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EC303
Computer Architecture & Organization
Chapter 5
Memory Element
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Memory Organization
Thememoryunit isanessential component indigital computer
sinceit isneededfor storingprogramanddata.
Averysmall computer withalimitedapplicationmaybeableto
fulfill its intended task without the need of additional storage
capacity.
Most general-purposecomputerswouldrunmoreefficiently if
theywereequippedwithadditional storagebeyondthecapacity
of themainmemory.
There is just not enough space in one memory unit to
accommodate all the programs used in a typical computer.
Moreover , most computer users accumulate and continue to
accumulatelargeamountsof data-processingsoftware.
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Not all accumulated information is needed by the processor at the
sametime. Therefore, it ismoreeconomical touselow-cost storage
devices to serveas abackup for storingtheinformation that is not
currentlyusedbytheCPU.
Thememoryunit that communicatesdirectlywiththeCPU iscalled
mainmemory. Devicethat providebackupstoragearecalledauxiliary
memory.
The most common auxiliary memory devices used in computer
systemsaremagneticdiskandtapes. Thereareusedfor storingsystem
programs, large data files, and other backup information. Only
programsanddatacurrentlyneededbytheprocessor resideinmain
memory.[1]
All other informationisstoredinauxiliarymemoryandtransferredto
mainmemorywhenneeded
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Memory in aconventional digital computer is organized in a
hierarchy as below figure[2].
Figure1
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At the top of the hierarchy are registers that are matched in
speedtotheCPU, but tendtobelargeandconsumeasignificant
amount of power. Therearenormally only asmall number of
register inaprocessor ontheorder of afewhundredor less.
At thebottomof thehierarchy arethesecondary and off-line
storagememoriessuchashardmagneticdiskandmagnetictapes,
inwhich thecost per storedbit issmall intermsof moneyand
electrical power, but theaccesstimeisverylongwhencompared
withregisters.
Between the registers and secondary storage areanumber of
other formsof memorythat bridgethegapbetweenthetwo.
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As we move up through the hierarchy, greater performance is
realized, at greater cost.
Expensive memory tends to be closer to the CPU, which shorten
communication times. Table 1 show the properties of memory
hierarchy.
Memory type Access time Typical
amount used
Typical cost
Registers 0.5ns 2KB -
Cache 5-20ns 2MB $160
Main memory 40-80ns 512MB $205
Disk memory 5ms 40GB $200
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Memory and Storage Hierarchy
[3]
Figure2
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Figure 2 show the differentiation between the memory and
storage hierarchy .
Memory hold a running programs and information that the
processor is currently using. For memory, its small, fast and
expensive.
Storage preserves dataand programfor future use. The
storage is slow, inexpensive and large capacity.
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Random Access Memory
Anymemorylocationcanbeaccessesinthesameamount of time, regardlessof
itspositioninthememory.
Thetwo mainformsof modernRAMarestatic RAM(SRAM) anddynamic
RAM(DRAM). InstaticRAM, abit of dataisstoredusingthestateof aflip-
flop. Thisformof RAMismoreexpensivetoproduce, but isgenerallyfaster
andrequireslesspower thanDRAMand, inmoderncomputers, isoftenusedas
cachememoryfor theCPU.
DRAMstoresabit of datausingatransistor andcapacitor pair, whichtogether
compriseamemory cell. Thecapacitor holdsahighor lowcharge(1or 0,
respectively), andthetransistor actsasaswitchthat letsthecontrol circuitryon
the chip read the capacitor's state of charge or change it. As this formof
memoryislessexpensiveto producethanstaticRAM, it isthepredominant
formof computer memoryusedinmoderncomputers mohd.rizal@psmza.edu.my
SRAM
Figure 3 shows the functional behavior of SRAM cell that
stores asingle bit. The figure represents the memory element
as D flip flop, with additional control to allow the cell to
selected, read, and written. There is a(bidirectional) data
line for datainput and output.
SRAMs are fast but are relatively large and consume alot of
power. They are typically used for memory applications that
are small but fast.
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DRAM
DRAM employ acapacitor that stores aminute amount of electric charge, in
whichthechargelevel represent a1or a0.
Alogical 1canbestoredinthecapacitor byplacinga1onbothSelect andRead
lines. Capacitor aremuchsmaller thanflipflops, andsocapacitor basedDRAM
canholdmuchmoreinformationinthesameareathanasSRAM.
Sincethechargesonthecapacitorsdissipatewithtime, thechargeinthecapacitor
storagecellsinDRAMsmust berestored, or refreshed, frequentlywithspecial
circuitry.
DRAMaresmaller andslower thanSRAMs, andaretypicallyusedfor themain
memorybecausetheysupport lowcost, lowpower andhighdensity.
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ROM
Read-Only Memory
ROM is used for storing programs that are permanently
resident in the computer and for tables of constants that do
not change in value once the production of the computer is
completed.
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Memory Chip Organization
How RAM cell are organized into chips?
The figure show simplified RAM chip pinout.Scan252 wiley.
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References
[1] Computer SystemArchitecture, Third Edition; M.Morris
Mano; Prentice Hall International,Inc
[2] Computer Architecture And Organization,AnIntegrated
Approach; Miles J. Murdocca, Vincent P. Heuring; John
Wiley & Sons Inc
[3] searching for memory device hierarchy ;
http:/ / www.computerhistory.org/ revolution/ memory-
storage/ 8/ 249/ 2227
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