side Of The Maligned Joe Jackson. Sun Reporter,

6.

Dokoupil, T. (2009). My Father The Dope Dealer. Newsweek, 154(7).

Halaby, C. N. (2003). Where Job Values Come from: Family and Schooling

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Lyons, M. (2009). Learning From A Pro. Self, 31(6), 38.

Meacham, J. (2008a). A Son's Measure of His Father. Newsweek, 152(10).

Meacham, J. (2008b). On His Own. Newsweek, 152(9).

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and Occupational Value Formation in Adolescence. Social Forces, 74(4), 1405-

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Pleck, J. H. (2007). Why Could Father Involvement Benefit Children? Theoretical

Perspectives. Applied Developmental Science, 11(4), 196-202.

Rosen, B. C. (1961). Family Structure and Achievement Motivation. American

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Scarr, S., & Weinberg, R. A. (1978). The Influence of "Family Background" on

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Silverstein, L. B., & Auerbach, C. F. (1999). Deconstructing the essential father.

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