N. M.

RAYEVSKA
MODERN
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
For Senior Courses of the Foreign Language Faculties in
Universities and Teachers' Training Colleges
FOREWORD
The book is designed for the students of the senior courses of the
University facuties of foreign anguages and Teachers! Training "oeges.
The ai# of the book is therefore to ead the students to a scientific
understanding of ne$ assu#%tions and vie$s of anguage as syste#&
kee%ing abreast of the atest findings set forth in the %rogressive
deveo%#ent of gra##atica theory by Soviet and foreign schoars in
recent ti#es.
The centra interest in functiona se#antic correation of gra##atica
units has given sha%e to the $hoe book. 'n a descri%tion of anguage
structure $e have to account for the for#& the substance and the
reationshi% bet$een the for# and the situation. (inguistic activity
%artici%ates in situations aongside $ith #an!s other activities.
)ra##atica categories are vie$ed as a co#%icated unity of for#
and gra##atica content. *ue attention has been dra$n to conte+tua
eve of anaysis& to denotative and connotative #eanings of
gra##atica for#s& their trans%ositions and functiona re,evauation in
different conte+ts& inguistic or situationa.
(inguistic studies of recent years contain a vast a#ount of i#%ortant
observations based on acute observations vaid for further %rogressive
deveo%#ent of different as%ects of the science of anguage. The conce%tion
of the genera for# of gra##ars has steadiy deveo%ed. -hat beco#es
increasingy usefu for insight into the structure and functioning of anguage
is orientation to$ards invoving e+is in studying gra##ar.
'n a anguage descri%tion $e generay dea $ith three essentia %arts
kno$n as %honoogy& vocabuary& and gra##ar. These various ranges&
or eves& are the sub.ect #atter of the various branches of inguistics.
-e #ay think of vocabuary as the $ord,stock& and gra##ar as the set
of devices for handing this $ord,stock. 't is due %recisey to these
devices that anguage is abe to give #ateria inguistic for# to hu#an
thought.
/racticay s%eaking& the facts of any anguage are too co#%e+ to be
handed $ithout arranging the# into such divisions. -e do not #ean
to say& ho$ever& that these three eves of study shoud be thought of as
isoated fro# each other. The affinities bet$een a eves of inguistic
organisation #ake the#seves 0uite evident. "onceived in isoation&
each of the# $i a$ays beco#e artificia and $i hardy .ustify itsef
in %ractice. 't is not a$ays easy to dra$ %recise boundaries bet$een
6
gra##ar and vocabuary. So#eti#es the sub.ect #atter beco#es
a#biguous .ust at the borderine. The study of this organic reationshi% in
anguage reaity see#s to be %ri#ary in i#%ortance.
1or a co#%ete descri%tion of anguage $e have to account for the
for#& the substance and the reationshi% bet$een the for# and the
situation. The study of this reationshi% #ay be referred to as conte+tua
eve of anaysis.
)ra##ar& $hose sub.ect #atter is the observabe organisation of
$ords into various co#binations& takes that $hich is co##on and
basic in inguistic for#s and gives in an ordery $ay accurate
descri%tions of the %ractice to $hich users of the anguage confor#.
And $ith this co#es the reaisation that this underying structure of the
anguage 2as syste#3 is highy organised. -hatever are the other interests
of #odern inguistic science& its centre is surey an interest in the
gra##atica syste# of anguage.
To,day $e have $e,estabished techni0ues for the study of
anguage fro# a nu#ber of different %oints of vie$. Each of these
techni0ues su%%e#ents a the others in contributing to theoretica
kno$edge and the %ractica %robe#s of the day.
(anguage is a functiona $hoe and a its %arts are fuy describabe
ony in ter#s of their reationshi% to the $hoe. This eve of inguistic
anaysis is #ost obviousy reevant to the %robe#s of 4overt4 and
4covert4 gra##ar and the %robe# of 4fied structure4 in gra##ar that has
ong attracted the attention of inguists.
There is a discussion of the %robe#s that arise in the %resentation
of the #ateria in this ight but the sco%e of the #ateria %resented is
dictated by its factua usefuness.
Anaysing the anguage fro# the vie$%oint of the infor#ation it
carries $e cannot restrict the notion of infor#ation to the cognitive
as%ect of anguage. "onnotative as%ects and e#otiona overtones are aso
i#%ortant se#antic co#%onents of inguistic units.
The co#%onents of gra##atica #eaning that do not beong to
the denotation of the gra##atica for# are covered by the genera
ter# of connotation #ost obviousy reevant to gra##atica as%ects of
stye.
)ra##atica for#s %ay a vita roe in our abiity to end variety
to s%eech& to give 4coour4 to the sub.ect or evauate it and to convey
the infor#ation #ore e#otionay.
The given 0uotations fro# different sources serve to sho$ ho$ the
structura ee#ents of Engish gra##ar have been variousy treated
by different $riters and $hich of the inguistic a%%roaches see#s #ost
convincing.
E+tracts for study and discussion have been seected fro# the $orks
of the best $riters $hich aid in the for#ation of the student!s iterary
taste and he% hi# to see ho$ the best $riters #ake the dee%est
resources of gra##ar serve their %en.
5ny so#e of the 0uotations used are the gatherings of the author!s
note,books through #any years of teaching& and it has not see#ed
%ossibe in every instance to trace the 0uotation to its origina source.
Most
7
of the#& ho$ever& have been freshy seected as the direct resut of the
e+tensive reading re0uired by the %re%aration of the book.
The discussion of the inguistic facts has been #ade concrete by the
use of iustrative e+a#%es and co#%arison $ith Russian and
Ukrainian& 1rench and )er#an.
Suggested assign#ents for study and discussion have been seected
$ith a vie$ to e+tend the %ractica kno$edge of the anguage. 4Revision
Materia4 after each cha%ter has been arranged so that the student
shoud ac0uire as #uch e+%erience in inde%endent $ork as %ossibe.
Methods of scientific research used in inguistic studies have a$ays
been connected $ith the genera trends in the science of anguage. -e
therefore find it necessary to begin our gra##atica descri%tion $ith a
brief survey of inguistic schoos in the theory of Engish gra##ar so
that the students coud understand various theoretica a%%roaches to the
study of anguage structure. This $i faciitate the study of gra##ar
$here $e find no$ divergent vie$s of schoars on so#e of the #ost
i#%ortant or controversia %robe#s of the Engish gra##atica
theory& and on so#e s%ecia 0uestions of #or%hoogy and synta+.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1ore$ord ...................................................................................................................... 6
Introduction
Survey of the *eveo%#ent of Engish )ra##atica Theory.................................... 77
)ra##ar in 'ts Reation to 5ther (eves of (inguistic Structure............................ 89
/robe#s of 1ied Structure..................................................................................... :;
1unctiona Re,evauation of )ra##atica 1or#s in "onte+t ................................... :<
)ra##atica *oubets ................................................................................................ <<
Revision Material ......................................................................................................... <=
Part I. Morpo!o"#
Chapter 1. The Sub.ect,Matter of Mor%hoogy ....................................................... 6>
Chapter II. /arts of S%eech ..................................................................................... 69
/robe# of "assification ..................................................................... 69
Chapter III The Noun ................................................................................................ 9;
Nu#ber .................................................................................................. 9;
"ase ....................................................................................................... 9?
The Artice ........................................................................................... ?:
Revision Material ........................................................................................................ ??
Chapter IV. The Ad.ective ......................................................................................... ?=
The "ategory of 'ntensity and "o#%arison......................................... =>
Substantivation of Ad.ectives............................................................... =6
Revision Material......................................................................................................... =?
Chapter V. The Verb .................................................................................................. ==
The Structura 1unctions of the Engish Verb.................................... 7><
Mood ...................................................................................................... 7>9
Moda Verbs ................................................................................................................ 777
Voice ...................................................................................................... 77?
Active @@ /assive in the Engish Voice Syste#.................................... 77?
As%ect .................................................................................................... 78>
(e+ico,)ra##atica "ategories in the 1ied of As%ect...................... 78>
Revision Material ....................................................................................................... 786
Chapter VI. Engish Verb,1or#s and Their /attern,Vaue .................................... 789
The /resent Tense................................................................................. 789
The /resent "ontinuous 2/rogressive3 Tense...................................... 7:7
The /ast Tense...................................................................................... 7:6
The /ast "ontinuous 2/rogressive3 Tense ......................................... 7:9
The /erfect Tenses ............................................................................... 7:=
The 1uture Tense.................................................................................. 7<:
Revision Material ....................................................................................................... 7<=
Chapter VII. The /ronouns...................................................................................... 76>
/ersona /ronouns ................................................................................ 76>
Chapter VIII. The Adverb ....................................................................................... 76:
"ategory of State ................................................................................. 766
Revision Material ....................................................................................................... 76?
$
Part II. S#nta%
Chapter I. Sentence Structure ................................................................................ 76=
Chapter . The Si#%e Sentence.............................................................................. 7?8
The /rinci%a /arts of the Sentence............................................................... 7?8
The Secondary /arts of the Sentence............................................................... 7?=
-ord,5rder....................................................................................................... 7=<
5ne,Me#ber Sentences ................................................................................... ;>?
'nfinitiva Sentences ...................................................................................... ;77
Ei%sis ............................................................................................................. ;7;
Verbess T$o,Me#ber Sentences ................................................................... ;7<
'dio#atic Sentences ........................................................................................ ;;<
"onstructiona Ao#ony#ity ........................................................................... ;;?
Revision Material ....................................................................................................... ;88
Chapter L /hrase,Structure ................................................................................... ;8:
Subordinate /hrases ................................................................................................. ;86
Noun,/hrases.................................................................................................... ;86
Verb,/hrases .................................................................................................... ;:;
'nfinitiva& )erundia and /artici%ia /hrases ........................................... ;:=
"oordinate /hrases .................................................................................................... ;:=
Revision Material ....................................................................................................... ;<7
Chapter II. The "o#%osite Sentence ................................................................... ;<;
"oordination ................................................................................................... ;<9
Subordination .................................................................................................. ;67
Sub.ect and /redicate "auses ...................................................................... ;6;
5b.ect "auses ................................................................................................. ;6:
Attributive "auses........................................................................................... ;6<
"auses of "ause ............................................................................................. ;69
"auses of /ace .............................................................................................. ;6?
Te#%ora "auses ............................................................................................. ;6=
"auses of "ondition ....................................................................................... ;9>
"auses of Resut ............................................................................................. ;98
"auses of /ur%ose .......................................................................................... ;9:
"auses of "oncession ...................................................................................... ;9:
"auses of Manner and "o#%arison................................................................ ;99
5vera%%ing Reationshi%s and Synse#antics in Ay%ota+is....................... . ;9?
Trans%ositions and 1unctiona Re,evauation of Syntactic Structures . . ;?>
1ina Re#arks on Subordination................................................................... ;?;
Asyndeton ........................................................................................................ ;?8
Re%resented S%eech........................................................................................... ;?<
No#inaity in Engish Sentence,Structure.................................................... ;?6
)ra##ar and Stye ....................................................................................... ;=7
Revision Material ...................................................................................................... ;=?
'nde+ of )ra##atica /oints Treated..................................................................... ;==
Reco##ended (iterature 8>8
INTROD&CTION
S&R'E( OF THE DE'ELOPMENT OF
ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL
THEOR(
EARL( PRESCRIPTI'E GRAMMAR
Engish gra##atica theory has a ong tradition going back to the
eariest (atin gra##ars of the 79th century $hen 4gra##ar4 #eant
ony the study of (atin. Unti the end of the 76th century there $ere no
gra##ars of Engish. 5ne of the eariest (atin gra##ars $ritten in Engish
$as -. ( i y ! s $ork %ubished in the first haf of the 76th century.
(ooking at Engish through the attice of categories set u% in (atin
gra##ar& -. (iy %resented standards for si#iar arrange#ent of the
Engish gra##atica #ateria %roceeding fro# (atin %aradig#s and
using the sa#e ter#inoogy as in (atin gra##ar.
(iy!s $ork $ent through #any editions unti 7?<?. 'n other eary
4%renor#ative4 gra##ars the arrange#ent of the #ateria $as si#iar
to that of 4(iy!s gra##ar. 't is to be noted that using (atin categories
the $riters of that ti#e did not atogether ignore distinctions that the
Engish anguage #ade. Thus& for instance& in (iy!s gra##ar
transation of (atin infectiona for#s is given $ith the i#%ortant %oints
of reservation that so#e of their Engish e0uivaents are anaytica for#s&
$hich incude au+iiary $ords as 4signs4.
Atte#%ts to break $ith (atin gra##atica tradition characterise
the treat#ent of the structure of Engish in B u o k a r ! s and
"h. B u t e r ! s gra##ars but in #any cases they sti foo$ the
(atin %attern.
The eary %renor#ative gra##ars of Engish re%roduced the (atin
cassification of the $ord,casses $hich incuded eight %arts of s%eech.
Substantives and ad.ectives $ere grou%ed together as t$o kinds of
nouns& the %artici%e $as considered as a se%arate %art of s%eech.
'n the eariest Engish gra##ars the %arts of s%eech $ere divided
dichoto#icay into decinabe and indecinabe %arts of s%eech or $ords
$ith nu#ber and $ords $ithout nu#ber 2Ben Conson3& or $ords
$ith nu#ber and case and $ords $ithout nu#ber and case 2"h. Buter3.
*ecinabe $ords& $ith nu#ber and case& incuded nouns& %ronouns&
verbs and %artici%es& the indecinabes D adverbs& %re%ositions&
con.unctions and inter.ections. Ben Conson increased the nu#ber of
%arts of s%eech. Ais cassification incudes the artice as the ninth %art
of s%eech.
'n C. B r i g h t a n d ! s gra##ar 2the beginning of the 7?th century3
the nu#ber of %arts of s%eech $as reduced to four. These $ere@ na#es
2nouns3& 0uaities 2ad.ectives3& affir#ations 2verbs3 and %artices.
! i
Brightand!s syste# $as acce%ted ony by a fe$ Engish
gra##arians of the %eriod. But since that ti#e the ad.ective ca#e
to be vie$ed as a se%arate %art of s%eech.
Brightand!s gra##ar $as the first to incude the conce%t of the
sentence in synta+ %ro%er.
The ogica definition of the sentence e+isted in od ti#es& but
gra##arians understood the sub.ect #atter of synta+ ony as a study of
$ord arrange#ent.
'n (iy!s gra##ar& for instance& $e find three (atin concords@ the
no#inative and the verb& the substantive and the ad.ective& the reative
%ronoun and its antecedent.
The second haf of the 7?th century is generay referred to as the age
of the so,caed %renor#ative gra##ar. The #ost infuentia gra##ar of
the %eri od $as R. ( o $ t h ! s Short Int roduction to !nglish "ra##ar$ fi rst
%ub ished i n 796;.
(o$t h! s a%%r oach t o t he s t udy of gr a##ar $as u%he d by hi s
f o o$ers.
The first to be #entioned here i s ( i n d e y M u r r a y !s !nglish.
"ra##ar %dapted to the &ifferent Classes of Learners. 1irst %ubished in
79=<& it $as then $idey used in its origina for# and in an abridged
version for #any years to co#e. Murray!s gra##ar $as considered so
su%erior to any then in use that soon after its a%%earance it beca#e the
te+t,book in a#ost every schoo.
The %rinci%a design of a gra##ar of any anguage& according to
(o$th& is to teach us to e+%ress ourseves $ith %ro%riety& to enabe us
to .udge of every %hrase and for# of construction& $hether it be right
or not. The %ain $ay of doing this is to ay do$n rues and to iustrate
the# by e+a#%es. But besides sho$ing $hat is right& the #atter #ay
be further e+%ained $hat is $rong.
'n the $ords of (o$th& gra##ar in genera& or Universa gra##ar
e+%ains the %rinci%es $hich are co##on to a anguages. The )ra##ar
of any %articuar anguage& as the Engish gra##ar& a%%ies those co##on
%rinci%es to that %articuar anguage.
5. Ces%ersen sho$ed good .udge#ent in observing at this %oint that
in #any cases $hat gives itsef out as ogic& is not ogic at a& but (atin
gra##ar disguised.
The eary %rescri%tive gra##ars e+erted an enor#ous infuence
and #ouded the a%%roach of #any generations to Engish gra##ar.
A%%ying the %rinci%es of Universa gra##ar& (o$th sub.ected
to criticis# #any e+%ressions estabished by ong use in Engish& such
as& for instance& the use of adverbs $ithout the suffi+ 'l($ the e+%ressions it
is #e$ these )ind of$ or& say& such %atterns as had rather$ had *etter.
(o$th and other gra##arians of that ti#e conde#ned as $rong #any
constructions and for#s $hich occurred in the $orks of the best authors.
They used %assages fro# the $orks of cassica $riters as e+ercises for
%u%i s to correct bad Engish or 4fase4 Engish.
12
Classical Scientific "ra##ar
The end of the 7=th century brought a gra##ar of a higher ty%e&
a descri%tive gra##ar intended to give scientific e+%anation to the
gra##atica %heno#ena.
This $as A. S $ e e t ! s +e, !nglish "ra##ar$ Logical and
-istorical 27?=73.
'nstead of serving as a guide to $hat shoud be said or $ritten&
S$eet!s e+%anatory gra##ar ai#s at finding out $hat is actuay said and
$ritten by the s%eakers of the anguage investigated. This eads to a
scientific understanding of the rues foo$ed instinctivey by s%eakers
and $riters& giving in #any cases the reasons $hy this usage is such
and such.
The difference bet$een scientific and %rescri%tive gra##ar is
e+%ained by A. S$eet as foo$s@ 4As #y e+%osition cai#s to be
scientific& ' confine #ysef to the state#ent and e+%anation of facts&
$ithout atte#%ting to sette the reative correctness of divergent usages. 'f
an !ungra##atica! e+%ression such as it is #e is in genera use a#ong
educated %eo%e& ' acce%t it as such& si#%y adding that it is avoided
in the iterary anguage.
... -hatever is in genera use in anguage is for that reason
gra##atica y correct4
7
.
'n the $ords of S$eet& his $ork is intended to su%%y the $ant of a
scientific Engish gra##ar& founded on an inde%endent critica survey
of the atest resuts of inguistic investigation as far as they bear&
directy or indirecty& on the Engish anguage.
Scientific gra##ar $as thus understood to be a co#bination of both
descri%tive and e+%anatory gra##ar. S$eet defines the #ethods of
gra##atica anaysis as foo$s@ 4The first business of gra##ar& as of
every other science& is to observe the facts and %heno#ena $ith $hich
it has to dea& and to cassify and state the# #ethodicay. A gra##ar&
$hich confines itsef to this is caed a descri%tive gra##ar. ...-hen
$e have a cear state#ent of such gra##atica %heno#ena& $e naturay
$ish to kno$ the reason of the# and ho$ they arose. 'n this $ay
descri%tive gra##ar ays the foundations of e+%anatory gra##ar.4
S$eet describes the three #ain features characterising the %arts of
s%eech@ #eaning& for# and function& and this has ogica foundations
but the resuts of his cassification are& ho$ever& not a$ays consistent.
't is to be noted& in %assing& that A. S$eet!s ideas see# to antici%ate
so#e vie$s characteristic of #odern inguistics.
Aere are a fe$ ines fro# A. S$eet!s $ork $hich bear reevanty
u%on 1. de Saussure!s ideas about synchronic and diachronic
inguistics@ 4...before history #ust co#e a kno$edge of $hat no$
e+ists. -e #ust earn to observe things as they are $ithout regard to
their origin& .ust as a Eooogist #ust earn to describe accuratey a
horse ...4
;
.
7
A. S $ e e t . Ne$ Engish )ra##ar. (ogica and Aistorica. 5+ford& 7=<<&
%. <.
8
A. S$eet. -ords& (ogic and Meaning. Transactions of the /hioogica Society.
(ondon& 7?9<D7?96& %. :97.
13
The idea that anguage is %ri#ariy $hat is said and ony
secondariy $hat is $ritten& i. e. the %riority of ora is in accord $ith
S$eet!s state#ent that 4the first re0uisite is a kno$edge of %honetics
or the for# of anguage. -e #ust earn to regard anguage soey as
consisting of grou%s of sounds& inde%endenty of the $ritten
sy#bos ...4
7
.
The sa#e vie$%oints $ere advocated by other inguists of the first
ha f of t he %resent cent ur y& such as ". 5ni ons& E. Krui si nga&
A. /outs#a& ). "ur#e& 5. Ces%ersen& A. Stokoe& M. Bryant& R. Fandvoort
and others
;
.
According to 5. Ces%ersen& for instance& of greater vaue than
%rescri%tive gra##ar is a %urey descri%tive gra##ar& $hich& instead of
serving as a guide to $hat shoud be said or $ritten& ai#s at finding out
$hat is actuay said and $ritten by the s%eakers of the anguage
investigated& and thus #ay ead to a scientific understanding of the
rues foo$ed instinctivey by s%eakers and $riters. Such a gra##ar
shoud aso be e+%anatory& giving& as far as this is %ossibe& the reasons
$hy the usage is such and such. These reasons #ay& according to
circu#stances& be %honetic or %sychoogica& or in so#e cases both
co#bined. Not infre0uenty the e+%anation $i be found in an
earier stage of the sa#e anguage@ $hat one %eriod $as a reguar
%heno#enon #ay ater beco#e isoated and a%%ear as an irreguarity& an
e+ce%tion to $hat has no$ beco#e the %revaiing rue. )ra##ar #ust
therefore be historica to a certain e+tent. 1inay& gra##ar #ay be
a%%reciative& e+a#ining $hether the rues obtained fro# the anguage in
0uestion are in every $ay cear 2una#biguous& ogica3& e+%ressive and
easy& or $hether in any one of these res%ects other for#s or rues $oud
have been %referabe
8
.
So#e 7=th,century gra##ars continued to be re%rinted in the
#odern %eriod& e. g. ( e n n i e !s .rinciples of !nglish "ra##ar
under$ent 0uite a nu#ber of editions and Mason!s gra##ars $ere
re%rinted by A. C. Ashton 27=>9D7=>=3.
Nu#erous other gra##ar books continue the sa#e tradition. So#e
of the#& in the $ords of A. A. )eason
:
& are #ost heaviy indebted
to C. ". Nesfied& either directy or indirecty.
/ubished in 7?=?& Nesfied!s gra##ar infuenced %rescri%tive and
to a certain e+tent scientific gra##ars of the ;>th century& co#%arabe
to the infuence of Murray!s gra##ar on the 7=th,century
gra##arians. 't under$ent a nu#ber of variant editions& such as@ !nglish
"ra##ar .ast and .resent$ Manual of !nglish "ra##ar and
Co#position$ and %ids
1
A. S $ e e t . -ords& (ogic and Meaning. Transactions of the /hioogica Soci et y.
(ondon& 7?9<D7?96& %. :97.
, See/ ". T. 5 n i o n s . An Advanced Engish Synta+. (ondon& 7=8;G E.
Kruisinga. A Aandbook of /r esent , day Eng i sh. )r oni ngen& 7=8;G A. / o u t s # a .
A )ra##ar of (ate Modern Engish. )roningen& 7=7:D7<;7G 5. C e s % e r s e n . The
/hioso%hy of )ra##ar. (ondon,Ne$ York& 7=8<G Essentias of Engish )ra##ar.
(ondon& 7=88G ). " u r # e & A )r a##ar of t he Eng i sh (anguage. (ondon, Ne$
York& 7=87G M. B r y a n t . A 1unctiona Engish )ra##ar. Boston& 7=:<G A. R.
S t o k o e . The Understanding of Synta+. (ondon 7=89G R. Fandvoort. A Aandbook of
Engish )ra##ar. )roningen& 7=:?.
8
See/ 5. C e s % e r s e n . Essentias of Engish )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=88.
:
See/ A. A. ) e a s o n . (i ngui st i cs and Eng i sh )ra##ar. Ne$ York& '=)<&
%. 9;.
7:
to the Stud( and Co#position of !nglish. The atter consists of five %arts@
/art ' contains a series of cha%ters on AccidenceG /arsing& and Anaysis
of Sentences& a of $hich are a re%rint& $ithout any change& of the
corres%onding cha%ters in his Manual of !nglish "ra##ar and
Co#position. /art '' Studies and !0ercises Su*sidiar( to Co#position
neary coincides $ith $hat $as aready given in different %arts of the
Manua& but has ony a ne$ and i#%ortant cha%ter on *irect and
'ndirect S%eech. /art ' ' ' Co#position in Five Stages is a#ost entirey
ne$G /art 'V contains t$o cha%ters on Idio# and Construction$ $hich are
for the #ost %art a re%rint of $hat $e find in his !nglish "ra##ar .ast
and .resent. /art V %ids to the Stud( of !nglish Literature is intended
to he% the student in the study of Engish (iterature& both /rose and
Verse. The ast cha%ter St(le in .rose and Verse is entirey ne$.
Nesfied!s gra##ar $as revised in 7=;: in accordance $ith the
re0uire#ents of the Coint "o#%receded. The revision continued the
tradition of 7=th,century gra##ar@ #or%hoogy $as treated as it had
been in the first haf of the 7=th century& synta+& as in the second haf of
that century. 5f the various cassifications of the %arts of the sentence
current in the gra##ars of the second haf of the 7=th century the
author chose a syste#& according to $hich the sentence has four distinct
%arts@ 273 the Sub.ectG 2;3 Ad.uncts to the Sub.ect 2Attributive Ad.uncts&
so#eti#es caed the Enarge#ent of the Sub.ect3G 283 the /redicateG and
2:3 Ad.uncts of the /redicate 2Adverbia Ad.uncts3G the ob.ect and the
co#%e#ent 2i. e. the %redicative3 $ith their 0uaifying $ords& ho$ever&
are not treated as distinct %arts of the sentence. They are cassed
together $ith the finite verb as %art of the %redicate. Athough
gra##ars as a rue do not consider the ob.ect to be the third %rinci%a
%art of the sentence& indirecty this %oint of vie$ %ersists since the
#idde of the 7=th century and underies #any #ethods of anaysis.
'n Nesfied!s sche#e& though the ob.ect is not given the status of
a %art of the sentence& it is considered to be of e0ua i#%ortance
$ith the finite verb. 'n diagra##ing sentences& gra##arians %ace
the sub.ect& %redicate& ob.ects and co#%e#ents on the sa#e syntactic
eve& on a horiEonta ine in the diagra#& $hie #odifiers of a sorts are
%aced beo$ the ine
1
.
'n !ssentials of !nglish "ra##ar 5. Ces%ersen ai#s at giving a
descri%tive& to so#e e+tent& e+%anatory and a%%reciative account
of the gra##atica syste# of Modern Engish& historica e+%anations
being ony given $here this can be done $ithout %resu%%osing any
detaied kno$edge of 5d Engish or any cognate anguage.
5ne of the #ost i#%ortant contributions to inguistic study in the
first haf of the ;>th century $as 5. Ces%ersen!s The .hilosoph( of
"ra##ar first %ubished in 7=;: $here he %resented his theory of three
ranks intended to %rovide a basis for understanding the hierarchy of
syntactic reations hidden behind inear re%resentation of ee#ents in
anguage structures. 'n its originaity& its erudition and its breadth this
$as the best book on gra##ar.
7
See/ H. *. " r a i g & A. A u t s o n & ). M o n t g o # e r y . The Es s ent i a s of Engish
)ra##ar. Ne$ York& 7=:7& %%. ;78D;7:.
)*
The book is an atte#%t at a connected %resentation of his vie$s of the
genera %rinci%es of gra##ar. The starting %oint of the theory of three
ranks is the foo$ing@
4'n any co#%osite deno#ination of a thing or %erson $e a$ays find
that there is one $ord of su%re#e i#%ortance to $hich the others are
.oined as subordinates. This chief $ord is defined 20uaified& #odified3 by
another $ord& $hich in its turn #ay be defined 20uaified& #odified3 by a
third $ord& etc.4
7
. *istinction is thus #ade bet$een different 4ranks4 of
$ords according to their #utua reations as defined or defining. 'n the
co#bination e0tre#el( hot ,eather the ast $ord ,eather$ $hich is
evidenty the chief idea& #ay be caed %ri#aryG hot$ $hich defines
,eather$ secondary& and e0tre#el($ $hich defines hot$ tertiary. Though a
tertiary $ord #ay be further defined by a 20uarternary3 $ord& and this
again by a 20uinary3 $ord& and so forth& it is needess to distinguish #ore
than three ranks& as there are no for#a or other traits that distinguish
$ords of these o$er orders fro# tertiary $ords. Thus& in the %hrase a
certainl( not ver( cleverl( ,orded re#ar)$ no one of the $ords certainl($
not$ and ver($ though defining the foo$ing $ord& is in any $ay
gra##aticay different fro# $hat it $oud be as a tertiary $ord& as it is in
a certainl( clever re#ar)$ not a clever re#ar)$ a ver( clever re#ar).
'f no$ $e co#%are the co#bination a furiousl( *ar)ing dog 1a dog
*ar)ing furiousl(2$ in $hich dog is %ri#ary& *ar)ing secondary& and
furiousl( tertiary& $ith the dog *ar)s furiousl($ it is evident that the sa#e
subordination obtains in the atter as in the for#er co#bination. Yet there
is a funda#enta difference bet$een the#& $hich cas for se%arate ter#s
for the t$o kinds of co#bination@ $e sha ca the for#er kind .unction&
and the atter ne+us. 't shoud be noted that the dog is a %ri#ary not ony
$hen it is the sub.ect& as in the dog *ar)s$ but aso $hen it is the ob.ect of
a verb& as in I see the dog$ or of a %re%osition& as in he runs after the dog.
As regards ter#inoogy& the $ords %ri#ary& secondary& and tertiary are
a%%icabe to ne+us as $e as to .unction& but it $i be usefu to have
s%ecia na#es ad3unct for a secondary $ord in a .unction& and adne0 for a
secondary $ord in a ne+us. 1or tertiary $e #ay use the ter# su*3unct$ and
0uarternary $ords& in the rare cases in $hich a s%ecia ! na#e is needed&
#ay be ter#ed su*'su*3uncts.
As $i have been seen aready by these e+a#%es& the grou%& $hether
%ri#ary& secondary& or tertiary& #ay itsef contain ee#ents standing to one
another in the reation of subordination indicated by the three ranks. The
rank of the grou% is one thing& the rank $ithin the grou% another. 'n this
$ay #ore or ess co#%icated reations #ay co#e into e+istence& $hich&
ho$ever& are a$ays easy to anayse fro# the %oint of vie$ given above.
-e lives on this side the river/ here the $hoe grou% consisting of the
ast five $ords is tertiary to lives4 on this side$ $hich consists of the
%artice 2%re%osition3 on $ith its ob.ect this 2ad.unct3 side 2%ri#ary3& for#s
itsef a grou% %re%osition& $hich here takes as an ob.ect the grou% the
7
5. Ces%ersen. The /hioso%hy of )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=6?& %. =6. 76
2ad.unct3 river 2%ri#ary3. But in the sentence the *uildings on this side
the river are ancient$ the sa#e five,$ord grou% is an ad.unct to *uildings.
'n this $ay $e #ay arrive at a natura and consistent anaysis even of
the #ost co#%icated co#binations found in actua anguage.
There is certainy so#e degree of corres%ondence bet$een the three
%arts of s%eech and the three ranks here estabished. But this
corres%ondence is far fro# co#%ete as $i be evident fro# the foo$ing
survey@ the t$o things& $ord,casses and ranks& reay #ove in t$o
different s%heres. This $i be seen fro# the foo$ing survey given
by 5. Ces%ersen.
'. Nouns as %ri#aries are fairy co##on. E+a#%es are hardy needed.
Nouns as ad.uncts& e. g.@ Shelle('s poe#$ the *utcher's shop$ etc.
The use of nouns as ad.uncts #ay be $e iustrated by
%re#odification of nouns by nouns. E+a#%es are nu#erous@ stone
,all$ iron *ridge$ silver spoon$ space flight$ #orning star$ etc.
The use of nouns as sub.uncts +,u-n.%.,/ is rare& e. g.@ the sea ,ent
#ountains high.
''. Ad.ectives as pri0ari.,1 e. g.@ the rich$ the poor$ the natives$ etc.
Ad.ectives as ad2unct,3 no e+a#%es are here necessary. Ad.ectives as
sub.uncts& e. g.@ a fast #oving engine$ a clean shaven face$ etc.
'''. /ronouns as pri0ari.,3 I a# ,ell. This is #ine. 5hat happened.
+o*od( )no,s.
/ronouns as ad2unct,3 this *oo)$ #( sister$ our 3o($ etc. /ronouns as
sub.uncts@ I a# that sleep($ I ,on't sta( an( longer$ so#e,hat *etter than
usual.
'V. 1inite for#s of verbs can ony stand as ,.condar# 4ord,
+adn.%.,3& never either as %ri#aries or as tertiaries. But %artici%es& ike
ad.ectives& can stand as %ri#aries and as ad.uncts.
'nfinitives in different conte+ts of their use #ay beong to each of
the three ranks.
'nfinitives as pri0ari.,3 to see is to *elieve 1cf. seeing is *elieving24
to understand is to forgive4 she ,ants to rest.
'nfinitives as ad2unct,3 generations to co#e4 ti#es to co#e4 the correct
thing to do4 the never to *e forgotten loo).
'nfinitives as ,u-2unct,3 to see her (ou ,ould thin) she is an
actress4 I shudder to thin) of it4 he ca#e here to see (ou.
V. Adverbs as pri0ari.,. This use is rare. 5. Ces%ersen gives such
e+a#%es as@ he did not sta( for long4 he's onl( 3ust *ac) fro# a*road.
-ith %rono#ina adverbs it is #ore fre0uent@ fro# here$ till no,$ etc.
Adverbs as ad2unct, are not a fre0uent occurrence either@ the off side4 in
after (ears4 the then #ethods4 the fe, near*( trees.
Adverbs as ,u-2unct, D the ordinary use of this $ord,cass.
E+a#%es are hardy needed.
-hen a substantive& 5. Ces%ersen goes on to say& is for#ed fro# an
ad.ective or verb& a defining $ord is& as it $ere& ifted u% to a higher
)5
%ane& beco#ing secondary instead of tertiary& and $herever %ossibe& this
is sho$n by the use of an ad.ective instead of an adverb for#@
a*solutel( novel a*solute novelt(
utterl( dar) utter dar)ness
perfectl( strange perfect stranger
descri*es accuratel( accurate description
I fir#l( *elieve #( fir# *elief$ a fir#
*eliever
3udges severel( severe 3udges
reads carefull( careful reader
V'. -ord grou%s consisting of t$o or #ore $ords& the #utua reation
of $hich #ay be of the #ost different character& in #any instances occu%y
the sa#e rank as a singe $ord. A $ord grou% #ay be either a %ri#ary or
an ad.unct or a sub.unct.
-ord grou%s of various kinds as %ri#aries@ Sunda( afternoon ,as fine.
I spent Sunda( afternoon at ho#e.
-ord grou%s as ad2unct,3 a Sunda( afternoon concert4 the part( in
po,er4 a Saturda( to Monda( e0cursion4 the ti#e *et,een t,o and four4
his after dinner pipe.
-ord grou%s as ,u-2unct,3 he slept all Sunda( afternoon4 he s#o)es
after dinner4 he ,ent to all the principal cities of !urope4 he lives ne0t
door to Captain Strong4 the canal ran north and south4 he used to laugh a
good deal$ five feet high4 he ,ants things his o,n ,a(4 he ran upstairs
three steps at a ti#e.
'n his fina re#arks on ne+us 5. Ces%ersen gives a tabuated survey of
the %rinci%a instances of ne+us& using characteristic e+a#%es instead of
descri%tive cass,na#es. 'n the first cou#n he incudes instances in $hich
a verb 2finite or infinitive3 or a verba noun is found& in the second
instances $ithout such a for#@
1. The dog *ar)s -app( the #an$ ,hose ...
;. $hen the dog *ar)s ho,ever great the loss
8. Arthur& ,ho# they say
is )ill'd
:. ' hear the dog *ar) he #akes her happ(
<. count on hi# to co#e $ith the ,indo, open
6. for (ou to call
9. he is beieved to *e guil' she ,as #ade ha%%y
t(
?. the ,inner to spend ever(thing considered
=. the doctor's arrival the doctor's cleverness
7>. I dance7 -e a gentle#an7
'n 7 and 7> the ne+us for#s a co#%ete sentence& in a the other
instances it for#s ony %art of a sentence& either the sub.ect& the ob.ect or a
sub.unct
7
.
7
See/ 5. Ces%ersen. The /hioso%hy of )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=<?& %%. =9& 7>;& 787.
7?
5. Ces%ersen!s theory of three ranks %rovides ogica foundations
for identifying the hierarchy of syntactic reations bet$een ee#ents
.oined together in a gra##atica unit.
The 4%art of s%eech4 cassification and the 4rank cassification4
re%resent& in fact& different anges fro# $hich the sa#e $ord or for#
#ay be vie$ed& first as it is in itsef and then as it is in co#bination $ith
other $ords.
No one $oud dis%ute the vaue of 5. Ces%ersen!s anaysis and dee%
in0uiry into the structure of anguage. 'n the theory of three ranks he
offered #uch that $as ne$ in content and had #ost notabe #erits.
The conce%ts on $hich this theory is based is the conce%t of
deter#ination. The %ri#ary is an absoutey inde%endent $ord& the
secondary is the $ord $hich deter#ines or is subordinated to the
%ri#ary& the tertiary #odifies the secondary and so on. This see#s
%erfecty reasonabe as fuy .ustified by the reations bet$een the $ords
arranged in a string& according to the %rinci%e of successive
subordination.
-ith a this& 5. Ces%ersen!s anaysis contains so#e dis%utabe
%oints and inconsistency.
The very definition of the notion of rank is not accurate $hich in
so#e cases eads to inade0uacy of anaysis.
A%%ying his %rinci%e of inguistic anaysis to sentence structures&
such as the dog *ar)s furiousl( he ignores the difference bet$een .unction
and ne+us and does not distinguish attributive and %redicative reations
and thus see#s to return to the %rinci%e of three %rinci%a %arts of the
sentence.
'n his %nal(tic S(nta0$ %ubished in 7=89& 5. Ces%ersen gives a
sy#boic re%resentation of the structure of Engish. )ra##atica
constructions are transcribed in for#uas& in $hich the %arts of the
sentence and the %arts of s%eech are re%resented by ca%ita and s#a
etters D S for sub.ect& V D for verb& v D for au+iiary verb& 5 D
for ob.ect& ' D for infinitive& etc. and the ranks by nu#eras 7& ;& 8. As
far as the techni0ue of inguistic descri%tion is concerned this book #ay be
regarded as a forerunner of structura gra##ar $hich #akes use of such
notations.
5. Ces%ersen!s #or%hoogica syste# differs essentiay fro# the
traditiona conce%ts. Ae recognises ony the foo$ing $ord,casses
gra##aticay distinct enough to recognise the# as se%arate 4%arts of
s%eech4& viE.@
273 Substantive 2incuding %ro%er na#es3.
2;3 Ad.ectives.
'n so#e res%ects 273 and 2;3 #ay be cassed together as 4Nouns4.
283 /ronouns 2incuding nu#eras and %rono#ina adverbs3.
2:3 Verbs 2$ith doubts as to the incusion of 4Verbids43.
2<3 /artices 2co#%rising $hat are generay caed adverbs&
%re%ositions& con.unctions D coordinating and subordinating and
inter.ections3. This fifth cass #ay be negativey characterised as #ade
u% of a those $ords that cannot find any %ace in any of the first four
casses.
Methods of scientific research used in inguistic studies have
a$ays been connected $ith the genera trends in the science of
anguage.
The first decade of the ;>th century is kno$n to have brought ne$
theoretica a%%roaches to anguage and the study of its nature. Thus&
67 )$
for instance& the %rinci%es of co#%arative inguistics have been of
%ara#ount i#%ortance in the deveo%#ent of scientific a%%roach to
historica $ord study. 'n the beginning of the %resent century
inguistic studies $ere sti concentrated on historica %robe#s. The
historica and co#%arative study of the 'ndo,Euro%ean anguages beca#e
the %rinci%a ine of Euro%ean inguistics for #any years to co#e.
The #ost $idey accai#ed vie$s of anguage during the %ast thirty
years have been directed to$ard the deveo%#ent of #ethodoogies for
deaing $ith the structure of a anguage in a non,historica sense.
The historica co#%arative #ethod $as a%%ied ony to the
co#%arative study of kindred anguages. But to gain the dee%er insight
into the nature of anguage& a anguages #ust be studied in
co#%arison& not ony kindred. Modern inguistics is deveo%ing the
ty%oogica study of anguages& both kindred and non,kindred.
To$ards the end of the 7=th century attention $as concentrated
on the history of se%arate ingua ee#ents& $ith no reference to their
interreations in the syste# of anguage. This 4ato#istic4 a%%roach $as
criticised and abandoned. Modern inguistics is oriented to$ards
%erfecting the anaytica and descri%tive techni0ue in historica
studies. And this brings ne$ scientific data $idening the sco%e of
co#%arative inguistics and contributing greaty to its %rogressive
deveo%#ent.
The first treat#ents of anguage as a syste# $hose %arts are
#utuay interconnected and interde%endent $ere #ade by Beaudouin
de "ourtenay 27?:<D7=;=3 and 1. 1. 1ortunatov 27?:?D7=7:3 in
Russia and 1erdinand de Saussure& the S$iss inguist 27?<9D7=783.
1. de Saussure detached hi#sef fro# the tradition of the historica
co#%arative #ethod and recognised t$o %ri#ary dichoto#ies@ bet$een
4anguage4 2angue3 and 4s%eech4 2%aroe3& and bet$een synchronic and
diachronic inguistics. 4(anguage is a syste# $hose %arts can and #ust
a be considered in their synchronic soidarity4
1
.
*e Saussure!s #ain ideas taken in our science of anguage $ith so#e
%oints of reservation and e+%anatory re#arks are@
a3 (anguage as a syste# of signas #ay be co#%ared to other syste#s
of signas& such as $riting& a%habets for the deaf,and,du#b& #iitary
signas& sy#boic rites& for#s of courtesy& etc. Thus& anguage #ay be
considered as being the ob.ect of a #ore genera science D se#asioogy D
a science of the future $hich $oud study different syste#s of signas
used in hu#an society.
b3 The syste# of anguage is a body of inguistic units sounds&
affi+es& $ords& gra##ar rues and rues of e+ica series. The syste#
of anguage enabes us to s%eak and to be understood since it is kno$n
to a the #e#bers of a s%eech co##unity. S%eech is the tota of our
utterances and te+ts. 't is based on the syste# of anguage& and it gives
the inguist the %ossibiity of studying the syste#. S%eech is the inear
2syntag#atic3 as%ect of anguages& the syste# of anguage is its
%aradig#atic 24associative43 as%ect.
7
1. de S a u s s u r e . "ours de inguisti0ue generae. /aris& 7=:=& %. =.
;>
c3 A anguage,state is a syste# of 4signs4@ a sign being a t$o,sided
entity $hose co#%onents are 4signifier4 2sound,i#age3 and the 4signified4
2conce%t3& the reationshi% bet$een these t$o co#%onents being
essentiay correative
1
.
-e understand the #eaning of the inguistic sign as refecting the
ee#ents 2ob.ects& events& situations3 of the outside $ord.
1. de Saussure attributed to each inguistic sign a 4vaue4@ 4(anguage
is a syste# of interde%endent ter#s in $hich the vaue of each ter# resuts
soey fro# the si#utaneous %resence of the others4
;
. The inguistic sign
is 4absoutey arbitrary4 and 4reativey #otivated4.
This is to say that if $e take a $ord 4absoutey4 disregarding its
connections to other $ords in the syste#& $e sha find nothing obigatory
in the reation of its %honoogica for# to the ob.ect it denotes 2according
to the nature of the ob.ect3. This fact beco#es evident $hen $e co#%are
the na#es of the sa#e ob.ects in different anguages& e. g.@
Engish horse hand s%ring
Russian IJKLMN OPQL RSTUL
Ukrainian QVUN OPQL RSTUL
1rench cheva #ain %rinte#%s
The reative #otivation #eans that the inguistic sign taken in the
syste# of anguage reveas connections $ith other inguistic signs of the
syste# both in for# and #eaning. These connections are different in
different anguages and sho$ the difference of 4the seg#entation of the
%icture of the $ord4 D the difference in the division of one and the sa#e
ob.ective reaity into %arts refected in the #inds of different %eo%es& e. g.@
Engish arro$ D shoot D a%%e D a%%e,tree Russian
TWOSIL D TWOSIXWN D XYIJQJ D XYIJUX Ukrainian
TWOVILD TWOVIXWZ D XYIPQJ D XYIPUX
d3 (anguage is to be studied as a syste# in the 4synchronic %ane4& i. e.
at a given #o#ent of its e+istence& in the %ane of si#utaneous
coe+istence of ee#ents.
e3 The syste# of anguage is to be studied on the basis of the
o%%ositions of its concrete units. The inguistic ee#ents 2units3 can be
found by #eans of seg#ents& e. g. in the strength of the ,ind and in to
collect one's strength $e recognise one and the sa#e unit strength in
accord $ith its #eaning and for#G but in on the strength of this decision
the #eaning is not the sa#e& and $e recognise a different inguistic unit.
). "ur#e!s "ra##ar of the !nglish Language 27=873 %resents a
syste#atic and rather fu outine of Engish synta+ based u%on actua
usage. The attention is directed to the gra##atica categories D the case
for#s 2the no#inative& genitive& dative& accusative3& the %re%ositiona
7
See/ 1. de Saussure. 5%. cit.& %%. 66D69.
;
'bid.& %. 77:.
;7
%hrase& the indicative& the sub.unctive& the active& the %assive&
the $ord,order& the cause for#ations& causes $ith finite verb& and the
ne$er& terser %artici%ia& gerundia& and infinitiva causes& etc.
Serious efforts have been #ade every$here throughout this book
to %enetrate into the origina concrete #eaning of these categories.
The %ecuiar vie$s on acci dence& e. g. the four,case syst e#
in ). "ur#e!s gra##ar& are refected in synta+. "ur#e discusses
accusative ob.ects& dative ob.ects& etc.
Most gra##arians retain the threefod cassification of sentences
into si#%e& co#%ound and co#%e+& as given in the %rescri%tive
gra##ars of the #id,7=th century. A. /outs#a introduces the ter#
4co#%osite sentence4 as co##on for co#%ound and co#%e+ sentences.
So#e changes have taken %ace in the conce%t of the cause 2as %art of a
arger sentence3. 't is %robaby under the infuence of Nesfied!s
gra##ar& $here this definition first a%%eared& that gra##arians do not
insist any onger& as ". T. 5nions did& that in a co#%e+ sentence
each cause has a sub.ect and a %redicate of its o$n. They take into
consideration the structura %ecuiarity of co#%e+ sentences $ith sub.ect
and %redicate causes& $here the 4#ain4 cause acks one or both of its
%rinci%a %arts.
As a #atter of fact& scientific gra##ar gave u% the stricty
structura conce%t of a cause as of a syntactic unit containing a
sub.ect and a %redicate& recognised by %rescri%tive gra##ar.
Beginning $ith S$eet!s gra##ar& gra##arians have retained the
conce%ts of haf,causes& abridged causes& verbid causes& etc. Thus& A.
/outs#a treats substantive causes& adverbia causes& infinitive causes&
gerund causes and %artici%e causes as units of the sa#e kind.
E. Kruisinga!s gra##ar is one of the #ost interesting of those
scientific gra##ars $hich have retained the traditiona gra##atica
syste#. Kruisinga criticises the definition of the sentence for its
indeter#inacy but does not redefine the ter#. The conce%t of the
%hrase $as not %o%uar a#ong the $riters of scientific gra##ars.
Kruisinga originated the theory of cose and oose syntactic grou%s&
distinguishing bet$een subordination and coordination. "osey reated
to this theory is the author!s conce%t of the co#%e+ sentence.
E. Kruisinga!s -and*oo) of .resent'da( !nglish 27=8;3 %resents
a ne$ vie$%oint on so#e %arts of Engish structure suggesting
interesting a%%roaches to various dis%utabe %oints in the
treat#ent of %hrase,structure.
Setting u% t$o #a.or ty%es of syntactic structures@ cose and oose
syntactic grou%s he defines the# as foo$s@ in cose grou%s one of the
#e#bers is syntacticay the eading ee#ent of the grou%G in oose
grou%s each ee#ent is co#%arativey inde%endent of the other #e#ber.
By $ay of iustration@ a countr( doctor or #ild ,eather are cose
grou%sG $ord,co#binations ike #en and ,o#en are oose grou%s. The
individua $ords are thus eft 4unaffected by their #e#bershi% of the
grou%4.
*escribing the cose grou%s according to their eading #e#ber&
E. Kruisinga cassifies the# into@ verb,grou%s& noun,grou%s& ad.ective,
grou%s& adverb,grou%s and %re%osition,grou%sG %ronoun,grou%s are
22
incuded in the noun and ad.ective,grou%s. Moda and au+iiary verbs in
verb,grou%s are referred to as 4eading verbs4.
The ne$ assu#%tions #ade by E. Kruisinga are of undoubted
interest. There are ho$ever& dis%utabe %oints in the discussion of the
cose grou%s $here the author does not confine hi#sef to one basis for the
estabish#ent of verb,%hrases $hich in this %art of anaysis eads to
certain inade0uacy of the cassification. But on the $hoe the book,
has notabe #erits.
A#ong the authors of cassica scientific Engish gra##ars of the
#odern %eriod #ention #ust be #ade about ". T. 5nion!s %dvanced
!nglish S(nta0 2(ondon& 7=>:3. The #ain facts of current Engish
synta+ are %resented here in a syste#atic for# in accordance $ith the
%rinci%es of %arae gra##ar series. Engish synta+ is arranged in t$o
%arts. /art ' contains a treat#ent of syntactica %heno#ena based on the
anaysis of sentences. /art '' cassifies the uses of for#s.
-hie deaing #ainy $ith the anguage of the #odern %eriod&
". T. 5nion endeavoured to #ake the book of use to the student of eary
#odern Engish by giving an account of so#e notabe archaic and obsoete
constructions. Aistorica #atter in so#e %arts of his book adds interest
to the treat#ent of %articuar constructions and i#%ortant %oints in
synta+ deveo%#ent.
To this %eriod beong aso (. ). Ki#ba!s Structure of the !nglish
Sentence 2Ne$ York& 7=>>3 and A. R. Stokoe!s Understanding of S(nta0
$hich a%%eared in 7=89.
A these schoars differ fro# %rescri%tive gra##arians in their non,
egisative a%%roach to the descri%tion of Engish structure trying to
gain a dee%er insight into its nature.
A $eath of inguistic #ateria describing the structure of Engish
is %resented in such scientific gra##ars of the #odern %eriod as A.
/outs#a!s "ra##ar of Late Modern !nglish 27=;63& E. Kruisinga!s
-and*oo) of .resent'da( 27=873 and R. -. Fandvoort!s -and*oo) of !nglish
"ra##ar 27=:?3.
Structural and Transformational Grammars
Structura gra##arians have abandoned #any of the co##ony hed
vie$s of gra##ar. -ith regard to the #ethodoogy e#%oyed their
inguistic a%%roach differs fro# for#er treat#ents in anguage
earning. Structura gra##atica studies dea %ri#ariy $ith the
4gra##ar of structure4& and offer an a%%roach to the %robe#s of
4sentence anaysis4 that differs in %oint of vie$ and in e#%hasis fro# the
usua treat#ent of synta+.
Treating the %robe#s of the structure of Engish $ith criticis# of
traditiona conventiona gra##ars& "h. 1ries considers& for instance&
that %rescri%tive and schoary gra##ars beong to a 4%rescientific
era4
1
.
According to "h. 1ries& the ne$ a%%roach D the a%%ication of t$o
of the #ethods of structura inguistics& distributiona anaysis and
substitution #akes it %ossibe to dis%ense $ith the u,ua! .i"t %arts
7
See/ "h. 1 r i e s . The Structure of Engish. (ondon& 7=<=& %. 7.
;8
of s%eech. Ae cassifies $ords into four 4for#,casses4& designated by
nu#bers& and fifteen grou%s of 4function $ords4& designated by etters.
The four #a.or %arts of s%eech 2Noun& Verb& Ad.ective& Adverb3 set u% by
the %rocess of substitution in "h. 1ries recorded #ateria are thus given no
na#es e+ce%t nu#bers@ cass 7& cass ;& cass 8& cass :. The four casses
corres%ond roughy to $hat #ost gra##arians ca nouns and %ronouns&
verbs& ad.ectives and adverbs& though "h. 1ries es%eciay $arns the reader
against the atte#%t to transate the state#ents $hich the atter finds in the
book into the od gra##atica ter#s. The grou% of function $ords contains
not ony %re%ositions and con.unctions& but aso certain s%ecific $ords that
#ore traditiona gra##arians $oud cass as a %articuar kind of %ronouns&
adverbs and verbs.
Assu#%tions have been #ade by "h. 1ries that a $ords $hich can
occu%y the sa#e set of %ositions in the %atterns of Engish singe free
utterances #ust beong to the sa#e %art of s%eech. These four casses
#ake u% the 4buk4 of functioning units in structura %atterns of Engish.
Then co#e fifteen grou%s of so,caed function,$ords $hich have certain
characteristics in co##on. 'n the #ere #atter of nu#ber of ite#s the
fifteen grou%s differ shar%y fro# the four casses. 'n the four arge casses
the e+ica #eanings of the $ords de%end on the arrange#ent in $hich
these $ords a%%ear. 'n function,$ords it is usuay difficut if not
i#%ossibe to indicate a e+ica #eaning a%art fro# the structura #eaning
$hich these $ords signa.
"h. 1ries very righty %oints out that one cannot %roduce a book
deaing $ith anguage $ithout being indebted to #any $ho have earier
studied the %robe#s and #ade great advances. Ae ackno$edged the
i##easurabe sti#uation and insight received fro# (. Boo#fied. The
infuence of cassica scientific and %rescri%tive gra##ars on so#e of his
vie$s of anguage is aso 0uite evident.
According to "h. 1ries& this #ateria covers the basic #atters of
Engish structure.
"h. 1ries gives e+a#%es of the various kinds of 4function,$ords4 that
o%erate in 4%ositions4 other than those of four casses given above& giving
identifying etters to each of the different grou%s incuded here.
The first test fra#e 2)rou% A3 incudes a the $ords for the %osition in
$hich the $ord the occurs.
)rou%
A
1The2
)rou%
A
1The2
"ass
7
"ass
7
concert
"ass
;
,as
"ass ;
is8,as
are8,ere
"ass 8 "ass
8
good
"ass
:
the a8an ever(
no #( our
(our her his
their each all
*oth so#e an(
fe, #ore #ost
#uch #an( its
9ohn's this8these that8those
:ne t,o three$ etc.
24
So#e of these 4$ords4 1one$ all$ *oth$ t,o$ three$ four$ that$ those$
so#e$ 9ohn's$ etc.3 #ay aso a%%ear in the %ositions of "ass 7 $ordsG all
and *oth #ay occur before the. )rou% A consists of a $ords that can
occu%y the %osition of the in this %articuar test fra#e. The $ords in this
%osition a occur $ith "ass 7 $ords. Structuray& $hen they a%%ear in
this 4%osition4& they serve as #arkers of "ass 7 $ords. So#eti#es they
are caed 4deter#iners4.
The second test fra#e incudes& according to traditiona ter#inoogy&
#oda verbs@
)rou% "ass )rou% "ass "ass "ass
A 7 [ ; 8 :
The concert 1#a(2 1*e2 1good2 D #ight can could ,ill
,ould should #ust
has 1*een2 has
to 1*e2
-ords of grou% [ a go $ith "ass ; $ords and ony $ith "ass ;
$ords. Structuray& $hen they a%%ear in this %osition& they serve as
#arkers of "ass ; $ords and aso& in s%ecia for#uas& they signa so#e
#eanings $hich& according to "h. 1ries& shoud be incuded as structura.
1or grou% \ 1ries has but one $ord not. 2This not differs fro# the not
incuded in grou% E3.
)rou% "ass )rou% )rou% "ass "ass A 7
[ \ ; 8
The concert #a( not *e good
)rou% * incudes $ords that can occur in the %osition of ver(
i##ediatey before a cass 8 $ord in the foo$ing test fra#e@
"rou% "ass )rou% )rou% "ass )rou% "ass "ass
A 7 [ \ ; * 8 :
The concert #a( not *e ver( good then
;uite$ a,full(
reall($ a,ful
real$ an( prett($
too fairl($ #ore
rather$ #ost
Athough each of the fifteen grou%s set u% here differs 0uite #arkedy
fro# every other grou%& they a have certain characteristics in co##on D
characteristics $hich #ake the# different fro# the four casses of $ords
identified %reviousy.
7. 'n the #ere #atter of nu#ber of ite#s the fifteen grou%s differ
shar%y fro# the four casses. The four casses together contain thousands
of se%arate ite#s. "h. 1ries found no difficuty $hatever in seecting fro#
his ong ists a hundred of different ite#s of each of the
;<
four casses as e+a#%es. 5n the other hand& the tota nu#ber of the
se%arate ite#s fro# his #aterias #aking u% the fifteen grou%s a#ounted
to ony 7<:.
;. 'n the four arge casses& the e+ica #eanings of the se%arate $ords
are rather ceary se%arabe fro# the structura #eanings of the
arrange#ents in $hich these $ords a%%ear. According to 1ries& in the
$ords of these fifteen grou%s it is usuay difficut if not i#%ossibe to
indicate a e+ica #eaning a%art fro# the structura #eaning $hich these
$ords signa.
The fra#es used to test the 4$ords4 $ere taken fro# the #ini#u# free
utterances e+tracted fro# the 4situation4 utterance units 2not the
4res%onse4 utterance units3 of the recorded #aterias. 't is i#%ortant to
observe& "h. 1ries %oints out& that the four %arts of s%eech indicated above
account for %racticay a the %ositions in these #ini#u# free utterances.
'n the sentence fra#es used for testing& ony the one %osition occu%ied by
the $ord the has not been e+%oredG and& as sho$n in the #odified fra#e
structure& this %osition is o%tiona rather than essentia in the 4#ini#u#4
free utterances. A the other kinds of $ords beong then in 4e+%anded4
free utterances.
The #ateria $hich furnished the inguistic evidence for the anaysis
and discussions of the book $ere %ri#ariy so#e fifty hours of
#echanicay recorded conversations on a great range of to%ics D
conversations bP so#e three hundred different s%eakers in $hich the
%artici%ants $ere entirey una$are that their s%eech $as being recorded.
These #echanica records $ere transcribed for convenient study& and
roughy inde+ed so as to faciitate reference to the origina discs recording
the actua s%eech. The treat#ent here is thus aso i#ited by the fact that it
is based u%on this circu#scribed body of #ateria. Atogether these
#echanicay recorded conversions a#ounted to so#ething over ;<>&>>>
running $ords.
The book %resents a #a.or inguistic interest as an e+%eri#ent rather
than for its achieve#ents.
't is to be noted that the #ateria recorded in the book is fairy
ho#ogeneous in kind. "h. 1ries confines hi#sef to one basis for the
estabish#ent of for#,casses and this brings out the %ractica i#itations
of his interesting #ethod. 5ther debatabe %oints of the #ateria %resented
are@ arbitrary counting of different %ositions as identica and ignoring
#or%hoogy $here it bears u%on synta+.
Structura inguistics is kno$n to have its varieties and schoos. The
/rague Schoo headed by N. TrubetEkoy and R. Cakobson has contributed
to the deveo%#ent of #odern structura inguistics on a $ord,$ide scae.
Neutraisation as a inguistic conce%t by $hich $e #ean sus%ension of
other$ise functioning o%%ositions $as first introduced into #odern
inguistics by N. TrubetEkoy $ho %resented an i#%ortant survey of the
%robe# of %honoogy in his <"rund=>ge der .honologie< edited in
/rague in 7=8=. This has been $idey infuentia in #any Euro%ean
inguistic circes& and #any of the basic ideas of the schoo have diffused
very $idey& far beyond the grou% that originay ca#e together around N.
TrubetEkoy.
26
TrubetEkoy!s idea of neutraisation in %honoogy #ay be briefy
su##arised as foo$s@
a3 'f in a anguage t$o sounds occur in the sa#e %osition and can be
substituted for each other $ithout changing the #eaning of the $ord&
such sounds are o%tiona variants of one and the sa#e %hone#e.
b3 'f t$o sounds occur in the sa#e %osition and cannot be
substituted for each other $ithout changing the #eaning of the $ord or
distorting it beyond recognition& these t$o sounds are %honetic
reaisations of t$o different %hone#es.
c3 'f t$o si#iar sounds never occur in the sa#e %osition& they are
%ositiona variants of the sa#e %hone#e.
An o%%osition e+isting bet$een t$o %hone#es #ay under certain
conditions beco#e irreevant. This see#s to be a universa feature in
anguage deveo%#ent.
E+a#%es of neutraisation of o%%ositions on the %hone#ic eve
#ay be found in nu#bers. By $ay of iustration@ the sounds ]W^ and
]M^ are different %hone#es distinguishing such Russian $ords& for
instance& as WJQ and MJQ& WJ_ and MJ_. But the difference bet$een the
t$o %hone#es $i be neutraised if they are at the end of the $ord&
e. g.@ OJW 1#outh2 and OJM 1genus24 ]W^ and ]M^ in these $ords sound aike
because a voiced ]M^ does not occur at the end of a $ord in Russian.
'n ter#s of N. TrubetEkoy!s theory& o%%osition is defined as a
functionay reevant reationshi% of %artia difference bet$een t$o
%artiay si#iar ee#ents of anguage. The co##on features of the
#e#bers of the o%%osition #ake u% its basis& the features that serve to
differentiate the# are distinctive features.
/honoogica neutraisation in Engish #ay be $e iustrated
by the absence of contrast bet$een fina , and 8 after t.
Si#iary& though $e distinguish the Engish %hone#es p and -
in pin$ *in$ there is no such o%%osition after ,& e. g.@ split$ splint$ spra(.
-here o%%ositions do not occur& %hone#es #ay coaesce in their
reaisations and be neutraised.
E+tending the conce%t of neutraisation to the other eves of
structure see#s fuy .ustified as having a %ractica vaue in the study of
anguage both in genera inguistics and $ith regard to Engish
%articuary.
The #ost $i de y kno$n i s t he bi nar y 4%r i vat i ve4
o%%osition in $hich one #e#ber of the contrastive %air is
characterised by the %resence of a certain feature $hich does not e+ist in
the other #e#ber 2hence 4%rivative43. The ee#ent %ossessing this
feature is referred to as the 4#arked4 2strong3 #e#ber of the o%%osition.
The 4un#arked4 #e#ber #ay either signa 4absence of the #arked
#eaning4 or ese be nonco##itta as to its absence or %resence.
The #ost,favoured %rinci%e of the /rague Schoo& in the $ords of
A. Martinet& is the %rinci%e of binarity& according to $hich the $hoe
of anguage shoud be reducibe to sets of binary o%%ositions. /erha%s
the best kno$n advocate of the theory of binary o%%ositions is R. Cakob,
son& $ho has a%%ied this kind of anaysis to the Russian syste# of
cases& to the Russian verb syste#& and even D as %art of a discussion
27
of 1ranE Boas vie$ of gra##atica #eaning D to the Engish verb
syste#. 'n these studies& R. Cakobson anayses gra##atica conce%ts
in ter#s of sets of t$o #utuay o%%osite gra##atica categories& one of
$hich is #arked $hie the other is un#arked or neutra.
'ntensive deveo%#ent of A#erican inguistics is generay ca ed
Boo#fiedian inguistics& though not a of its %rinci%es can be
traced directy to (. Boo#fied!s conce%ts.
(. B o o # f i e d ! s book Language is a co#%ete #ethodoogy
of anguage study. The ideas aid do$n in this book $ere ater
deveo%ed by F. S. Aarris& "h. 1ries& E. A. Nida and other schoars.
The #ain conce%ts of (. Boo#fied!s book #ay be briefy
su##arised as foo$s@
7. (anguage is a $orkabe syste# of signas& that is inguistic for#s
by #eans of $hich %eo%e co##unicate... 4every anguage consists of
a nu#ber of signas& inguistic for#s4
7
.
;. 4Every utterance contains so#e significant features that are not
accounted for by the e+icon4
;
.
8. 4No #atter ho$ si#%e a for# $e utter and ho$ $e utter it...
the utterance conveys a gra##atica #eaning in addition to the e+ica
content4
8
.
:. A sentence has a gra##atica #eaning $hich does not
2entirey3 de%end on the choice 2seection3 of the ite#s of e+icon.
(. Boo#fied!s state#ent that the #eaning of a sentence is %art
of the #or%he#e arrange#ent& and does not entirey de%end on the
$ords used in the sentence has ater been deveo%ed by "h. 1ries and
N. "ho#sky.
<. )ra##ar is a #eaningfu arrange#ent of inguistic for#s fro#
#or%he#es to sentences. The #eaningfu arrange#ent of for#s in a
anguage constitutes its gra##ar& and in genera& there see# to be
four $ays of arranging inguistic for#s@ 273 order& 2;3 #oduation@ <9ohn7<
2ca3& <9ohn?< 20uestion3& <9ohn< 2state#ent3G 283 %honetic #odification
1do D don't24 2:3 seection of for#s $hich contributes the factor of
#eaning
:
.
'n the $ords of (. Boo#fied& the #ost favourite ty%e of sentence
is the <actor Daction< construction having t$o %ositions. These
%ositions are not interchangeabe. A the for#s that can fi in a given
%osition thereby constitute a for#,cass. 'n this #anner the t$o #ain
for#,casses are detected@ the cass of no#ina e+%ressions and the cass
of finite verb e+%ressions.
(. Boo#fied has sho$n a ne$ a%%roach to the breaking u% of the
$ord,stock into casses of $ords. 4The syntactic constructions of a
anguage #ark off arge casses of free for#s& such as& in Engish& the
no#inative e+%ression or the finite verb e+%ression. The great for#,
casses of a anguage are #ost easiy described in ter#s of $ord,
casses 2such as
7
(. B o o # f i e d . (anguage. (ondon& 7=6=& %. 7<?.
;
' b i d.& %. 76;.
8
' b i d . & %. 76=.
:
' b i d . & %%. 768D76:.
28
the traditiona %arts of s%eech3& because the for#,cass of a %hrase is
usuay deter#ined by one or #ore of the $ords $hich a%%ear in it4
7
.
These ong for#,casses are subdivided into s#aer ones.
'n #odern inguistic $orks the no#ina %hrase of a sentence is
#arked as the sy#bo N/& and the finite verb,%hrase D as V/. The
sy#bos N and V stand for the traditiona %arts of s%eech& nouns and
verbs& athough the N/ #ay incude not ony nouns but their e0uivaents
and the noun deter#iners 2e. g.@ the #an$ #( hand$ this house$ I$ the($
so#ething$ so#e$ others$ etc.3G and the V/ $ith a transitive verb #ay
have a N/ in 1too) a *oo)$ sent a letter$ etc.3. The ong for#,cass of N is
no$ subdivided into@ ani#ate and inani#ate& #ateria and abstract&
cass nouns and %ro%er nouns. The ong for#,cass of V is subdivided into
intransitive verbs 2Vi3& transitive verbs 2Vt3 and the atter are again
divided into the V of the ta)e't(pe$ the give't(pe$ the put't(pe and the
have't(pe$ etc.
The seection of the subcasses of N and V eads to different sentence,
structures.
The gra##atica schoos of traditiona schoary gra##ar have
then %assed to the gra##atica theories of 4descri%tive4& 4%ost,
Boo#fiedian inguistics4& to the schoo of gra##ar kno$n as the
4transfor#ationa generative gra##ar4& initiated by F. S. Aarris $ho
outined a gra##atica %rocedure $hich $as essentiay a t$ice,#ade
a%%ication of t$o #a.or ste%s@ the setting u% of ee#ents& and the
state#ent of the distribution of these ee#ents reative to each other. The
ee#ents are thus considered reativey to each other& and on the basis of
the distributiona reations a#ong the#.
A#erican inguists K. (. /ike& R. -es& E. A. Nida& (. S. Aarris
and others %aid s%ecia attention to for#a o%erations& the so,caed
gra##ar discovery %rocedures. They endeavour to discover and describe
the features and arrange#ent of t$o funda#enta inguistic units
2the %hone#e and the #or%he#e as the #ini#a unit of gra##atica
structure3 $ithout recourse to #eaning.
Sentence structure $as re%resented in ter#s of i##ediate
constituent anaysis& e+%icity introduced& though not sufficienty
for#aised by (. Boo#fied. The binary cutting of sentences and their
%hrasa constituents into '"!s& the first and the #ost i#%ortant cut
being bet$een the grou% of the sub.ect and the grou% of the %redicate&
$as i#%icit in the 4%arsing4 and anaysis of traditiona gra##ar& as
noted by #any inguists co##enting on the anaysis. *istributiona
anaysis $as recognised as %ri#ary in i#%ortance. (inguistic
%rocedures $ere directed at a t$ice,#ade a%%ication of t$o #a.or
ste%sG the setting u% of ee#ents and the state#ent of the distribution of
these ee#ents reative to each other& distribution being defined as the
su# of a the different environ#ents or %ositions of an ee#ent reative to
the occurrence of other ee#ents. The %rinci%a o%eration
reco##ended& e. g. for estabishing e0uations@ a #or%he#e ` a
#or%he#e se0uence in
7
(. [ o o # f i e d. 5%. ci t . & %. 7=>. See al s o/ a. \. b c _ L U J R L Z d. e.
fZQLgIXU. \JROS_SUUhS TZUWLQTZiSTQZS WSJOZZ. f.& =68& %%. ;;D;8.
;=
a given environ#ent 2such as #an ` good boy3 $as substitution re%eated
ti#e and again
7
. *istributiona anaysis and substitution $ere not
so#ething 0uite nove in Engish gra##atica theory. 5ccurrence of
an ee#ent reative to other ee#ents& no$ generay referred to as
4distribution4& has been invoved in a#ost every gra##atica
state#ent since Anti0uity
;
. But the difference bet$een the traditiona
and structura a%%roaches consists in that the for#er did not rey u%on
this #ethod as %art of an e+%icity for#uated theory& $hereas #odern
inguistics has given recognition& $ithin the theory of gra##ar& to the
distributiona %rinci%e& by $hich traditiona gra##arians $ere a$ays
guided in %ractice. The sa#e is true of substitution. This is an entirey,
for#a #ethod for discourse anaysis arranged in the for# of the
successive %rocedures.
Starting $ith the utterances $hich occur in a singe anguage
co##unity at a singe ti#e& these %rocedures deter#ine $hat #ay be
regarded as identica in various %arts of various utterances. And this is
su%%osed to %rovide a #ethod for identifying a the utterances as
reativey fe$ stated arrange#ents of reativey fe$ stated ee#ents.
F. S. Aarris& E. A. Nida and other A#erican inguists of
Boo#fiedian schoo concentrate their attention on for#a o%erations
to discover and describe the features and arrange#ent of t$o funda#enta
inguistic units@ the %hone#e and the #or%he#e as the #ini#a unit of
gra##atica structure. (ike Boo#fied& they attach #a.or i#%ortance
to s%oken anguage aying e#%hasis on the fact that $riting is a
secondary visua re%resentation of s%eech.
(anguage ca#e to be vie$ed not as an aggregate of discrete ee#ents
but as an organised totaity& a )estat $hich has a %attern of its o$n and
$hose co#%onents are interde%endent and derive their significance fro#
the syste# as a $hoe. 'n 1. Saussure!s $ords& anguage is ike a ga#e of
chess4& you cannot add& re#ove or dis%ace any ee#ent $ithout effecting
the entire fied of force.
F. Aarris %resents #ethods of research used in descri%tive& or& #ore
e+acty& structura& inguistics. 't is& in fact& a discussion of the o%erations
$hich the inguist #ay carry out in the course of his investigations&
rather than a theory of the structura anaysis $hich resuts fro# these
investigations.
/. Roberts and -. N. 1rancis& foo$ing "h. 1ries and A. A.
)eason& are to a arge degree concerned $ith studying %atterns of
organisation& or structures. They hod the vie$ that inguistics& ike
%hysics and che#istry or& say& geoogy or astrono#y& #ust be %reoccu%ied
$ith structure.
Returning to the traditiona na#es of %arts of s%eech /. Roberts
and -. N. 1rancis estabish four #a.or casses of $ords and severa
grou%s of function,$ords& %roceeding fro# the criteria of distribution
7
See/ F. S. A a r r i s . Methods in Structura (inguistics. "hicago& 7=67& %%.
7<D76.
;
See/ /. * i d e r i c h s e n . The '#%ortance of *istribution Versus 5ther "riteria in
(inguistic Anaysis. "o%enhagen& 7=66& %%. ;9>D;97G see also/ (. (. 'Jfik& (. /. \ h L
k h J P a n. Readings in the Theory of Engish )ra##ar. (. 7=9;& %. 89.
30
of $ords& the #or%hoogica characteristics of $ords and their correation.
The anaysis of Engish structure #ade by /. Roberts and -. 1rancis
%resents a #a.or inguistic interest as a significant contribution to #odern
inguistic thought.
't is to be noted& ho$ever& that so#e of their state#ents are devoid of
ogica consistency.
The cassification of $ords into %arts of s%eech given in these books is
o%en to doubt and 0uestioning because in identifying the inguistic status
of $ords /. Roberts and -. N. 1rancis& ike "h. 1ries& %roceed fro#
essentiay different criteria@ the #a.or casses of $ords are cassified in
ter#s of their for#a features and function $ords D in ter#s of #eaning.
-hat see#s aso erroneous and devoid of ogica foundations is
e+cuding #eaning fro# this s%here of inguistic anaysis.
According to -. N. 1rancis& there are five devices $hich Engish
s%eakers #ake use of to buid $ords into arger organised co#binations or
structures. 1ro# the istener!s %oint of vie$& these five are the kinds of
signas $hich revea the %atterns of structura #eaning in $hich $ords are
arranged. As a su##ary of his assu#%tions& -. N. 1rancis ists the#
describing briefy as foo$s@
7. -ord 5rder as the inear or ti#e se0uence in $hich $ords a%%ear in
an utterance.
;. /rosody& i. e. the over,a #usica %attern of stress& %itch and
.uncture in $hich the $ords of an utterance are s%oken.
8. 1unction $ords or $ords argey devoid of e+ica #eaning $hich
are used to indicate various functiona reationshi%s a#ong the e+ica
$ords of an utterance.
:. 'nfections& i. e. #or%he#ic changes D the addition of suffi+es and
conco#itant #or%ho%hone#ic ad.ust#ents D $hich ada%t $ords to
%erfor# certain structura functions $ithout changing their e+ica
#eaning.
<. *erivationa contrast bet$een $ords $hich have the sa#e base but
differ in the nu#ber and nature of their derivationa affi+es
1
.
The casses of $ords estabished by /. Roberts and -. N. 1rancis do
not coincide.
'n -. N. 1rancis! cassification there are four %arts of s%eech@ Noun&
Verb& Ad.ective and Adverb. /ronouns are treated as t$o subcasses of
nouns& caed %ronouns and function nouns. The grou% of %ronouns
co#%rises eight $ords $hose i#%ortance far out$eighs their nu#ber.
These are/ I$ ,e$ (ou$ he$ she$ it$ the( and ,ho.
The #ain grou%s of function,nouns are eight in nu#ber 2incuding
so#e stereoty%ed %hrases3 %us so#e uncassified ones 2not a the
foo$ing ists are co#%ete3@
a3 Noun,deter#iners@ the$ a8an$ #($ (our$ her$ their$ our$ this8 these$
that8those$ its$ one$ t,o ... ninet('nine$ #an( 1a2$ #ore$ several$ *oth$ all$
so#e$ no$ ever($ 1a2 fe,$ other.
1
See/ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& %. ;8:.
87
b3 Au%i!iari.,3 can8could$ #a(8#ight$ ,ill8,ould$ shall8should$ #ust$
dare$ need$ do$ had *etter$ *e$ get$ have$ )eep 1on2$ used$ *e going.
c3 9ua!i:i.r,3 ver($ ;uite$ rather$ prett($ #ight($ so#e,hat$ too$ a *it$ a
little$ so #ore$ #ost$ less$ least$ indeed$ enough 1real$ a,ful$ that$ so#e$
right$ plent(2$ no$ still$ #uch$ lots$ a 1,hole2 lot$ a 1good$ great2 deal$ even.
d/ Pr.po,ition,3
273 Si#%e@ after$ a#ong$ around$ *efore$ concerning$ etc.
273 "o#%ound@ along ,ith$ a,a( fro#$ *ac) of$ due to$ together ,ith$
etc.
2;3 /hrasa@ *( #eans of$ in front of$ on account of$ etc.
2e3 Coordinator,3 and$ not$ *ut$ nor$ rather$ than$ either ... or$ etc.
+:/ Int.rro"ator,3
273 Si#%e@ ,hen$ ,here$ ho,$ ,h( 1,hence$ ,hither2$ ,henever$ etc.
2;3 'nterrogative %ronouns@ ,ho$ ,hich$ ,hat$ ,hoever$ ,hichever$
,hatever.
+"/ !nc!ud.r,3
273 Si#%e@ after$ although$ ho,$ lest$ since$ etc.
2;3 Reative %ronouns@ ,ho$ ,hich$ that$ ,hen$ ,here$ ,hoever$ etc. +/
S.nt.nc.;!in<.r,3
273 Si#%e@ conse;uentl($ further#ore$ hence$ ho,ever$ #oreover$
nevertheless$ therefore.
2;3 /hrasa@ at least$ in addition$ in fact$ etc.
There are aso function verbs in 1rancis! cassification $hich stand in
%ace of a fu verb,%hrase& $hen the fu verb has been e+%ressy stated or
strongy i#%ied in the i##ediate inguistic conte+t or the non,inguistic
conte+t.
-e cannot fai to see that a%%ying for#a structura #ethods of
anaysis $hich see# to be #ore ob.ective than se#antic criteria&
gra##arians co#e to so#e$hat different resuts.
'n ter#s of N. "ho#sky!s theory of synta+& sentences have a ,ur:ac.
,tructur. and a d..p ,tructur.1 the atter is #ore co#%icated& being
based on one or #ore underying abstract si#%e structures.
'n certain very si#%e sentences the difference bet$een the surface
structure and the dee% structure is #ini#a. Sentences of this kind 2si#%e&
active& decarative& indicative3 are designated as <.rn.! ,.nt.nc.,. They
can be ade0uatey described by %hrase or constituent structure #ethods& as
consisting of noun and verb %hrases 2the so,caed /,#arkers& the N/!s and
V/!s3. According to syntactic structures& kerne sentences are %roduced by
a%%ying ony obigatory transfor#ations to the %hrase,structure strings 2e.
g. the transfor#ation of affi+ j verb into verb j j affi+ in the %resent
tense& hit ,s& etc.3. Non,kerne or derived sentences invove o%tiona
transfor#ations in addition& such as active to %assive 1the *o( ,as hit *(
the #an2. But ater inter%retations of the transfor#ationa theory have
#ade ess use of this distinction& stressing rather the distinction bet$een
the underying 4dee% structure4 of a sentence and its 4surface structure4
that it e+hibits after the transfor#ations have been a%%ied.
Transfor#ationa o%erations consist in rearrange#ent& addition& deetion
and co#bination of inguistic ee#ents.
32
/hrase structure rues for# a counter%art in the theory of generative
gra##ar to t$o techni0ues of inguistic anaysis 2one od and one rather
ne$3.
'n the $ords of E. Bach& the od %ractice is the schooroo# dri of
%arsing& that is& of assigning gra##atica abes to %arts of a sentence. 'n a
schooroo# dri the foo$ing anaysis #ight occur@
The #an
artice noun
gave
verb
#e
%ronoun
a
artice
*oo)
noun
$hoe sub.ect indirect
ob.ect
direct
ob.ect
$hoe %redicate
The other techni0ue D in reaity ony a #ore so%histicated version of
%arsing D is so,caed i##ediate constituent 2'"3 anaysis. 't atte#%ts to
break do$n constructions into sub%arts that are in so#e sense
gra##aticay reevant.
The theory of transfor#ationa gra##ar begins by #aking
funda#enta distinction bet$een t$o kinds of sentences@ kerne sentences
and their transfor#s. Kerne sentences are the basic ee#entary sentences
of the anguage fro# $hich a ese is #ade. A constructions that are not
basic are transfor#s& i. e. they are derived fro# the basic ones by certain
gra##atica rues. Transfor#ations can change and e+%and the kerne in
#any $ays to for# the great variety of sentences %ossibe in a given
anguage.
The syste# of any anguage contains a rather s#a nu#ber of basic
sentences and other structura ee#ents 2such as #or%he#es and
%hone#es3. A the other inguistic for#s& sentences of different structure&
are derived 2generated3 fro# these basic 2kerne3 ee#ents by certain
reguar derivation rues invoving different kind of o%erations. This
understanding of the syste# of any anguage is& in fact& the #ain
assu#%tion of the transfor#ationa gra##ar.
The t$o basic %robe#s of the T,gra##ar are@ a3 the estabish#ent of
the set of kerne or basic structures& and b3 the estabish#ent of the set of
transfor#ation rues for deriving a the other sentences as their
transfor#s
7
.
A transfor#ationa rue is a rue $hich re0uires or ao$s us to %erfor#
certain changes in the kerne structure@ rearrange#ent of inguistic
ee#ents& so,caed 4%er#utation4& substitution& deetion& the use of
function $ords& etc.
The transfor#ationa rues sho$ ho$ to derive so#ething fro#
so#ething ese by s$itching things about& %utting things or eaving the#
out and so on
@
.
't is to be %ointed out that transfor#ationa anaysis a%%ied in teaching
on different instruction eves can hardy be considered as atogether 0uite
nove. Transfor#ationa reations invoved in tense,for#ation and %assive
for#s& for instance& $ere& in fact& a$ays %resented as devices of
obigatory transfor#ations on the #or%hoogica eve. The
7
See/ F. S. Aarris. "o,occurrence and Transfor#ation in (inguistic Structure.
4(anguage4& v. 88& No. 8& 7=<9.
;
See/ /. Roberts. Engish Synta+. Ne$ York& 7=6:& %. =9. , 8
88
recognition of *rought as the %ast tense of *ring$ and si#iary *e *rought
as the %assive of *ring$ de%ends %ri#ariy on reating arge nu#bers of
sentences and on the anaysis of coocations bet$een nouns and verbs in
the sentences.
Such are aso nu#ber and %erson transfor#ations or& say& different kind
of transfor#ations $hich $ere a%%ied i#%icity in traditiona gra##ar
on the syntactic eve de%ending on the %ur%ose of co##unication@
constructing negative transfor#s& changing an affir#ative sentence into a
0uestion& transfor#ations $hich %roduce e+ca#atory sentences& etc.
*eficiencies of various kind have been discovered in the first atte#%ts
to for#uate a theory of transfor#ationa generative gra##ar and in the
descri%tive anaysis of %articuar anguages that #otivated these
for#uations. At the sa#e ti#e& it has beco#e a%%arent that these
for#uations can be e+tended and dee%ened in certain $ays.
N. "ho#sky!s %spects of the Theor( of S(nta0
1
is a notabe atte#%t to
revie$ these deveo%#ents and to %ro%ose a refor#uation of the theory of
transfor#ationa generative gra##ar that takes the# into account. The
e#%hasis in this study is synta+G se#antic and %honoogica as%ects of
anguage structure are discussed ony insofar as they bear on syntactic
theory.
The author revie$s the genera orientation of a $ork in generative
gra##ar since the #idde fifties. Ais s%ecific intent is to deter#ine
e+acty ho$ this $ork is reated D in its divergencies as $e as its
connections D to earier deveo%#ents in inguistics and to see ho$ this
$ork reates to traditiona issues in %sychoogy and %hioso%hy.
N. "ho#sky i#%icity reates his gra##ar to anguage teaching and
earning by associating his resuts $ith traditiona gra##ars. Ae #entions
that these do not give e+%icit rues for %utting $ords together into
sentences& athough they give enough rues of $ord concord& e+a#%es and
so on& to ao$ the student to do this intuitivey. N. "ho#sky gives no
rues for %utting sentences together to #ake discourses& but eaves this to
the intuitions of the earner. Ais ai# is to %ut for$ard the rues to generate
a %ossibe sentences of a anguage in ter#s of a given set of #or%he#es.
'n his $ords& any anguage has a finite set of avaiabe #or%he#es& but an
infinite set of sentencesG this sho$s definite hy%ostatisation of the unit
4sentence4.
Transfor#ationa gra##ar invoving a reorientation of inguistic
theory has naturay given rise to vigorous controversy in inguistic
studies& and #uch sti re#ains to be done in anguage earning to evauate
its %otentiaities ade0uatey. 't is to be e+%ected& ho$ever& that the theory
of T,gra##ar $i continue to deveo% and contribute to genera inguistic
study by soving so#e i#%ortant %reviousy overooked issues.
The structura %rocedures of #odern descri%tive theory are used by
Soviet inguists to identify the nature of so#e inguistic facts. 't #ust&
ho$ever& be e#%haticay stressed that in so#e 0uestions our stand%oint is
essentiay different. So#e A#erican inguists are kno$n to
7
See/ N. "ho#sky. As%ects of the Theory of Synta+. "a#bridge& Massachusetts&
7=6<.
34
advocate rigorous se%aration of eves and a study of anguage as an
autono#ous syste#. Such abstraction see#s atogether erroneous and
brings itte scientific order to anguage earningG dog#atic assu#%tions of
this kind are a$ays res%onsibe for the distortion of inguistic facts. This
a%%roach see#s to have aready been abandoned by #ost structuraists 2F.
Aarris& N. "ho#sky3.
-hat is aso o%en to criticis# is setting absoutey a%art synchronic
and diachronic as%ects of inguistic units. 'n anguage reaity the t$o
as%ects are organicay reated and as such cannot be a$ays absoutey
isoated. Regrettabe #istakes occur if this is overooked.
There are a nu#ber of Euro%ean schoos of inguistics& and the
differences bet$een the# are in so#e instances rather significant. The
inguistic theories $hich they hod have& in fact& been deveo%ed in a
variety of $ays.
-ith the diversity of vie$,%oints $ithin descri%tive inguistics& it is not
sur%rising that Engish descri%tive gra##ar is not as a ty%e unifor#.
So#eti#es gra##arians differ in the vie$ of anguage that underies
the#. So#e of gra##ars differ ony in ter#inoogy& in styistic
conventions of state#ent& or in other basicay inconse0uentia #atters. 1or
the #ost %art there is a variation in #any directions& $ith intergradations
in inguistic anaysis. But des%ite a considerabe divergency of their ai#s
and inguistic a%%roaches there is a certain continuousness in different
Engish gra##ars observed in their kee%ing u% the gra##atica tradition.
The foundations of the Engish gra##atica theory $ere aid aready in the
first %art of the %rescri%tive gra##ar& though its #or%hoogica syste#
$as based on (atin and syntactic conce%ts de%ended argey u%on rhetoric
and ogic.
The %rescri%tive nor#ative gra##ar has the ongest tradition and is
sti %revaent in cass,roo# instruction. 'ts #ost i#%ortant contribution to
gra##atica theory $as the syntactic syste# deveo%ed in 7=th century.
Though #uch has been done& the three ty%es of scientific Engish
gra##ars have not yet succeeded in creating any 0uite inde%endent and
ne$ gra##atica syste#s.
R. -. Fandvoort!s -and*oo) of !nglish "ra##ar 27=<9D7=6<3 is a
descri%tive gra##ar of conte#%orary Engish. 't deas $ith accidence and
synta+& eaving aside $hat beongs rather to idio# and is not a#enabe to
genera state#ent. 't ike$ise esche$s historica digressionsG synchronic
and diachronic gra##ar are& in the author!s o%inion& best treated
se%aratey. 'n this& as in other res%ects& R. Fandvoort confesses hi#sef a
%u%i of Kruisinga& $hose -and*oo) of .resent'da( !nglish$ des%ite
certain e+travagances in its fifth and fina edition& he considers to be the
#ost origina and sti#uating treat#ent of Engish synta+.
* * *
A #a.or contribution to the deveo%#ent of #odern inguistics has
been #ade by Soviet schoars.
The acco#%ish#ents of Soviet inguists in the theory of Engish
structure are %resented by the great $eath and variety of individua
8<
studies of nu#erous %robe#s treated in various #onogra%hs& gra##ar
books and $ork,%a%ers $hich a%%eared during this %eriod and have been
noted in our bibiogra%hy.
(inguistic studies of Modern Engish structure #ade by Soviet
schoars contain #ost vauabe infor#ation about the anguage as syste#
and have notabe #erits in the gra##atica theory #aking its study #ore
iu#inating and contributing to a scientific understanding of anguage
deveo%#ent. Such are& for instance& the #onogra%hs and books edited in
this country in <>,6>,ies by V. N. Yartseva& A. '. S#irnitsky& 5. S.
Akh#anova& Y. N. Vorontsova& B. A. 'yish& N. N. A#osova& '. /. 'vanova&
'. V. Arnod and others.
Most %erce%tive and usefu treat#ents coordinating and dee%ening the
gras% of the anguage $i be found in V. N. Yartseva!s #onogra%hs and
schoary accounts #ade at a s%ecia acade#ic eve& $ith #uch ne$
insight on the sub.ect in the ight of #odern inguistics.
A vauabe source of significant infor#ation reveaing i#%ortant
as%ects of anguage in discussion of synta+ and #or%hoogy $i be found
in $e kno$n A. '. S#irnitsky!s gra##ar books.
A #a.or sti#uus to intensive studies of the theory of Engish structure
in Soviet inguistics $as the research of our schoars in recent ti#es. This
has brought ne$ acco#%ish#ents in #odern gra##atica theory $hich
are origina& significant and %ractica. 'nvestigations of recent years gain
an i#%ortant insight into the structura #ethods of inguistic anaysis&
syntactic descri%tion& in %articuar. Such are the gra##ar books edited by
5. S. Akh#anova& V. N. Yartseva& (. Barkhudarov& (. (. 'ofik& Y. 5.
Fhuktenko& ). ). /oche%tsov and others.
"urrent $ork in gra##ar atte#%ts to %rovide the insight into se#antic
as%ects of synta+& the %rocesses of sentence for#ation and their
inter%retation& the %rocesses that underie the actua use of anguage.
'nvestigations of Soviet schoars thro$ #uch additiona ight on
nu#erous as%ects of anguage encouraging fresh atte#%ts not ony in the
theory of Engish structure but aso co#%arative studies of gra##ar 2V. N.
Yartseva& Y. 5. Fhuktenko3.
The structura %rocedures of #odern descri%tive theory are $idey used
by Soviet inguists to identify the nature of so#e inguistic facts of
different eves of the anguage.
'#%ortant observations are %resented in A. Korsakov!s book $here $e
find the descri%tion of the syste# of the Engish verb& reveaing to the
student the $ay in $hich the anguage actuay $orks. The book is not
ony intended to sho$ the student ho$ the Engish tenses are actuay
used. 't is aso he%fu as an introduction of so#e #ethods and $ays of
inguistic anaysis.
Various as%ects of gra##ar have been described in a considerabe
nu#ber of dissertations defended in this country on s%eciaised to%ics&
such as se#antic as%ects of synta+& the gra##ar of Engish
no#inaisations& synony#ic correation of inguistic units& co#%arative
study of anguages& etc. to $hich $e turn the attention of the student $ith
suggestions for further reading.
36
Gra00ar in It, R.!ation to Ot.r L.=.!,
o: Lin"ui,tic Structur.
'nteractions bet$een gra##ar and other eves of inguistic structure
are of the essence of anguage and %robaby the #ost significant %oint to
notice in studying the structure of a anguage in genera.
(anguage as syste# consists of severa subsyste#s a based on
o%%ositions& differences& sa#enesses and %ositiona vaues.
The gra##atica syste# breaks u% into its subsyste#s o$ing to its
reations $ith vocabuary and the unity of e+ica #eaning of the $ords of
each grou%. )ra##ar and vocabuary are organicay reated and
interde%endent but they do not ie on one %ane. As a biatera unity of
for# and content the gra##ar of any anguage a$ays retains the
categories underying its syste#.
Nu#beress e+a#%es in different anguages sho$ that gra##ar is not
indifferent to the concrete e+ica #eaning of $ords and their ca%acity to
co#bine $ith one another in certain %atterns. The use of so#e
gra##atica rues is $e kno$n to be e+icay restricted.
The state#ent about abstraction and generaisation in gra##ar shoud
not thus be understood as for#a #echanica se%aration of the 4genera4
facts fro# the 4s%ecia4 ones.
't is not a$ays easy to dra$ %recise boundaries bet$een the t$o
branches of earning.
So#eti#es the sub.ect #atter beco#es a#biguous .ust at the
borderine.
'nterna reations of ee#ents are of the essence of anguage as syste#s
at a eves. The functions of every inguistic ee#ent and abstraction
de%end on its reative %ace therein. This is& in fact& one of the funda#enta
features of anguage. And this is the starting %oint of the treat#ent of
gra##ar in the %resent book. )ra##atica %heno#ena can and shoud be
considered fro# various 2often su%%e#entary3 %oints of vie$. -ith this
a%%roach to inguistic facts %robe#s of gra##ar in our day have taken on
ne$ vitaity and interest.
The inguistic features of gra##ar and vocabuary #ake it abundanty
cear that the t$o branches of earning are organicay reated to each
other. No %art of gra##ar can be ade0uatey described $ithout reference
to vocabuary. -ith a this& inguistic students shoud understand $hat
se%arates gra##ar fro# vocabuary& $herein ie the %ecuiarities of each
of the t$o eves and their reationshi% in genera. To ignore this is to
ignore the diaectica nature of anguage.
That gra##ar and vocabuary are organicay reated to each other
#ay be $e iustrated by the deveo%#ent of anaytica for#s $hich are
kno$n to have originated fro# free syntactic grou%s. These consist of at
east t$o $ords but actuay constitute one sense,unit. 5ny one of the
ee#ents has e+ica #eaning& the second has none& and being an au+iiary
$ord %ossesses ony gra##atica #eaning.
Not ess characteristic are %eri%hrastic gra##atica for#s of the verb&
such as& for instance& the going to,future or& say& %atterns $ith the verb to
get A %artici%e '' estabished by ong use in the anguage
37
to indicate voice distinctions. Verb,%hrases of anaytica structure denoting
the as%ective character of the action& such as@ used to j V
inf
& ,ould j V
inf
&
co#e to A V
inf
$ ta)e to j V
ing
& fall A %r% j V
ing
& have j no#en acti& etc.
The constant reci%roca action bet$een vocabuary and gra##ar
#akes itsef 0uite evident in conte+tua restrictions of $ord,#eanings.
E+a#%es are not far to seek.
The verb to #ean j V
inf
#eans 4to intend4& to #ean A V
ing
#eans 4to
signify4& 4to have as a conse0uence4& 4to resut in so#ething4. "o#%are
the foo$ing@
273 -e had never reall( #eant to ,rite that letter B -e had never
intended to ,rite that letter.
2;3 This #eant changing all #( plans k This resulted in changing all
#( plans.
To re#e#*er j V
ing
refers to the %ast and #eans 4not to need to be
re#inded4& to re#e#*er j V
inf
refers to the future and #eans 4not to o#it
to do so#ething4. Cf./ I re#e#*er doing so. Re#e#*er to go to the post'
office.
To tr( takes a gerund $hen it #eans 4to #ake an e+%eri#ent4G $hen
foo$ed by an infinitive it #eans 4to #ake an atte#%t to do so#ething4&
e. g.@ She tried for a ti#e helping us in #usic *ut found it ,as not a
success. Tr( to )eep perfectl( still for a #o#ent.
The construction verb j V
ing
can aso be co#%ared $ith one consisting
of a verb j adverbia infinitive& e. g.@ The horse stopped to drin). The
horse stopped drin)ing.
1urther e+a#%es of the so,caed 4gra##atica conte+t4 $hich
o%erates to convey the necessary #eaning $i be found in cases $hen& for
instance& the %assive for# of the verb gives a cue concerning its %articuar
e+ica #eaning. To give e+a#%es. The verb to succeed$ as registered in
dictionaries& can #ean@ 73 TIVMPRLWZ lL iZ_TN LYJ QZ_TN& YPWZ
ULTWPmUZQJ_& l_VUnRLWZ oJTNG ;3 _LWZ PTmVc& MJTXpLWZ _SWZ& RTWZpLWZ.
As is kno$n& the %assive for# of this verb e+cudes the second range of
its #eanings.
Not ess characteristic is the use of the verb to #a)e4 its %assive for#s&
for instance& are inco#%atibe $ith such e+ica #eanings as given beo$@
The #o#ent I greeted her she #ade to turn *ac).
She rose a*ruptl( and #ade to ;uit the roo#$ *ut %ndre, stopped her
*efore she reached the door. 2"ronin3
The use of the %assive for# $oud signa the causative #eaning
qlLTWLRZWZr& qmOZ_PTZWZr& e. g.@ She ,as #ade to ;uit the roo#.
"o#%are aso the #eaning of the verb to treat in the foo$ing
sentences@
-e treated #( ,ords as a 3o)e.
The *oo) treats of poetr(. The(
treated us to s,eet ,ine. -e is
treating #( son cruell(.
38
'n ho#ony#ic %atterns the #eaning of the verb is generay defined by
the i##ediate e+ica conte+t& $hich is a$ays e+%icit enough to #ake the
#eaning cear. "o#%are the foo$ing@
273 She #ade a good
report. She #ade a
good ,ife.
1@2 -e called his sister a
heroine. -e called his sister
a ta0i.
Variation in e+ica environ#ent #ay change the #eaning of a
gra##atica for#& and the use of a gra##atica for# #ay& in its turn&
change the e+ica #eaning of the $ord invoved. E+a#%es are not far to
seek. The organic interreation bet$een gra##ar and vocabuary #erits at
this %oint s%ecia consideration.
'n the 4activo,%assive4 use of verbs& for instance& the #edia #eaning
is generay signaed by the e+ica #eaning of the sub.ect. E+a#%es are
nu#erous@
2a3 Cut it occurred to her$ as her dance'list was filling up, that there
,as not #uch left for Mr. Co,per,ood$ if he should care to dance ,ith
her. 2*reiser3
1,as filling up ` ,as *eing filled up2
2b3 5hen the stor# stopped the fields ,ere ,hite over$ the s)( a #il)
*lue$ lo, and still threatening. Cut the sno,covered fields$ in spite his
shivering$ felt good to *e in. 2Siitoe3
1felt goodD,ere felt2
2c3 This pla( reads *etter than it acts 1D This pla( should *e read
rather than acted).
)ra##atica for#s #ust be studied in a the variety of their
distribution in actua s%eech. "onte+ts have a $ay of #aking a
gra##atica for# convey different structura #eanings incuding
so#eti#es the e+act o%%osite of $hat is ordinariy intended.
The organic interreation bet$een gra##ar and vocabuary beco#es
#ost evident $hen $e carry our attention to trans%ositions of gra##atica
for#s& their functiona re,evauation in different conte+ts and to se#antic
as%ects of synta+.
The constant reci%roca action of vocabuary and gra##ar $i be $e
e+e#%ified by various %rocesses of $ord,for#ation& such as
co#%ounding& conversion& derivation and others.
Evidence to %rove the interreation bet$een gra##ar and vocabuary
$i readiy be seen in the history of so,caed function $ords& e. g.@
%re%ositions and con.unctions $hich have co#e fro# the notiona %arts of
s%eech@
provided a3 %ast %artici%e fro# the verb to provide b3
con.unction
regarding a3 %resent %artici%e fro# the verb to regard b3
%re%osition
o,ing a3 %resent %artici%e fro# to o,e b3
%re%osition
failing a3 %resent %artici%e fro# to fail b3
%re%osition
33
The sa#e is true of such for#ations in other anguages.
Cf. Russian and Ukrainian@
EFGEHIFJKLGE L3 mOSMIJp MNOGEHGE L3 mOZs_SUUZQ
Y3 ULOSiZS Y3 mOZTIVRUZQ
GJ HPEFQR 7 L3 MSSmOZiLTWZS GJ SMTUTVWI X L3 MVtmOZTIVRUZQ
1GJHPEFQR2Y Y3 mOSMIJp 1GJSMTUTVWI22 Y3 mOZs_SUUZQ
1rench@ vua3 %artici%e %asse
b3 %re%osition pendant 2
durant X a3 %artici%e %resent
touchant 8 b3 %re%osition
)er#an@
a3 /artiEi% '' ausgeno##en
b3 %osition Zeit 1=eit2
7 a3 Substantiv [raft 1)raft2 8
b3 /ru%osition
That gra##ar shoud be vie$ed in reation to other %arts of inguistic
earning& such as %honetics and stye& is aso obvious.
The %honetic inter%retation of the inguistic #ateria is of undoubted
interest in #odern gra##ar earning. Moduation features& intonation and
stress are $e kno$n to effect both #or%hoogy and synta+. /atterns of
gra##atica arrange#ent #ay be structuray a#biguous or at east
%otentiay so. 'n s%eech ho$ever& there are %rosodic %atterns $hich
ceary distinguish the various ty%es of construction. This is an area of
Engish gra##ar $here #uch re#ains to be done before a co#%ete
descri%tion is avaiabe.
"hanges in the intonation %attern& for instance& can change the
functiona sentence %ers%ective& the inter%retation of the $hoe utterance&
say& fro# a state#ent to a 0uestion& fro# a %ositive to a negative sense&
fro# interrogative to e+ca#atory& etc.& e. g.@
Fleur darted after hi#.
<-e gives #e up? \ou #ean that? Father7< 2)as$orthy3
Instinctivel( the( *oth too) cigarettes$ and lighted each others. Then
Michael said/ 41eur& kno$sv4 2)as$orthy3
4*id you hear itw That *o( of hers is a,a( to London again<.
The sentence,fina contours are used in s%eech to signa the sentence
divisions $ithin an utterance co#%osed of #ore than one sentence. 'n
4ne+us of de%recation4& for instance& the connection bet$een t$o #e#bers
of an ordinary affir#ative sentence #ay be brushed aside as i#%ossibe by
intonation $hich is the sa#e as in 0uestions& often in an e+aggerated for#
or not infre0uenty given to the t$o #e#bers se%aratey& e. g.@
5e surrender? +ever7
I catch cold7 +o fear.
The interrogative for# of e+ca#atory sentences in such %atterns #ake
the# #ost coourfu and e+%ressive.
<\ou$] I said$] a favourite ,ith Mr. Rocherster? \ou gifted ,ith
40
the po,er of pleasing hi#? \ou of i#portance to hi# in an( ,a(? "o4
\our foll( sic)ens #e< 2Brontx3.
1urther e+a#%es to sho$ the reation of %honetics to gra##ar are not
far to seek. -e #ay take& for instance& $ord,#aking through the so,caed
4#or%hoogica4 or 4se#antic4 stress. A fair nu#ber of nouns 2Ro#anic in
origin3 are distinguished fro# the corres%onding verbs ony by the %osition
of the accent& the noun being accented on the first syabe and the verb on
the second& e. g. 'presentDto pre'sent$ 'e0port'to e0'port$ 'conduct D to
con'duct$ etc.
Structura a#biguity in ho#ony#ic %atterns on the syntactic eve is
very often resoved by the intonation %atterns.
'n $ritten Engish& for instance& because of the ack of stress the use of
so#e $ords resuts in a#biguity. By $ay of iustration@
-e tal)ed ,ith a prett( French accent D $ith the stress on 1rench the
$ord prett( is used adverbiay and #eans in or to so#e degree4 $hen
prett( is stressed it is used attributivey and #eans good$ fine.
E+a#ine aso the difference in gra##ar bet$een@
5hat did (ou *ring the parcel in? 5h(
did (ou *ring the parcel in? %re (ou
going to *e doing it? -o, long are (ou
going to *e doing it?
1eatures of stress and .uncture are $e kno$n to effect various kind of
#odification structures& e. g. the %hrase old #en and ,o#en$ for instance&
coud be divided into i##ediate constituents in either of t$o $ays&
de%ending on $hether old is referred to both the #en and the ,o#en or
.ust the #en. 'n s%eech the difference $oud nor#ay be conveyed by the
corres%onding stress and .uncture.
't $i %robaby be he%fu if at this %oint $e take the e+a#%e given by
A. Ai in his Introduction to Linguistic Structures to sho$ the i#%ortance
of #oduation features in do$ngraded sentences $ith %ied u% verb,for#s@
5hat the house 9ohn had had had had$ had had its i#portance.
Since the $riting syste# does not indicate the su%erfi+es accuratey
and they are therefore %uEEes for the reader $ho has to sort the# out&
sentences of this sort are usuay avoided in $ritten co#%osition. 't is
%ossibe& for instance& to construct a sentence $hich is a rea %robe#
$hen read& but is %ain enough $hen %ronounced. The sentence is a freak
in $riting& $hich no $riter in his senses $oud use. S%oken& it is ony
#idy 0ueer& and is at east inteigibe. Even though these sentences are
understandaby rare in $riting& the reader shoud not su%%ose that they are
either unco##on or unnatura in s%eech
7
.
/atterns of stress so#eti#es sho$ the structura #eaning
una#biguousy in the s%oken anguage $here $ithout the he% of conte+t
it $oud be a#biguous in the $ritten. E+a#%es foo$.
-hen I have instructions to leave is e0uivaent in #eaning to I have
instructions that I a# to leave this place$ do#inant stress is ordinariy on
leave. -hen the sa#e se0uence is e0uivaent in #eaning to I have
instructions ,hich I a# to leave$ do#inant stress is ordinariy on
instructions.
7
See/ A. A V ' 7. 'ntroduction to (inguistic Structures. Ne$ York& 7=<?.
:7
PROBLEMS OF FIELD STR&CT&RE
The %robe# of the interreation bet$een gra##ar and vocabuary is
#ost co#%e+.
'f the 0uestion arises about the reationshi% bet$een gra##ar and
vocabuary $e generay think of gra##ar as a cosed syste#& i. e.
consisting of a i#ited nu#ber of ee#ents #aking u% this syste#. The
gra##atica syste# of a anguage fas into subsyste#s& such as for
instance& %arts of s%eech& con.ugated verb,for#s& %re%ositions& affi+es&
etc.& in other $ords& the casses of inguistic units $hose e+haustive
inventory can be #ade u% as a $hoe.
Vocabuary on the contrary is not so cosed in its character.
-hen $e say that gra##ar is a cosed syste#& $e do not certainy
#ean that gra##ar is se%arated fro# vocabuary. 5n the contrary& the
gra##atica syste# breaks u% into subsyste#s .ust o$ing to its reations
$ith vocabuary& and the unity of e+ico,se#antic grou%s is su%%orted by
the unity of gra##atica for#s and #eaning of the $ords of each grou%.
)ra##ar and vocabuary are organicay reated and interde%endent but
they do not ie on one %ane. As a biatera unity of for# and content
gra##ar a$ays retains the categories underying its syste#.
'n actua s%eech inguistic units of different eves co#e to correate as
si#iar in function.
The study of the $ays in $hich anguages #anage to %rovide different
devices to e+%ress a given co##unicative #eaning is one of the #ost
fruitfu directions of research receiving increasing attention in #odern
inguistics. 't is on this eve of inguistic anaysis that $e coordinate and
dee%en our gras% of the anguage as syste#. -hat is e+%ressed by
#or%hoogica for#s #ay find its e+%ression in e+ica devices& or& say& in
syntactic structures.
Such is the gra##atica treat#ent of the category of #odaity in the
Russian anguage #ade by V. V. Vinogradov $ho identifies #odaity as a
inguistic category e+%ressed by syntactic& #or%hoogica and e+ica
#eans
1
.
"orreation in occurrence of different inguistic units in one se#antic
fied #akes it %ossibe to suggest that there are certain reguarities of their
functioning in anguage activity.
't $i be e#%hasised& in %assing& that different inguistic units
e+%ressing a co##on #eaning are not 0uite identica in their se#antic
vaue and do not go absoutey %arae in anguage activity. They rather
co#%ete each other.
7
See/ [. [. [ Z U J p O L M J R . a QLWSpJOZZ _JMLINUJTWZ Z _JMLINUhc TIJRLc R
OPTTQJ_ XlhQS. yOPMh ZUTWZWPWL OPTTQJpJ XlhQL bz \\\{& W. ;. f.D|.& 7=<>& %%. :;
D6>.
42
The conce%t of fied structure in gra##ar is not so#ething 0uite nove
in inguistic studies.
The e#inent historian of the 1rench anguage 1. Brunot %ro%osed in his
ti#e to teach 1rench gra##ar by starting fro# $ithin& fro# the thoughts
to be e+%ressed& instead of fro# the for#s
7
.
Reated to this is \h. [LP!s conce%t $ith e#%hasis aid on the ogica
categories and e+tra,inguistic reations invoved in his observations
;
.
(.V. }~erba sho$ed a better .udge#ent #aking distinction bet$een the
t$o as%ects of studying synta+@ %assive and active. The starting %oint of
the for#er is the for# of the $ord and its #eaning. (anguage is thus
studied fro# $ithin as syste#. The conce%t of the active as%ect is
essentiay different.
'dentifying notiona categories '.'. Meshchaninov ays s%ecia
e#%hasis on their inguistic nature $hich shoud never be ost sight of
8
.
'n his %hioso%hica discussion of notiona categories 5. Ces%ersen first
recognises that beside the syntactic categories $hich de%end on the
structure of each anguage as it is actuay found& there are so#e
e+traingua categories $hich are inde%endent of the #ore or ess
accidenta facts of e+isting anguagesG they are universa in so far as they
are a%%icabe to a anguages& though rarey e+%ressed in the# in a cear
and un#istakabe $ay. But then he goes on to say& that so#e of the# reate
to such facts of the $ord $ithout as se+& others to #enta states or to
ogic& but for $ant of a better co##on na#e for these e+traingua
categories he uses the ad.ective notional and the substantive notion.
'n other de%art#ents it is i#%ossibe to for#uate t$o sets of ter#s&
one for the $ord of reaity or universa ogic& and one for the $ord of
gra##ar& and 5. Ces%ersen is thus ed to recognise that the t$o $ords
shoud a$ays be ke%t a%art
:
.
'n finding out $hat categories to recognise as notiona& 5. Ces%ersen
%oints out that these are to have a inguistic significance.
5. Ces%ersen deveo%s this idea further. The s%eci#ens of his treat#ent
given in the .hilosoph( of "ra##ar %resent a %rei#inary sketch of a
notiona co#%arative gra##ar& starting fro# \ 2notion or inner #eaning3
and e+a#ining ho$ each of the funda#enta ideas co##on to a #ankind
is e+%ressed in various anguages& thus %roceeding through [ 2function3 to
A 2for#3.
(inguistic observations in ter#s of fied structure are of undoubted
theoretica interest and have a %ractica vaue as reevant to co#%arative
studies of various anguages.
'#%ortant treat#ents of the fied,theory have been #ade by A. V.
[JndarkJ in his studies of the Russian anguage
<
.
7
See@ 1. [runot. (a %ense et a angue. 8e d. /aris& 7=<8.
;
See/ "h. Bay. (a angue et a vie. /aris& 7=;6.
8
See/ . . fS o L U Z U J R . JUXWZsUhS QLWSpJOZZ R XlhQS. yOPMh RJSUUJpJ
ZUTWZWPWL ZUJTWO. Xl. f.& 7=:<& 7.
:
See/ a. Ces%ersen. The /hioso%hy of )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=6?& %%. <<D<6.
<
See@ b.
[. eJUMLOQJ. dOL__LWZiSTQLX QLWSpJOZX Z QJUWSQTW. |.& 7=97&
O. 77<.
43
The starting %oint of his anaysis is the %rinci%e fro# #eaning to for#.
*ue attention is dra$n to functiona trans%ositions of verb,for#s and
sus%ension of o%%ositions in different syntactic environ#ents.
/robe#s of fied,structure in )er#an are discussed in E. V. )uiga& E.
'. Shendes!
7
$ork $here $e aso find acute observations vaid for further
deveo%#ent of the theory of anguage.
A the inguistic units functioning in a anguage to e+%ress a given
categoria #eaning #ake u% the functiona se#antic fied of this category.
The #or%hoogica devices are naturay %ri#ary in i#%ortance and #ake
u% its highy organised nuceus. A the other constituents are %eri%hera
ee#ents $hich #ay be used for different notiona %ur%oses& such as@
intensity or e#%hasis of a given #eaning& e+%ressive connotation&
$eakening of #eaning& #aking a given #eaning #ore concrete and #ore
%recise& or e+%ressing a ne$ #eaning.
The functiona,se#antic fied fas at east into t$o categories $hich
stand in contrast. Thus& for instance& the ti#e,fied in Engish fas into
three 4#icrofieds4@ /resent& /ast and 1uture.
The voice,fied in Modern Engish fas into Active and /assive 2a
binary o%%osition3.
The fied of nu#ber fas into t$o #icrofieds@ Singuar D /ura
2oneness D %uraity3.
'n Modern Engish %uraity #ay be e+%ressed& for instance& by@
73 %ura for#s of nounsG
;3 singuar for#s of nouns in trans%osition 2i#%ied %uraity3G
83 infectiona for#s of verbs 2very fe$ in nu#ber3G
:3 %ersona and de#onstrative %ronounsG
<3 %ronouns of uns%ecified 0uantityG
63 nu#erasG
73 coective nouns and nouns of #utitude& e. g.@ #an)ind$ peasantr($
(eo#anr($ gentr($ cro,d$ host$ etc. or& say& such $ords as deveo%ed a
coective signification by #etony#y& e. g.@ all the ,orld D all the #en$
the se0 D ,o#en$ the *ench D the officials4
;3 standardised %aired noun,%hrases& e. g.@ da( after da($ (ear after
(ear$ ;uestion on ;uestion$ countr( on countr($ etc.
't is to be noted at this %oint that in %atterns $ith 4i#%ied4 2covert3
%uraity distinction #ust be #ade bet$een@
73 the use of so#e co##on nouns in the singuar $ith the i#%ication
of %uraity& as in to have a )een e(e$ to )eep in hand4 trees in leaf$ etc.
;3 the use of the %ronoun one $ith reference to@
a3 severa unkno$n individuas or %eo%e in genera& e. g.@
:ne should al,a(s do one's dut(.
b3 severa kno$n individuas incuding the s%eaker& e. g.@
-e as)ed #e to revie, his ne, novel. :f course one did not li)e to
refuse$ *ut...
Syntactic devices are generay #ost e+%ressive& they intensify the
7
See/ E. [. dPIhpL& . . SUMSINT. dOL__LWZQJ,ISQTZiSTQZS mJIX R
TJROS_SUUJ_ US_SQJ_ XlhQS. f.& 7=6=.
44
#eaning of %uraity and as such are often used for styistic %ur%oses. A
fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are@
Mile on #ile$ ,ithout an end$ the lo, gre( streets stretched to,ards the
ulti#ate deserted grass. 2)as$orthy3
Sea on sea$ countr( on countr($ #illions on #illions of people$ all ,ith
their o,n lives$ energies$ 3o(s$ griefs$ and suffering D all ,ith things the(
had to give up$ and separate struggles for e0istence. 2)as$orthy3
The invariant #eaning of any given category finds its #ost
4s%eciaised4 e+%ression in the #or%hoogica category.
A study of inguistic signs in their interreationshi% and
interde%endence eads to significanty increased kno$edge of anguage. A
s%ecia interest attaches to the correation bet$een #eanings e+%ressed by
gra##atica for#s and those e+%ressed by e+ico,gra##atica devices to
$hich in our descri%tion $e sha re%eatedy dra$ the attention of the
student.
A these #eans denoting %uraity are essentiay different in their
inguistic status. -ithout any fre0uency counts $e #ay say that so#e of
the# are fairy co##on in every day use& others are used occasionay&
according to circu#stances. Mor%hoogica #eans to e+%ress %uraity
stand at the centre of this fied and are %ri#ary in i#%ortance& a the rest
are its %eri%hera ee#ents used for different notiona %ur%oses.
/ronouns and nu#eras& for instance& as noun deter#iners or its
substitutes& #ake the 0uantitative #eaning #ore concrete.
"oective nouns denote at the sa#e ti#e singuar and %ura& i. e. a
coection of individuas $hich are vie$ed as a unit.
Many $ords $hich do not the#seves denote a %uraity of individuas
ac0uire the #eaning of a coective in certain conte+ts& as $hen& for
instance& the *ench is used of a *od( of 3udges$ a to,n or village in the
#eaning of its inhabitants.
F&NCTIONAL RE;E'AL&ATION OF GRAMMATICAL
FORMS IN CONTE>T
POTENTIAL POL(SEM( IN GRAMMAR
The %robe# of %otentia %oyse#y in gra##ar is one of the #ost
i#%ortant& the one $hich is very co#%e+ and see#s to be reevant to a
nu#ber of as%ects.
A anguages see# to have %oyse#y on severa eves. (ike $ords
$hich are often signs not of one but of severa things& a singe gra##atica
for# can aso be #ade to e+%ress a $hoe variety of structura #eanings.
This a%%ears to be natura and is a fairy co##on deveo%#ent in the
structure of any anguage. The inguistic #echanis# $orks naturay in
#any $ays to %revent a#biguity in %atterns of gra##atica structure.
5rientation to$ards the conte+t $i generay sho$ $hich of a the
%ossibe #eanings is to be attached to a %oyse#antic gra##atica for#.
't is so#eti#es #aintained that in case of gra##atica %oyse#y $e
observe various structura #eanings inherent in the given for#& one of
the# being a$ays invariabe& i. e. found in any %ossibe conte+t of
45
the use of the for#. And then& if this invariabe structura #eaning cannot
be traced in different uses of the given for#& $e have ho#ony#y. 'n %oint
of fact& this ange of vie$ does not see# erroneous.
1unctiona re,evauation of gra##atica for#s is a source of constant
inguistic interest. -e #ay say $ith itte fear of e+aggeration that
$hatever #ay be the other %robe#s of gra##ar earning the %oyse#antic
character of gra##atica for#s is a$ays %ri#ary in i#%ortance.
Most gra##atica for#s are %oyse#antic. 5n this eve of inguistic
anaysis distinction shoud be #ade bet$een synchronic and %otentia
%oyse#y. Thus& for instance& the %ri#ary denotative #eaning of the
/resent "ontinuous is characterised by three se#antic ee#ents 2se#es3@ a3
%resent ti#e& b3 so#ething %rogressive& c3 contact $ith the #o#ent of
s%eech. The three se#es #ake u% its synchronic %oyse#y.
By %otentia %oyse#y $e #ean the abiity of a gra##atica for# to
have different connotative #eanings in various conte+ts of its uses.
E+a#ine for iustration the connotative 2syntag#atic3 #eanings of the
/resent "ontinuous signaed by the conte+t in the foo$ing sentences@
Crian said to his cousin/ "I'm signing on as well in a way, onl( for
life. I'm getting married." Coth stopped ,al)ing. Cert too) his ar# and
stared/ "You're not."
<I am. To .auline 2Siitoe3 D future ti#e reference. <It ,as a ,edding
in the countr(. The *est #an #a)es a speech. He is beaming all oer !is
face, and he calls for attention... 2)ordon3 D %ast ti#e referenceG ... <I'#
sorr(<$ he said$ his teeth together$ "You're not going in t!ere". 2)ordon3
D the /resent "ontinuous $ith the i#%ication of i#%erative #odaityG
<I a# al,a(s thin)ing of hi#<$ said she. 2Maugha#3 D recurrent
actionsG S!e is always gru#*ling about trifles " the 0uaitative /resent&
the %er#anent characteristic of the sub.ect.
The asy##etric duais# of the inguistic sign
1
a%%ears to be natura
and is a fairy co##on deveo%#ent in the structure of any anguage. 5ne
sign can have severa se#antic ee#ents& and one se#antic ee#ent #ay
find its e+%ression in different inguistic signs.
Sus%ension of o%%ositions on the #or%hoogica eve %resu%%oses
estabishing %oints of si#iarity bet$een the contrasted #e#bers of a
given o%%osition.
Trans%osition of gra##atica for#s $i thus ead to their synony#ic
encounter.
The %aradig#atic #eaning of one gra##atica for# can coincide $ith
the syntag#atic #eaning of another& e. g.@
the /ast Tense and the historic /resentG
the 1uture Tense and the /resent Tense used $ith future ti#e reevanceG
verb,for#s of the '#%erative and the /resent Tense used $ith the
i#%ication of co##and& order or re0uest.
7
See/ S. LrTevsQP. *u duais#e asy#tri0ue du signe inguisti0ue. T"(/. /rague&
7=;=.
46
Syntag#atic #eanings of different gra##atica for#s can aso
coincide.
"onsider& for iustration& the functiona si#iarity of the si#%e /resent
and /resent "ontinuous in@
The -ouse sits on Monda(. 2)as$orthy3 I'#
not co#ing *ac) to !ngland. 2)as$orthy3
future ti#e reevance
Si#iary@
\ou're co#ing ,ith #e no,7
\ou ,ill co#e ,ith #e no,7
\ou ,ill *e co#ing ,ith #e
no,7
i#%erative #odaity i#%ied in the
syntag#atic #eanings of different
gra##atica for#s.
5%%ositions are kno$n to take different s%ecific character on different
inguistic eves@ in %honoogy& #or%hoogy and vocabuary.
The inguistic structure is a highy organised syste# $here $e
generay distinguish syntag#atic and %aradig#atic reationshi%s bet$een
$ords.
Syntag#atic reationshi%s are conditioned by the conte+t and as such
are generay said to be based on the inear character of s%eech.
/aradig#atic reations revea the#seves in the sets of for#s
constituting %aradig#s. 1or#s #aking u% the %aradig# are anaysed in
#or%he#ic ter#s.
Mor%hoogica neutraisation is a deveo%#ent of syntag#atic order.
5bservations in this area of gra##ar have %roved the efficiency of
conte+tua& distributiona and transfor#ationa #ethods of inguistic
anaysis. -e distinguish here the interde%endence of $ord,for#s $ithin
the syntactic structure& the interde%endence of ee#ents $ithin the $ord,
for#s and the infuence of other eves of the sa#e anguage.
The %robe# of neutraisation on the gra##atica eve is reevant to a
nu#ber of other i#%ortant 0uestions. These are@ functiona trans%ositions
in gra##ar& conte+tua restrictions of gra##atica #eanings& the
inguistic nature of the conte+t $hich resoves a#biguity %roviding the
for#a cue to distinguish the necessary #eaning in a %osition of
neutraisation and conte+tua synony#y in gra##ar.
S. Karcevsky righty %oints out that trans%ositions on the gra##atica
eve are #ore reguar and ess free than e+ica ones.
Trans%ositions of gra##atica for#s resuting in the neutraisation of
#eaning cannot be studied $ithout a considerabe reevance to a syste# of
o%%ositions of $hich the given for# is a %art. 't has been custo#ary to say
that gra##atica for#s #ake u% an o%%osition if they have one
gra##atica feature in co##on and are contrasted by one or severa
%oints of their denotative content. The co##on ee#ent is the gra##atica
category itsef reveaed in the inguistic for#s of its e+%ression.
Trans%osition is generay based on so#e %oints of the gra##atica
#eaning $hich is retained though so#e$hat transfor#ed thus %roducing
the necessary effect in co##unication. This transfor#ation #ay be of
different kind. 'f& for instance& trans%osition resuts in yieding synony#s
the atter are not interchangeabe. As $e sha further see& trans%ositions
are a$ays attended by the neutraisation of the contrasted gra##atica
#eaning in s%ecia syntactic& e+ica or situationa environ#ent $here the
given $ord,for# occurs.
47
-e find it necessary to distinguish t$o ty%es of trans%osition on the
#or%hoogica eve@
a3 reguar trans%ositions estabished by ong use in ordinary
denotative gra##ar and
b3 styistic trans%ositions of s%ecia connotative vaue in e+%ressive
anguage.
Reguar ordinary trans%ositions #ay be $e iustrated by indirect
s%eech $ith the concord of tenses $hich usuay occurs bet$een the finite
verb in the #ain cause and that in the ob.ect cause of a co#%e+ sentence
re%orting a state#ent or 0uestion.
-e sa(s he )no,s all a*out it.
-e said he )ne, all a*out it.
Reguar trans%ositions aso occur in subordinate causes of condition
and ti#e for the ogica reasons of econo#ising s%eech efforts
7
e. g./ I
shall recognise the place directl( I see it.
1I see it D I shall see it2
If I receive her letter$ I shall ring (ou up.
1I receive D I shall receive2
The necessary #eaning is generay signaed by the verb,for# of the
%rinci%a cause.
't is i#%ortant to observe that the content of a gra##atica for# #ay
be signaed by@
7. The e+ica #eaning of the $ords co#bined $ith a given
gra##atica for#. These are often& for instance& adverbs of future ti#e@
to#orro,$ ne0t ,ee)$ ne0t #onth$ ne0t (ear$ soon$ etc. $hich $i signa
futurity in the use of the /resent 'ndefinite and /resent "ontinuous& e. g.@
She co#es up to#orro, night. She is co#ing up to#orro, night. Cf./
QTmSMZVX mOZYPRLt ULTWPmUJpJ WZUX.
Adverbs of %ast ti#e $i generay give the for#a cue to distinguish
the use of the /resent tense $ith %ast ti#e reference& e. g.@ Fanc($ I co#e
ho#e (esterda( and find her letter on #( ta*le. Cf./ XRIXtK TJYV&
mOZcJMP X RiJOL MJMJ_P...
The /resent "ontinuous in %atterns $ith adverbs of fre0uency and
7
"onveying the necessary infor#ation by the use of the %resent tense in
such %atterns of gra##atica structure is #ost reasonaby econo#ic. This
is one of the nu#erous e+a#%es iustrating the %ri#ary %oint of the
theory of infor#ation $hich can be $hoy a%%ied to the functiona as%ect
of anguage. E+a#%es to iustrate 4econo#y of s%eech4 in hu#an
co##unication #ay be found in nu#bers. So,caed sentence frag#ents&
or& say& verbess %redicatives and shortened for#s in coo0uia s%eech
1apocope$ s(ncope and aphaeresis2$ the use of au+iiaries as verb,
substitutes& ci%%ed $ords and e+tre#e abbreviations of different kind $i
give sufficient evidence to recognise this reguar universa feature in
anguage deveo%#ent. 'n Engish it #ay be $e iustrated by various
other e+a#%es& such as@
1I'#2 afraid not. 1I shall2 see
(ou again to'#orro,. That do?
15ill that do?2 5ell$ I never.
48
re%etition $i i#%y the fre0uentative character of the action& e. g.@ -e is
for ever finding faults wit! w!ateer you do. I'm always t!in#ing of !im.
;. The $hoe syntactica structure& e. g./ I shall recognise the place
directl( I see it.
:h$ to have this happen ,hen Rhett ,as 3ust on the point of
declaration. 2Mitche3
8. "onsituation or 4i#%ied4 conte+t. 'nstances are not fe$ $hen the
#eaning of a gra##atica for# is signaed by the conte+t #uch arger
than a given sentence or by a $hoe situation of the utterance. E+a#%es
are not far to seek.
-er thin ar#s slid a,a( fro# his nec)/ <\ou'll soon get *ac) to the
!nglish ,a(<. -e ,as used to the rh(th# of her voice$ so that ,hile
co#plete sentences registered #ore ;uic)l( he lost the facilit( for reading
hidden #eanings in the#$ accents and stresses *eing re#oved as the need
for repetition ,anted. -is de0terit( at reading #orse rh(th#s had proved a
loss in that it ena*led hi# to #aster Mi#i's too soon$ and *ecause her o,n
language ,as Chinese$ she ,as a*le to hide so #uch in her flat
deliverance of !nglish. "I'm not going bac# to $ngland"$ he said.
2Siitoe3
Michael ,al)s and tal)s. 2)as$orthy3 D the i#%ication of the %ast is
#ade cear by the contents of the $hoe cha%ter.
-o, #(sterious ,o#en ,ere7 :ne lived alongside and )ne, nothing of
the#. %!at could s!e !ae seen in t!at fellow &osinney to send !er
mad' For there ,as #adness after all in ,hat she had done D cra=(
#oonstruc) #adness$ in ,hich all sense of values had *een lost$ and her
life and his life ruined7 2)as$orthy3
It's a )ind of ;ueer peace$ and I often ,onder ho, I could have been
so torn and tortured. 2)as$orthy3
't is i#%ortant to re#e#ber that could j 'nfinitive '' #ay i#%y t$o
dia#etricay o%%osite #eanings@ a3 a rea action in the %ast and b3 a non,
fact $ith reference to the %ast. And here the i#%ied conte+t is a that can
be considered reevant.
't is indeed true that anguages see# to offer fairy 4naturay4 a arge
#easure of %oarisation& but it is usua to find the antony#ous %oarity
restricted to certain conte+ts. 5bservations in this do#ain $i serve to
re#ind us that the history of gra##ar dis%ays a %ecuiar unity of
o%%osites D #anifestation of the diaectic nature of anguage.
The #eaning of each necessary gra##atica abstraction #akes itsef
cear ony in the course of its usage.
"o#%are aso the foo$ing %atterns $ith the verb should/
-ad I )no,n a*out it$ I s!ould !ae come (esterda(. 1should j
'nfinitive '' used $ith reference to a non,fact3.
That science in the USSR s!ould !ae attained so high a level of
develop#ent is *ut natural 1should j 'nfinitive '' e+%ressing a rea action
in the %ast $ith s%ecia e#%hasis aid u%on its reaisation3.
-e #ay say $ith itte fear of e+aggeration that $hatever #ay be the
other %robe#s of gra##ar earning the %otentia %oyse#y of
gra##atica for#s is a$ays %ri#ary in i#%ortance. The variety of
#eaning as %otentiay i#%icit in a gra##atica for#& $hich $e naturay
associate $ith the deveo%#ent of synony#y in gra##ar& #ay be
iustrated by nu#erous e+a#%es.
:=
Take& for instance& the #utifarious use of the infected genitive $hich
in Modern Engish #ay be of %ossession& origin& source& consisting of&
e+tent of& association $ith or direction to$ards. There is no for#a
differentiation bet$een different %atterns and this #ay ead to a#biguity
but generay the conte+t or e+ica %robabiity #akes cear $hich is #eant.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
his *rother's roo# 2%ossession3
his *rother's infor#ation 2source3
his *rother's invention 2authorshi%3
his *rother's arrival 2sub.ective
dut('s call genitive3
3o('s recollection 2ob.ective
the cri#inal's arrest genitive3
,ife's dut( 20uaitative
la,(er's life #eaning3
't is interesting to note that the 0uaitative genitive #ay be
synony#ous $ith ad.ectives of kindred #eaning& but they are not a$ays
interchangeabe@ ,ife's ` ,ifel($ ,ifeli)e4 #other's D #otherl($ father's ` `
fatherl($ etc.
"o#%are the foo$ing@ Soa#es ,as silent for so#e #inutes4 at last he
said/ <I don't )no, ,hat (our idea of a ,ife's dut( is. I never have
)no,n7< 2)as$orthy3
1,ife's dut( ` the dut( of a ,ife2
Irene$ ,hose opinion he secretl( respected and perhaps for that reason
never solicitated$ had onl( *een into the roo# on rare occasions$ in
discharge of so#e wifely duty. 2)as$orthy3
1,ifel( D befitting& ike& or %ertaining to a $ife3
SYN5NYMY 'N )RAMMAR
-e ne+t turn our attention to synony#y in gra##ar as i##ediatey
reevant to the study of %otentia %oyse#y of gra##atica for#s
discussed above.
There is a syste# behind the deveo%#ent of gra##atica synony#s in
any anguage. This is a universa inguistic feature and #ay be traced in
anguage after anguage. Engish shares these feature $ith a nu#ber of
tongues& but its structura deveo%#ent has ed to such distinctive traits as
#erit attention. 5bservations in this area are #ost usefu for insight into
the nature and functioning of the anguage.
The very conce%t of synony#y i#%ies variation. 't does not #ean
ho$ever that $e #ust incude under gra##atica synony#s absoute
%araeis#s $hich are %resented by different kind of gra##atica doubets
such as& for instance& variant for#s of degrees of co#%arison of ad.ectives@
clever D cleverer D the cleverest and clever D #ore clever D the #ost
clever4 capa*le D capa*ler D the capa*lest and capa*le D #ore
capa*le D the #ost capa*le$ etc.& or& say& variation in for#s observed in
the %ura of nouns e. g.@ hoofs D hooves4 ,harfs D ,harves$ etc.
<>
There are no absoute synony#s in gra##ar. And this is to iustrate
the fact that a anguage does not for any ength of ti#e retain side by side
t$o #eans of e+%ressing e+acty the sa#e thing. This $oud burden the
anguage.
Synony#ic for#s in gra##ar are not e+acty aike& they co##ony
have fine shares of difference in stye and %ur%ose& and students need to be
aive to these differences. There is a$ays seection in the distribution of
gra##atica for#s in actua s%eech. They #ust har#onise $ith the conte+t
as a%%ro%riate to a given situation.
The change in synony#ous gra##atica for#s is often a change in
stye& and the effect on the reader is 0uite different. Even a sight ateration
in the gra##atica device can subty shift the #eaning of the utterance.
E+a#ine the foo$ing sentence@
4... -ave (ou *een ,ounding hi#?<
<It is #( #isfortune to *e o*liged to ,ound hi#<$ said Clara.
<^uite needlessl($ #( child$ for marry !im you must". 2*reiser3
!llen had ,rung her hands and counseled dela($ in order that Scarlett
#ight thin) the #atter over at greater length. Cut to her pleadings$ Scarlett
turned a sullen face and a deaf ear. (arry s!e would) %nd ;uic)l($ too.
5ithin t,o ,ee)s. 2Mitche3
Cf./ Marr( she ,ould7 and She ,ould #arr(.
-e cannot fai to see that there is a #arked difference in stye bet$een
the t$o verb for#s@ the for#er is neutra& the atter is highy e+%ressive.
Si#iary@
<Cut$ no #atter D ,hen her foot healed she ,ould ,al) to 9ones*oro.
It ,ould *e the longest ,al) she had ever ta)en in her life$ *ut wal# it she
,ould<. 2Mitche3
Cf./ ,al) it she ,ould k she ,ould ,al) it
As synony#s in gra##ar e+%ress different shades of the gra##atica
#eaning& one shoud be carefu in the choice of the right for#s& the best to
convey the subter nuances of that #eaning.
Kno$edge of synony#ic differentiation bet$een the gra##atica
for#s %er#its a syste#atic& ob.ective investigation and descri%tion of stye.
Many of the #ost characteristic styistic traits of diverse $riters are&
indeed& in the fied of gra##ar. A study of gra##atica synony#s can aso
su%%y a descri%tive foundation for the aesthetic inter%retation and
co#%arison of diverse styes. Synony#s end variety to anguage. There
are different #anners of $riting& and these differ a#ong the#seves not
ony by virtue of the content or the sub.ect #atter treated but aso by virtue
of a host of 4styistic4 ee#ents $hich are %resent in varying degree in
sa#%es of co##unication.
't is #ost i#%ortant to observe that gra##atica for#s #ay differ in
connotative %o$erG they gro$ in connotation in accordance $ith the nature
of the #eanings connected $ith the#. 'n the %o$er of their connotation
ies the reserve force of e+%ressive anguage. To ac0uire a sense of their
right use students of Engish shoud study the# in conte+t in the ight of
their reations $ith other gra##atica devices. -ith this a%%roach to the
study of the distributiona vaue of $ord,for#s gra##ar takes on ne$ ife.
<7
The %robe# of synony#y in gra##ar has received due attention in
inguistic investigations of recent years.
There is #uch truth in $hat V. N. Yartseva says about the necessity of a
consistent inguistic a%%roach to the %robe# of synony#y in gra##ar& in
genera. The first to be #entioned here is a conscious understanding of
the organic reation bet$een different as%ects of anguage. The #erging
of #or%hoogy& synta+ and vocabuary into one brings itte scientific
order to anguage earning and is a$ays res%onsibe for the distortion of
inguistic facts.
-ith regard to the #ethodoogy e#%oyed in our descri%tion of
synony#y in gra##ar there are certain observations $hich are %ertinent
tJ a su##ary state#ent. 't $i be he%fu to distinguish bet$een a3
%aradig#atic synony#s and b3 conte+tua synony#s or synony#s by
function in s%eech.
'n Engish #or%hoogy synony#s of the first grou% are very fe$ in
nu#ber. Such are& for instance& synthetica and anaytica for#s in the
Sub.unctive and Su%%ositiona Mood& e. g.@
...'I no, #ove$ that the report and accounts for the (ear 1__6 *e
received and adopted<. 2)as$orthy3
1*e received and adopted D should *e received and adopted2
/aradig#atic synony#s $ith si#iarity in function and structura
features #ay aso be e+e#%ified by the foo$ing@
Non,e#%hatic E#%hatic
Pr.,.nt Ind.:init.
I )no, I do )no,
-e )no,s -e does )no,
Pa,t ind.:init.
I )ne, I did )no,
I0p.rati=. Mood
Co#e &o co#e
Anaytica verba for#s $ith the intensive do can e+%ress a $hoe
variety of sub.ective #oda #eanings@ %easure& ad#iration& affection&
sur%rise& anger& #id re%roach& encourage#ent& ad#onition& etc.&
e. g.
:h7 darling$ don't ache7 I do so hate it for (ou. 2)as$orthy3 There ,as so
#uch co#ing and going round the doors that the( did not li)e to enter.
5here does he live? I did see hi# co#ing out of the hotel. 2)as$orthy3
!agerl( her e(es searched the dar)ness. The roof see#ed to *e intact.
Could it *e D could it *e D ? +o$ it ,asn't possi*le. 5ar stopped for no'
thing$ not even Tara$ *uilt to last five hundred (ears. It could not have
passed over Tara. Then the shado,( outline did ta)e for#. The ,hite
,alls did sho, there through the dar)ness. Tara had escaped. -o#e7
2Mitche3
<;
Cut S,ithin$ hearing the na#e Irene$ loo)ed severel( at !uphe#ia$
,ho$ it is true$ never did loo) ,ell in a dress$ ,hatever she #a( have done
on other occasions. 2)as$orthy3
1or the sake of stronger e#%hasis the %rinci%a verb #ay be given first
and the e#%hatic do %aced at the end. This is often the case in causes of
contrast or concession& e. g.@
5hen he loo)ed up$ her face ,ore again that strange e0pression.
I can't tell$ he thought as he ,ent out$ *ut I #ustn't thin) ] I #ustn't
,orr(. Cut ,orr( he did$ ,al)ing to,ard .all Mall. 2)as$orthy3
%nd follo, her he did$ though *othered *( unfa#iliar ,ords that fell
gli*l( fro# her lips. 2(ondon3
Strong e#%hasis is aso %roduced by using %eonastic %atterns $ith
seg#entations& e. g.@ -e never did care for the river$ did Mont#orenc(.
2Cero#e3
As $e have aready said& there are no absoute synony#s in gra##ar.
Synony#ic for#s $i generay differ either in various shades of the
co##on gra##atica #eaning& e+%ressive connotation or in styistic
vaue. The for#er #ay be referred to as reative synony#s& the atter as
styistic ones.
1urther e+a#%es of %aradig#atic synony#s $i be found a#ong the
so,caed %eri%hrastic for#s of the Engish verb.
Reativey synony#ous are& for instance& the 1uture 'ndefinite tense,
for#s and the %eri%hrastic <to *e going to< future. A si#%e affir#ative
state#ent of intention $ith no e+terna circu#stances #entioned 2ti#e&
condition& reason& etc.3 is generay e+%ressed by the %eri%hrastic for#.
-hen a future action de%ends on the e+terna circu#stances the <to *e
going to< is rare. Cf./
7. a3 -e ,ill sell his house$ 2rare3
b3 -e's going to sell his house. 2nor#a3
;. a3 -e'll sell it if (ou as) hi#. 2nor#a3
b3 -e is going to sell it if (ou as) hi#. 2rare3
7
To *e going to $ith a %ersona sub.ect i#%ies a #uch stronger intention
than the 1uture Tense $ith shall8,ill does. Aere is an e+ceent e+a#%e of
its e#otiona use in e+%ressive anguage@
... <I'm going to !ae #one( so#e da($ lots of it$ so I can have
an(thing I ,ant to eat. %nd then there'll never *e an( ho#in( or dried peas
on #( ta*le. %nd I'# going to have prett( clothes and all of the# are going
to *e sil)...< I'# going to have #one( enough so the \an)ees can never
ta)e `TrT a,a( fro# #e. %nd I'# going to !ae a ne, roof for `TrT and a
ne, *arn and fine #ules for plo,ing and #ore cotton that (ou ever sa,.
%nd 5ade isn't ever going to )no, ,hat it #eans to do ,ithout the thing
he needs. +ever7 -e's going to have ever(thing in the ,orld. %nd all #(
fa#il($ the( aren't ever going to *e !ungry again. I #ean it. 2Mitche3
1urther e+a#%es are@
<I never thought a*out ,hat it #eant to 5ade<$ said Rhett slo,l(. <I
never thought ho, he's suffered. %nd it's not going to *e that ,a( for
Connie.< 2Mitche3
7
See/ R. -. Fandvoort. A Aandbook of Engish )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=6<& %%. 99D9?.
<8
-e ought to understand7 <-e piles up his #one( for #e<$ she thought4
*ut ,hat's the use$ if I'm not going to be !appy' Mone($ and all it
'ought$ did not *ring happiness<. 2)as$orthy3
&arling$ said &inn($ I do hope things are going to be all rig!t. 2)as,
$orthy3
&inn( put her hand on his sleeve. <\ou are not going to lose (our 3o*.
I've seen 9ac) Mus)ha#<. 2)as$orthy3
^uivering at the thought of this long dar) night ,ith her$ he (et )ne,
it was going to be torture. 2)as$orthy3
/atterns $ith the %assive au+iiaries *e and get $i aso iustrate
gra##atica synony#s of the first ty%e.
The %assive for#s in Modern Engish are re%resented by anaytic
co#binations of the au+iiary verb to *e $ith the %ast %artici%e of the
con.ugated verb. The verb to get can aso function as an au+iiary of the
%assive& e. g.@ 273 M( dress got caught on a nail. 2;3 -e got struc) *( a
stone. these are not ne$ usages& but ones $hich are s%reading.
To get see#s coser to the true %assive au+iiary *e in %atterns ike the
foo$ing@ She got *la#ed for ever(thing. She gets teased *( the other
children.
The stabiisation of e+ico,gra##atica devices to indicate the
as%ective character of the action has aso contributed to the deveo%#ent
of synony#y in Modern Engish.
A s%ecia interest attaches to conte+tua synony#s on the gra##atica7
eve created through trans%osition of reated gra##atica for#s&
Neutraisation of the distinctive features of the o%%osed gra##atica
for#s eads to situationa synony#y.
Aere are a fe$ e+a#%es to iustrate the state#ent@
+)/ *re (ou coming to the ..RS Coard on Tuesda(? 2)as$orthy3
2The Su%%osition /resent D 1uture is neutraisedG %re (ou co#ing? is
synony#us $ith 5ill (ou co#e?2
Si#iary@
2;3 5ho# do (ou thin) I travelled ,ith? Fleur Mont. 5e ran up
against each other at Victoria. She's ta#ing her *o( to *oring ne0t ,ee)
to convalesce hi#. 2)as$orthy3 1She's ta)ing ` she ,ill ta)e2
/resent "ontinuous and /resent 'ndefinite #ay function as situationa
synony#s in cases ike the foo$ing@
283 &ic)(7 said 9a#es. \ou are al,a(s ,asting #one( on so#ething.
2)as$orthy3 1\ou are al,a(s ,asting is synony#ous $ith \ou al,a(s
,aste2.
2:3 She is continuall( imagining dangers ,hen the( do not e0ist. 1She
is i#agining D she i#agines2.
2<3 9une read/ La)e :)anagen. Critish Colu#*ia$ I'm not coming
*ac) to !ngland. Cless (ou al,a(s.D 9ohn. 2)as$orthy3 1I'# not
co#ing ` ` I shall not co#e2.
263 Fleur huddled her chin in her fur. It ,as easterl( and cold. % voice
*ehind her said/ 5ell$ Fleur$ am I going !ast? 2)as$orthy3 Cf. %# I
going !ast? ` Shall I go !ast?
And here is a good e+a#%e to iustrate ho$ the situationa conte+t
can neutraise the o%%osition 4'ndicative D '#%erative4@
<Let #e get in there<. -e tried to *rush %nthon( aside. Cut %nthon(
fir#l( stood his ground.
<I'# sorr(<$ he said$ his teeth together$ <\ou're not going in there<.
2)ordon3 1Cf. syn. \ou are not going there ` &on't go ` \ou shall not go
there2.
GRAMMATICAL DO&BLETS
5bservations on the structura %ecuiarities of Engish furnish
nu#erous e+a#%es of variations in so#e anguage for#s e+%ressing one
and the sa#e inguistic notion. Such %arae for#s or doubets #ay be
traced at different eves of the anguage.
There are different doubets functioning in the vocabuary of %resent,
day Engish such as& for instance& infantile D infantine4 lorr( D lurr(4
felloe D fell(4 idiogra# D ideograph$ #ediator( D #ediatorial$ or
gra%hic variants@ draught D draft$ gra( D gre(4 nose( D nos($ foge( D
fog($ endue D indue$ )ou#iss D )u#iss.
Variation in for# #ay be traced in such %honetic variants as@
*oubets $i aso be observed in gra##ar. The %aradig# of the
Modern Engish verb $i furnish such fa#iiar e+a#%es as@ cro, D cre,
1cro,ed2 D cro,ed4 clothe D clothed D clothed ` clothe D clad D
clad4 get D got 1gotten D %#er.24 )nit D )nit D )nit ` )nit D )nitted D
)nitted4 lean D leaned D leaned D lean D leant D leant4 ;uit D ;uit D
;uit ` ;uit D ;uitted D ;uitted4 spit D spit 2or spat2 D spit4 slide D slid
D slidden 2or slid24 ,ed D ,ed D ,ed D ,ed D ,edded D ,edded4
,or) D ,or)ed D ,or)ed ` ,or) D ,rought D ,rought.
So#e variant for#s have faen out of the con.ugation and are no$
chiefy used as verba ad.ectives& not as %arts of tense,for#s& e. g.&
*ounden$ cloven$ drun)en$ graven$ )nitten$ #olten$ proven$ rotten$
shrun)en$ shorn$ stric)en$ sun)en$ ,ashen$ e. g. a cloven hoof$ a proven
fact$ sun)en chee)s$ a s,ollen lip$ the stric)en field.
'nstances are not fe$ $hen archaic variant for#s are used for styistic
%ur%oses to create the at#os%here of eevated s%eech in %ictoria anguage&
in %oetry& or in %roverbia sayings& e. g.@ the for#s in 'th for the third
%erson singuar& %resent tense indicative& ike doth$ hath$ endeth$ saith$
)no,eth$ etc.& or& say& such for#s as spa)e for spo)e 2%ast 2tense of the
verb spea)24 throve for thrived 2%ast tense of the verb thrive24 *are for
*ore 2%ast tense of the verb *ear2$ )no,ed for )ne, 2%ast tense of the verb
to )no,2$ as in@ Measure the cloth ten ti#es4 thou canst cut it *ut t,ice
1prov.2 1canst D can2.
1urther e+a#%es are@ The silence in #( roo#$ ,hen I got up here at
last$ ,as stunning and the #oonlight al#ost (ello,. The #oon's hiding$
no, *ehind one of the el#s$ and the evening star shining a*ove a dead
*ranch. % fe, other stars are out$ *ut ver( di#. It's a night far our ti#e$
far even fro# our ,orld. +ot an o,l hooting *ut the hone(suc)le still
s,eet. %nd so #( #ost dear$ here endet! the tale. "ood night. \our ever
loving %drian.< 2)as$orthy3 1endeth ` ends2.
<<
.. .the Captain felt$ as sensi*l( as the #ost elo;uent of #en could have
done$ that there ,as so#ething in the tran;uil ti#e and in its softened
*eaut( that ,ould #a)e the ,ounded heart of Florence overflo,4 and that
it ,as *etter that such tears should have their ,a(. So not a ,ord spa#e
Captain Cuttle. -e #nowed Toodle$ he said$ ,ell. Celonged to the
Railroad$ didn't he? 2*ickens3 1spa)e ` spo)e4 )no,ed ` )ne,2
The use of archaic variants for styistic %ur%oses #ay be traced in other
anguages. Take the %aradig# of the verb YPWZ in Ukrainian for
iustration.
X t 2` tT_N3 _Z t 2` tTN_J3 WZ t 2``
tTZ3 RZ t 2` STWS3 RVU t 2` tTWN3 RJUZ t
2` TPWN3
aHFL WL_ MZRUZs,mOSMZRUZs QOLs. 2|STX QOLUQL3 aHFL
mIJMZ iSORJUJoJQV& oJ Q lZ_V MJTWJXWN. 2yZiZUL3
> UVmOS& UVmOS& _Vs \ILRPWJ& KZOJQ V TILRSU WZ tTZ.
2fLIZKQJ3
Not ess characteristic is the styistic use of other archaic for#s in
Ukrainian@
q\ILRL WJYV& LLOZQP. Bo RVQZ V RVQZ& oJ lRVR tTZ R JMUJ _JOS
TIJR!XUTNQV OVQZr. 2SRiSUQJ3. "o#%are aso such variant for#s as@
mZWLt D mZWLG lULt D lULG TIPcLt D TIPcLG RZpIXMLt D RZpIXML& etc.
q cPMJUVs mOJlV WL mJSlV& JTJYIZRJ R WRJOLc QILTZQVR
cPMJUNJ IVWSOLWPOZ& iLTWJ RZQJOZTWJRPnWNTX@ L3 MVtTIJRL 8,J JTJYZ
JMUZUZ USmJRUJpJ JJO_ISUUX 1SGT$ bcKR$ dEOJ$ eQEHJ2 V Y3
VUVUVWZRZ UL ,WN. mJpIXMP UJO_ TPiLTUJ IVWSOLWPOUJ _JRZ S XRIXt
TJYJn mJTWPmQP mSOSM MVLISQWZiUZ_Z JO_L_Z D l _SWJn TWRJOSUUX
QJIJOZWP OJl_JRUJTWV LYJ MIX OSpPInRLUUX OZW_ViUJTWV R YPMJRV
RVOKJRLUJ _JRZr
7
.
dLIX TJYV lLTmJQJntWNTX& oS iLTJ_ V mVTSUNQP ?@ABCD@ mOJ
POLRIX. 2[JRiJQ3
XRIXIZ RJUZ TJYV cLlXsQP D RJUZ lULIZ& oJ cLlXsQL _JIJMSUNQL
s PTS TZMZWN YVIX RVQJUX WL DEFED@ TJYV JiVmQZ KJRQL_Z WL lJIJWJ_.
2[JRiJQ3
JpJ RVMSOS mSOKS BGHIED@ IVM P QOZUZV& oJ PUJiV lL_SOlLIL&
V WLTQLR RVU TmJRUSUV RVMOL mVM pJOP. 2[JRiJQ3
|nMZUL JYSOWLt R TLM mPTWZUV
R TWJQJIJTTX QJIJT HIJGK@...
|nMZUL sMS& XTUL _SWL D
RLIL lS_IV& mVMQJOSUVs InMZUVw 2{ZINTNQZs3
1a#iiar e+a#%es of gra##atica archais#s sti in use for styistic
%ur%oses $i be found a#ong %rono#ina for#s& such as& for instance&
7
. d. S O S M U Z i S U Q J . zLOZTZ l lLpLINUJ TWZIVTWZQZ TPiLTUJ PQOLUTNQJ
_JRZ. ... 7=6;& O. 8;?.
56
thee or the %oetica %ossessives th( and thine $hich do not occur in
everyday s%eech& e. g.@
Tell #e then$ star$ ,hose ,ings of light
Speed thee in t!y fier( flight$
In ,hat cavern of the night
5ill t!y pinious close no,? 2Sheey3
)ra##atica doubets $i be found in the for#ation of the %ura& e. g.@
co,s D )ine 2arch.3
fies D fone 2arch.3
shoes D shoen 2arch.3
scarfs D scarves
,harfs D ,harves
There is aso #or%hoogica variation in the %ura of nouns foreign in
origin. Through natura %rocess of assi#iation so#e borro$ed nouns have
deveo%ed %arae for#s& e. g.@ for#ulae D for#ulas4 antennae D
antennas4 foci D focuses4 ter#ini D ter#inuses4 strata D stratu#s.
1oreign %ura for#s are decidedy #ore for#a than their native doubets.
-e aso find such gra##atica for#s as ain't or ain of the verb to *e
corres%onding to the for#s a# not$ is not and are not. The co#bination of
a verb,for# $ith the negative %artice not differs fro# the sa#e for#
$ithout the %artice. There is no distinction here bet$een a# not$ is not$
and are not. These variant for#s are o$ coo0uia& if not vugar& and are
inco#%atibe $ith serious iterary stye. A fe$ e+a#%es of their use are
given beo$@
<\ou're right again<$ returned the Captain$ giving his hand another
s;uee=e. <+othing it is. So7 Stead(7 There's a son gone/ prett( little
creetur. *in't there?
...Than)'JJ. M( *erth a'nt ver( roo#(f$ said the Captain. 2*ickens3
%n't (ou a thief?< said Mr. Car)er$ ,ith his hands *ehind hi# in
poc)ets.
<+o$ Sir<$ pleaded Ro*.
<\ou are7< said Mr. Car)er.
<I an't indeed$ Sir<$ ,hi#pered Ro*. 2*ickens3
5bservations on current inguistic change in %resent,day Engish
furnish e+a#%es of gra##atica variants deveo%ed in recent ti#es.
The first to be #entioned here are inguistic changes in the
%aradig#atic sets of ad.ectives& resuting fro# the continued oss of
infections and their active re%ace#ent by syntactic devices in the
co#%arative and su%erative $here for#s $ith 'er and 'est are being
re%aced by for#s $ith #ore and #ost. 'n %oint of fact& this is the
continuation of a trend of ong standing. Ad.ectives $ith three or #ore
syabes are nor#ay co#%ared $ith #ore and #ost4 #onosyabic
ad.ectives& on the other hand& are nor#ay co#%ared $ith 'er and 'est
1large$ larger$ largest2. Ad.ectives $ith t$o syabes are divided& so#e
usuay being co#%ared one $ay& the others the otherG and it is in this
dissyabic grou% of ad.ectives
<9
that the change is #ost noticeabe. Ad.ectives for#ery taking 'er and 'est
tend to go over to #ore and #ost$ e. g. co##on D co##oner D the
co##onest and co##on D #ore co##on D #ost co##on. To,day
$eather forecasts fre0uenty say that it $i be #ore cloud( instead of
cloudier. The sa#e is true of such ad.ectives as cruel$ clever$ fuss($
profound$ pleasant$ si#ple$ su*tle. Recenty there have been #any cases of
#ore and #ost s%reading even to #onosyabic ad.ectives& e. g. #ore
crude$ #ore )een$ #ore plain$ etc. 1or#s ike #ore ,ell'infor#ed and
#ore ,ell'dressed functioning %arae $ith the for#er *etter'infor#ed and
*est'dressed are aso fre0uent.
That the %rocess of oss of infections is sti going on in %resent,day
Engish is es%eciay cear in the %arae use of such %ronouns ,ho and
,ho#$ I and #e. The infected for# ,ho# see#s to be disa%%earing ony
fro# the s%oken anguage and being re%aced by ,ho$ though it sti
%ersists strongy in the $ritten anguage. 't is 0uite natura& for instance& to
say I don't )no, ,ho to suggest$ and I don't )no, ,ho# to suggest. There
is one %osition $here ,ho# is a$ays used sti& and that is i##ediatey
after a %re%osition $hich governs it@ $e cannot re%ace ,ho# by ,ho in
the sentences@ To ,ho# shall I give it? and I don't )no, for ,ho# it is
intended? But these sentences reay beong to the $ritten anguage& and
sound e+tre#ey stited in s%eechG in %oint of fact& #ost %eo%e $oud say
5ho shall I give it to? and I don't )no, ,ho it's intended for
1
.
't is aso to be noted that #e is no$ for#ay acce%ted as the for# to
use after the verb to *e 1Cf. 1rench #oi2. No$adays it sounds rather
%edantic to say It is I instead of the nor#a %attern It's #e. And in %resent,
day use there is a good dea of confusion about the case to be used after
*ut$ as and li)e$ e. g.& no*od( *ut #e$ or no*od( *ut I4 there #ay be the
first signs of an uti#ate erosion of the no#inative,accusative contrast in
the %ersona %ronouns& ike that no$ taking %ace $ith ,ho.
A $ord shoud aso be said about the negative and interrogative for#s
of the verb to have. -hen have is a fu verb 2#eaning 4%ossess4& 4hod4&
4e+%erience4& etc.3& not an au+iiary& it has t$o $ays of for#ing its
negative and interrogative@ 273 $ith %arts of the au+iiary do 1do (ou
have?$ he didn't have$ etc.3G and 2;3 $ithout using do 1have (ou?$ he
hadn't$ or in British usage very often have (ou got?$ he hadn't got2. The
distribution of these doubets in Engish is rather co#%icated& and de%ends
%arty on the #eaning of have$ e. g.& -e hadn't got an( #one($ but -e
didn't have an( difficult(. 'n so#e cases& ho$ever& it aso de%ends on
$hether or not the verb denotes habitua action@ thus $e say &o (ou have
dances in (our village hall? 2habitua3& but -ave (ou got a dance on
tonight? 2not habitua3. This habituanon,habitua criterion is not ty%ica
of A#erican usage& $hich often e#%oys do,for#s for non,habitua have$
$here in Engand they e#%oy got,for#sG thus A#ericans often say *o
(ou have the ti#e?$ $here Engish#en say -ave (ou got the ti#e? /atterns
of the ty%e &o (ou have the ti#e? are co#ing 2though so$y3 into genera
use.
7
See/ "h. Barber. (inguistic "hange in /resent,day Engish. Edinburgh,(ondon& 7=6:&
%. 7:7.
58
Revision Materia
7. 7. Be ready to discuss the inguistic schoos in the theory of Engish
gra##ar.
2a3 )ive co##ents on the eary %rescri%tive gra##ars of Engish.
2b3 "haracterise the %rinci%a design of cassica scientific gra##ars
u%hed by ;>th century schoars.
2c3 )ive brief co##ents on various ty%es of gra##ar in ter#s of their
inguistic a%%roach and #ethods of anaysis 2traditiona gra##ar&
%hioso%hica gra##ar& co#%arative gra##ar& historica gra##ar&
structura gra##ar& transfor#ationa gra##ar& generative gra##ar3.
;. )ive the genera characteristics of the gra##atica structure of
Engish as an anaytic anguage.
8. )ive co##ents on the distinctions bet$een synchronic and
diachronic as%ects in gra##atica studies. Be ready to iustrate the
state#ent that the t$o as%ects are organicay reated and as such cannot be
a$ays absoutey isoated.
:. "o##ent on the structura #ethods that have no$ $idey
deveo%ed in anguage earning.
<. Be ready to discuss the contribution to the deveo%#ent of the
gra##atica theory #ade by Soviet schoars.
''. 7. Make co##ents on the constant reci%roca action bet$een
vocabuary and gra##ar.
;. "o##ent on the #ethods of #odern structura anaysis that have in
recent ti#es $idey deveo%ed in gra##atica studies.
8. )ive co##ents on the foo$ing inguistic ter#inoogy@
%aradig#atics& syntag#aticsG denotationG connotationG gra##e#eG
#or%he#eG tag#e#esG ao#or%hG accidenceG e+ica vaencyG syntactic
vaencyG o%%ose#eG binary o%%ositionG trino#ic o%%ositionG %oyno#ic
o%%ositionG %otentia %oyse#yG sus%ension of o%%ositions.
:. Be ready to discuss the theory of o%%ositions as being a%%ied in
inguistic studies at different eves.
<. "o##ent on trans%osition of gra##atica for#s and their
functiona re,evauation.
6. )ive co##ents on ho#ony#ie for#s in Engish gra##ar.
*istinguish bet$een infectiona and constructiona ho#ony#y. )ive
e+a#%es of gra##atica a#biguity.
9. -hat do $e #ean by e+ica incongruity 2` i#%robabiity3v
?. )ive co##ents on variant %aradig#atic for#s 2doubets3 in
gra##ar.
=. )et ready to discuss the sources of synony#s in gra##ar and the
%robe# of their cassification.
7>. *iscuss the state#ent that the asy##etric duais# of the inguistic
sign is a fairy co##on deveo%#ent in the structure of anguage.
77. The %aradig#atic #eaning of one gra##atica for# can coincide
$ith the syntag#atic #eaning of another. "an you give e+a#%es to
iustrate itv
7;. -hat does neutraisation of o%%osition %resu%%osev
78. "o##ent on neutraisation 2sus%ension3 of o%%ositions signaed
by@ a3 e+ica incongruity of sentence ee#ents& b3 s%ecia syntactic
structures and c3 e+tra inguistic situation.
8=
PART I. MORPHOLOG(
Capt.r I
THE S&BLECT MATTER OF MORPHOLOG(
'n books devoted to teaching gra##ar it is usua to estabish t$o #ain
divisions& these being variousy ter#ed@
). Morpo!o"# 2)reek@ tnorphg D for#& logos D earning3.
6. S#nta% D The )ra##ar of Sentences 2)reek@ s(n D $ith& tasso D
arrange3.
The sub.ect #atter of #or%hoogy is the gra##atica casses and
grou%s of $ords& their gra##atica categories and syste#s of for#s
2%aradig#s3 in $hich these categories actuay e+ist.
The $ord as a gra##atica unit has its #eaning and for#.
Synta+ e+a#ines the $ays in $hich $ords #ay be co#bined and the
reationshi%s that e+ist bet$een the $ords in co#bination.
Kee%ing this traditiona cassification of inguistic studies& $e #ust
naturay recognise the affinities bet$een the t$o %arts of gra##ar. Synta+
bears an inti#ate reation to #or%hoogy because #or%hoogica devices
are greaty conditioned by syntactica arrange#ents. 't is of great
i#%ortance to our sub.ect to understand the constant reci%roca action of
for# and function. These t$o shoud be studied in their reationshi%s but
none shoud be brought to the front at the e+%ense of the other.
Mor%hoogy is inade0uate aone& because reativey fe$ kinds of
Engish $ords are sub.ect to #or%hoogica variation. Synta+ aone $i
not do either %arty because there are borderine $ord,for#s and %hrases
not indis%utaby assigned to any cass.
't see#s %ractica to distinguish bet$een paradi"0atic and
,#nta"0atic study of #or%hoogy. Thus& for instance& if $e consider the
$ord,for# itsef as %art of a given %aradig# $e re#ain in the s%here of
#or%hoogy. %nal(sing the $ord in its surrounding in the sentence& $e
discuss the syntag#atic connections of a given $ord. The state#ent that an
ad.ective is used to #odify a noun& or that an adverb is used to #odify a
verb& is a state#ent of syntag#atic or functiona #or%hoogy.
'n i#%ortance #or%hoogy is far inferior to synta+ in Modern Engish. 5f
$ords in Modern Engish not over one fourth %ossess any distinctive
#or%hoogica for#& the others being of a co##on neutra #or%hoogica
character& and their synta+ or conte+t aone can deter#ine their nu#ber&
case or tense@ sheep$ deer$ set$ cost$ put. The structure of a anguage is to a
arge e+tent conditioned by its syste# of for#a o%%ositions %roceeding
fro# $hich $e generay identify the #or%hoogica casses of $ords.
60
'n Engish the for#a o%%ositions #ay be $e iustrated by such %airs as
girl/ / girls$ girl / / girl's4 I/ @ ,e$ and I/ / #e$ and the set of three he / / she
/ / it. 't is around such o%%ositions 2aso caed 4o%%ose#es43 that the
gra##atica syste# of the anguage is to a arge e+tent buit u%.
Si#iar for#a o%%ositions a#ong the verbs are@ pla( / / pla(s and pla(
/ / pla(ed4 Cf. aso the set of three a# / / is / / are.
The %air pla( @ @ pla(s $i re%resent the o%%osition bet$een the third
%erson singuar %resent tense& on the one hand& and the other %ersons of the
singuar %us those of the %ura& on the other. 'n iterary Engish& ho$ever&
it aso re%resents an o%%osition on a different %ane@ the third %erson
singuar of a verb #ay occur either $ith or $ithout ,sG the for# $ithout 's
is kno$n as the Sub.unctive& the one $ith 's as the 'ndicative& and the
difference is said to be one of Mood. The #eaning of each necessary
gra##atica abstraction #akes itsef cear in the course of actua usage.
The gra##ar of any natura anguage is a biatera unity of for# and
content. The content of gra##ar a%%ears to be generaised in its categoria
e+%ression. 5rganicay reated to vocabuary& gra##ar a$ays retains its
underying categories.
A #or%hoogica category is an organised set of gra##atica for#s D
gra##e#es.
The genera notions of gra##ar $hich deter#ine the structure of
anguage and find their e+%ression in infection and other devices are
generay caed gra##atica categories. As is kno$n& a gra##atica
category is generay re%resented by at east t$o gra##atica for#s&
other$ise it cannot e+ist. A si#%e case of o%%ositions in %airs of
gra##atica for#s $i be found& for instance& bet$een the Singuar and
the /ura in nouns& or& say& bet$een Active and /assive in verbs.
'n deaing $ith gra##ar it is often usefu to observe such contrasts in
ter#s of 4#arked4 and 4un#arked4 #e#bers.
'n binary o%%ositions bet$een %airs of categories one #e#ber 2the
4#arked4 #e#ber3 signas the %resence of a genera or overa #eaning&
$hie the un#arked #e#ber #ay either signa 4absence of the #arked
#eaning4 or ese be nonco##itta as to its absence or %resence. Thus love
and loved are in contrast as 4%resent4 and 4%ast4 but ony the atter is
actuay 4#arked4 as suchG love is 4un#arked4 and as such #ay be #uch
#ore $idey used than #erey as a %resent in contrast $ith loved. 't is
fairy co##on that of t,o #e#bers of an o%%osition one has a definite
#eaning& $hereas the #eaning of the other is ess definite& or vague. 'n
.enguins live in the %ntarctic$ live. is& so to say& 4tenseess4. Since the
state#ent is true not ony for the %resent but for the %ast and 2%resu#aby3
the future.
A %oyno#ic o%%osition fas into binary ones and each of its #e#bers
enters severa binary o%%ositions. Thus& for instance& in the trino#ic
o%%ositions of Moods each #e#ber is contrasted to the t$o others taken
together and to each of the t$o others taken a%art& e. g.& the 'ndicative
Mood stands in contrast $ith the Sub.unctive and the '#%erativeG si#iary
the '#%erative Mood is contrasted $ith the Sub.unctive and the 'ndicative&
the Sub.unctive Mood is contrasted $ith the '#%erative and the 'ndicative.
61
The %robe# of o%%ositions on the #or%hoogica eve has not been
co#%etey soved as yet and re#ains a source of constant interest in
#ode# anguage earning
7
.
-ords #ay e+%ress a se#antic conce%tion and one or #ore conce%tions of
a gra##atica order. :ne and the sa#e for# of the $ord #ay e+%ress
different gra##atica #eanings 2e. g. %erson& nu#ber& etc.3 The foo$ing
anaysis $i be very he%fu to iustrate the state#ent. 'n the sentence The
horses ran faster the $ord horses not ony evokes in our #ind the idea of a
certain ani#a but the idea of the doer of the actionG it aso evokes the
conce%tion of %uraity. The $ord ran corres%onds to the idea of #otion&
but it aso evokes the idea of the character of that #otion and the idea of
4%astness4 2%ast ti#e3. The $ord faster suggests not ony the #anner of
action& its s%eed& but a reative s%eed 2reative 0uaity3. 'n the sentence -e
ta)es French lessons$ for instance& ta)e conveys the idea of an actionG the
ending ,s e+%resses the reation of this action to the sub.ect as $e as the
idea of ti#e& %erson& nu#ber& #ood& voice& as%ect.
't #ust be e#%hasised that the difference bet$een notiona $ords and
4gra##atica4 or 4function,$ords4 is often not so #uch a #atter of for#
as of content
;
. 'n ter#s of #eaning& function $ords are kno$n to be
se#anticay de%eted and very genera. As such they #ay be referred to as
se#i,notiona. "onsidered in for#& they so#eti#es coincide $ith notiona
%arts of s%eech. "o#%are& for instance& the verbs get$ go and gro, in the
foo$ing %atterns@ to get dr( and to get a letter$ to go ho#e and to go *ad$
to gro, potatoes and to gro, dar).
Take the sentence The *o( sa(s that the guests did arrive. )ra##ar has
done i#%ortant things here@ it has arranged the $ords in a %articuar order&
#aking cear sub.ect,%redicate reationsG it has contributed tense by the
change of sa( into sa(s$ and nu#ber by the addition of ,sG gra##ar has
added the intensifier did to e#%hasise the verba idea and has given such
additiona $ords as the and that.
)ra##atica $ords $hich %ay so arge a %art in Engish gra##ar are
for the #ost %art shar%y and E*viEIslc different fro# the e+ica $ords& as
one can see by co#%aring the given units in our e+a#%e@ the$ that$ did
and *o($ sa(s$ guests$ arrive. A ready difference $hich #ay see# #ost
obvious is that gra##atica $ords have 4ess #eaning4 and #ay bS
o%%osed to fuy e+ica $ords.
7
See/ a. \. b c _ L U J R L . RJmOJTP JY JTUJRUhc mJUXWZXc _SWLXlhQL
IZUpRZTWZQZ. q[JmOJTh XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=67& <G {. a. Q J Y T J U .
fJOJIJpZiSTQZS ULYInMSUZX ULM TILRXUTQZ_ TQIJUSUZS_. f.& 7=<?G . e.
I S Y U Z Q J R L . a USsWOLIZlLZZ JmmJlZZs R _JOJIJpZZ. [ TY.@ qUJTWOLUUhS
XlhQZ R RhTKSs KQJISr& Rhm. 8& 7=6:G . . SUMSINT. yOLUTmJlZZX
_JOJIJpZiSTQZc JO_ 2UL _LWSOZLIS TJROS_SUUJpJ US_SQJpJ XlhQL3. [ TY.@
qUJTWOLUUhS XlhQZ R RhTKSs KQJISr& Rhm. 8& 7=6:.
;
The traditiona distinction bet$een <full< and <e#pt(< or <for#',ords< is fa#iiar in
gra##ar& but students of anguage shoud be %re%ared to #eet it under various na#es@
<full ,ords< are no$ often referred to as <for#'classes<$ <e#pt( ,ords<$ as <gra##atical
,ords<$ <function',ords< or <structure ,ords<.
62
But this shoud be taken $ith so#e %oint of reservation. Athough a
$ord ike the is not the na#e of so#ething as *o( is$ it is far fro# being
atogether #eaningess& for there is& of course& a difference in #eaning
bet$een a *og and the *o(. Moreover& gra##atica $ords differ
consideraby a#ong the#seves as to the a#ount of #eaning they have&
even in the e+ica sense. Thus& for instance& the definite artice # our
e+a#%e differs consideraby fro# the artice used $ith de#onstrative
force in %atterns ike the foo$ing@
This is the *oo) I sho,ed hi# (esterda( 1the ` that2.
-e is the #an ,ho *rought the letter 1the ` that2.
'n Modern Engish gra##atica for#s can be #ade s(ntheticall(
and anal(ticall(.
Synthetica syste# $i incude@ 73 infection& e. g./-e ,or)s$ he ,or)ed4
;3 su%%etivity 1go D ,ent D gone2. Suppletive for#s are #ade by
co#bining different rootsG such is the %aradig# of the verb to *e/ a3 a#4 b3
is4 c3 are4 d3 ,as$ ,ere4 e3 *e$ *een$ *eing. 1or#ations of this ty%e $i be
found in ad.ectives@ good D *etter D the *est4 *ad D ,orse D the ,orst4
in %ronouns4 I ] #e$ #($ #ine4 ,e D us$ our$ ours.
Inflection is one of distinguishing characteristics of the fa#iy of 'ndo,
Euro%ean anguages. The e+tent to $hich these various anguages #ake
use of infection differs greaty& and there is often considerabe variation& as
in Engish& even in the %eriods of one and the sa#e anguage.
Broady defined& inflection as a structura device of anguage is the
change or variation in the for#s of a $ord for the %ur%ose of indicating
corres%onding variations in its #eaning and use.
'n %oint of fact& infections are #or%he#ic changes D the addition of
suffi+es and conco#itant #or%ho%hone#ic ad.ust#ents D $hich ada%t
$ords to %erfor# certain structura functions $ithout changing their e+ica
#eaning.
The definition i#%ies that there is a certain root ele#ent $hich
re#ains constant& but $hich is given s%ecific a%%ication and #eaning by
additions to this ee#ent. As co##ony a%%ied& the ter# refers to such
distinctions as those of gender& nu#ber& case& #ood& tense& voice and so
forth.
So fe$ are the infections of Modern Engish as co#%ared $ith
synthetic anguages that it is so#eti#es characterised as 4a gra##aress
tongue4. This %oint of vie$ is atogether erroneous and #ay see# correct
ony to those $ho think of gra##ar as #eaning the sa#e thing as
infection.
'n synthetica anguages $here the gra##atica function of a $ord is
i#%icit in the for# of the $ord& infection or accidence& as it is so#eti#es
caed& does %ay a arge %art. But sti $e can hardy say that through the
oss of infection Engish has beco#e 4a gra##aress tongue4 in the true
sense of the $ord 4gra##a4.
63
Engish infection has been graduay si#%ified in the course of ti#e
but the anguage has deveo%ed other devices to %erfor# the sa#e function
and its structure and its rues of right and $rong& and it is as necessary to
observe the#& as other anguages observe their infectiona syste# and
rues of concord.
Modern Engish is not uni0ue in deveo%ing anaytica tendencies. 5ther
Euro%ean anguages have done the sa#e& but the idiosyncratic as%ect of
anaytica for#s in any anguage shoud not esca%e our notice. The
distinctive features characterising Engish as a #ainy anaytica anguage
are kno$n to be the foo$ing@
a3 co#%arativey fe$ gra##atica infectionsG
b3 scarcity of gra##atica for#s $ith sound aternationsG
c3 a $ide use of %re%ositions to denote reations bet$een ob.ects and
connect $ords in the sentenceG
d3 a #ore or ess 4fi+ed4 or 4gra##atica4 $ord order to denote
gra##atica reations.
An anaytica for# consists of at east t$o $ords but actuay
constitutes one sense,unit. 5ny one of the t$o ee#ents has e+ica
#eaning& the second has none& and being an au+iiary $ord %ossesses ony
gra##atica #eaning& e. g./ I have co#e$ I had co#e4 I a# ,riting$ I have
*een ,riting$ I should ,rite$ I should have ,ritten$ it is ,ritten$ it ,as
,ritten$ etc. *egrees of co#%arison for#ed by #ore and #ost are aso
anaytic in structure@ interesting D #ore interesting D the #ost
interesting4 difficult D #ore difficult D the #ost difficult.
A the anaytica verba for#s go back to free syntactica grou%s.
As is kno$n& #odern /erfect Tenses are for#ed by #eans of the
au+iiary verb to have foo$ed by the %ast %artici%e of the notiona verb.
'n 5d Engish the %ast %artici%e $as not an intrinsic %art of the tense but
$as regarded as an ad.ective in a%%osition to the ob.ect governed by the
verb have4 the %artici%e agreed in case 2accusative3 $ith the ob.ect/ I have
,ritten #( letter #eant I have #( letter ,ritten. 't $as 0uite natura that
these for#s $ere at first used $ith transitive verbsG the corres%onding
for#s of intransitive verbs $ere generay for#ed $ith the verb *e. 'n such
constructions the %artici%e a$ays agreed $ith the sub.ect. -e is co#e
#eant -e is in the state of *eing co#e.
But $hen the origin of the have'for#s had been forgotten& they $ere
graduay e+tended to intransitive verbs as $e@ -e has gone4 -e has
co#e4 -e had gone4 -e had co#e.
'n Modern Engish to *e is sti used in so#e cases to i#%y a state
rather than an action& e. g.@ "ood'*(e$ Mr. M. M.7 she called and was gone
a#ong the rose'trees7 2)as$orthy3
The %assive for#s& anaytic in their structure& have ike$ise originated
fro# free syntactica grou%s. 'n Modern Engish they are %resented by the
association of the au+iiary verb to *e $ith a %ast %artici%eG to *e ,ritten$
to *e done$ etc. There is aso a #ore e+%ressive for# of the %assive #ade
u% $ith the au+iiary verb to get$ #ost fre0uent in coo0uia Engish& e.g.@
The ani#al got struc) *( a stone. The t$o %assive for#ations $i often
differentiate in their as%ective character. Cf. -e ,as tired @@ -e got tired.
64
-hen ne$ devices had beco#e $e estabished& they ca#e to e+%ress
gra##atica categories $hich had not been e+%ressed in this $ay& or at a&
in 5d Engish %eriod.
Modern Engish gra##atica reations e+%ressed by the devices that
did not e+ist at earier stages of anguage deveo%#ent are@
73 future& %erfect and continuous tenses e+%ressed $ith au+iiariesG
;3 case,reationshi%s e+%ressed by #eans of %re%ositionsG
83 %assive voice 2in e#bryo in 5d Engish3G
:3 case,reationshi%s& #odification& agree#ent indicated by $ord,
order.
Anaytica verba for#s are #ost s%ecific anaytica for#ations. To
understand their nature $e shoud e+a#ine both their structure and their
function. "onsidered in their outer as%ect& they are free co#binations of at
east t$o $ords& $hich stand to each other in the sa#e syntactica reation
as $ords in a %hrase. "onsidered in function& they go %arae $ith
synthetica for#s as beonging to a certain gra##atica category and doing
the duty of the for# of the $ord.
The genera criteria of defining the inguistic nature of anaytica for#s
see# to be e0uay a%%icabe to a anguages but in certain concrete
%heno#ena of every anguage $e #ay easiy trace their s%ecific
%ecuiarities associated in each case $ith concrete conditions of anguage
deveo%#ent. Their very nature in any #odern anguage gives every
reason to e+cude the# fro# the rea# of synta+ as beonging to
#or%hoogy. They no$ re%resent a s%ecia ty%e of for#,#aking& different
fro# that of ordinary $ord,changing& and& as aready re#arked&
historicay connected $ith synta+. 'n fact& there see#s no s#a
.ustification for ado%ting V. V. Vinogradov!s ter# qTZUWLQTZiSTQJS
JO_JJYOLlJRLUZSr $hich he a%ty uses to characterise a the doube,
sidedness of these s%ecific indivisibe unities@ their %artici%ation in
#or%hoogy and their structura rese#bance to $ord,co#bination.
5n the $hoe& anaytica for#s are characterised by@
73 se#antic indivisibiity&
;3 idio#atic character&
83 generaisation and abstraction fro# the concrete&
:3 beonging in the %aradig# of the $ord as one of its structura ee#ents.
't co#es 0uite natura that there are no gra##atica categories in
anguage re%resented ony by anaytica for#s& for the very distinction of
the atter fro# other $ord,co#binations is based u%on their %araeis# and
reationshi% $ith synthetica for#s.
As $e have aready said& anaytica for#s in different anguages #ay
have their s%ecific %ecuiarities associated $ith concrete conditions of
anguage deveo%#ent. A fe$ e+a#%es for iustration@ Engish anaytica
for#s in the /erfect Tenses are& no doubt& #ore free and 4#obie4 than&
say& in Modern )er#an@ -ave (ou ever *een to .aris? \es$ I have. +o$ 1
haven't. Short ans$ers of the given ty%e are 0uite i#%ossibe in )er#an.
A noticeabe feature of Engish anaytica for#s is the use of the
au+iiary verb to do/ &o (ou spea) French? \es$ I do. +o$ I don't. &id (ou
see hi# (esterda(? \es$ I did. +o$ I didn't.
6<
*ee%,rooted in Engish idio# is the use of the e#%hatic au+iiaries
do and did functioning as e+%edients to %roduce intensity and e#%hasis
in such e#%hatic for#s of the /resent 'ndefinite& /ast 'ndefinite and the
'#%erative Mood& as@ 273 I do so ,onder ,hat 9ol(on's *o( is li)e.
2)as$orthy3 2;3 Irene's visit to the house D *ut there ,as nothing
in that e0cept that she #ight have told hi#4 *ut then$ again$ she never
did tell hi# an(thing. 2)as$orthy3 283 :h7 &o *e serious$ Michael7
D (ou never give #e an( help in arranging. 2)as$orthy3
The idiosyncratic as%ect of anaytica for# in any anguage shoud
not esca%e our notice. -e find here those additiona structura
%otentiaities of gra##atica for#s $hich contribute significanty
to the s%ecific deveo%#ent of the gra##atica syste# of a given
anguage.
Capt.r II
PARTS OF SPEECH
PROBLEM OF CLASSIFICATION
/arts of s%eech are the great ta+ono#ic casses into $hich a the
$ords of a anguage fa.
An ade0uate definition of %arts of s%eech #ust naturay %roceed fro#
a set of criteria that can be consistenty a%%ied to a e+ica units of a
given anguage. -e cannot& for instance& use ony 4e+ica #eaning4 as the
basis for the definition of so#e $ord,casses& 4function in the sentence4
for others& and 4for#a characteristics4 for sti others.
As the basis for the definition of $ord,casses $e naturay #ust use
not ony their #or%hoogica and $ord,#aking characteristics but
se#antic and syntactica features as $e. The atter are %articuary
i#%ortant for such %arts of s%eech as have no #or%hoogica distinctions ai
a
7
't $i be #ore in accord $ith the nature of anguage to say that %arts
of s%eech D #ust be identified %roceeding fro#@
73 a co##on categoria #eaning of a given cass of $ords abstracted
fro# the e+ica #eaning of a the $ords beonging to this cassG
;3 a co##on %aradig# and
83 identity of syntactic functions.
To find out $hat %articuar cass a given Engish $ord beongs to $e
cannot ook at one isoated $ord. Nor is there any infe+iona ending that
is the e+cusive %ro%erty of any singe %art of s%eech. The ending 'ed 1'd2$
for instance& is generay found in verbs 1opened$ s#o)ed$ etc.3& but it #ay
be aso added to nouns to for# ad.ectives 1)ind'hearted$ talented$ *lue'
e(ed$ etc.3G the infe+ion ,s changes the noun into a %ura and ,s is aso
used to indicate the third %erson singuar in verbs& etc.
The attitude of gra##arians $ith regard to %arts of s%eech and the
basis of their cassification has varied a good dea at different ti#es. So#e
#odern gra##arians #aintain that the ony criterion of their cassification
shoud be the for# of $ords.
Taking 4for#4 in rather a $ide sense& they characterise nouns& for
instance& as %ossessing certain for#a characteristics $hich attach to no
other cass of $ords. These are the %refi+ing of an artice or
de#onstrative& the use of an infe+iona sign to denote %ossession and
%uraity&
L
See/ |. [. e%YL. a iLTWXc OSiZ R OPTTQJ_ XlhQS. [ TY.@ q{PTTQLX OSiNr& 7=;?& O.
6G dOL__LWZQL OPTTQJpJ XlhQL& W. 7. lM. bz \\\{& 7=<8& O. ;>G [. z. Zp L M I J & .
. R L U J R L & |. |. J Z Q . \JROS_SUUhs LUpIZsTQZs XlhQ. f.& 7=<6& %% 77
D7=.
69
and union $ith %re%ositions to #ark reations originay indicated by
infe+iona endings. This does not see# .ustified ho$ever because the
absence of a the features enu#erated shoud not e+cude a $ord fro#
being a noun& and this shoud be described as a $ord $hich has& or
in any given usage #ay have those for#a signs.
)ra##atica categories identifying the %arts of s%eech are
kno$n to be e+%ressed in %aradig#s. -e generay distinguish
infectiona and anaytica ty%es of the %aradig#. 'n the for#er the
invariabe %art is the ste#& in the atter the e+ica ee#ent of the
%aradig#. The so,caed inter%aradig#atic ho#ony#y resuting fro#
the fact that the root& the ste# and the gra##atica for# of the $ord
#ay be identica in sound& is #ost fre0uent.
So#e ty%e of structura a#biguity a$ays resuts in Engish
$henever the for#,casses of the $ords are not ceary #arked.
Vivid e+a#%es of such kind of a#biguity are given by "h. 1ries
7
$ith reference to the use of the artice in Modern Engish@
4The utterance ship sails toda( 2$hich #ight a%%ear in a
teegra#3 is a#biguous as it stands because of the absence of cear %art,
of,s%eech #arkers. 'f a cear %art,of,s%eech #arker the is %ut before
the first $ord as in 'The ship sails toda('$ there is no a#biguityG $e
have a state#ent. 'f& ho$ever& the sa#e #arker is %ut before the
second $ord as in 'Ship the sails toda('$ there is aso no a#biguity& but
the utterance is differentG $e have a re0uest. 5ther cear %art,of,s%eech
#arkers $oud aso resove the a#biguity& as $ith the addition of such a
#arker as the ending 'ed/ 'Shipped sail toda('4 'Ship sailed toda(' .<
Ne$s%a%er headines very fre0uenty are structuray a#biguous
because of the ack of definite %art,of,s%eech or for#,cass #arkers.
So#e ty%ica e+a#%es out of #any are the foo$ing@
273 <Vanden*erg Reports :pen Foru#<. The a#biguity of this
heading coud be ceared by the use of such #arkers as the or an$ as@
'Vanden*erg Reports :pen the Foru#'$ 'Vanden*erg Reports an :pen
Foru#'.
2;3 <Unfavoura*le Surve(or Reports dela(ed Michigan Settle#ent<.
The a#biguity of this heading $oud be ceared by the use of such
#arkers as have or a 'Unfavoura*le Surve(or Reports -ave dela(ed
Michigan Settle#ent'4 'Unfavoura*le Surve(or Reports a &ela(ed
Michigan Settle#ent' .
-e cannot fai to see that in such cases the artice as a cear %art,of,
s%eech #arker serves to contrast the %aradig#atic for#s. This is cosey
reated to the deveo%#ent of conversion $hich is one of the #ost
%ecuiar features of Engish and %resents a s%ecia %oint of interest in its
structure. By conversion $e #ean a non,affi+ $ord,#aking device
$here the %aradig# of the $ord and its syntactica function signa the
e+ico,gra##atica nature of the $ord. The ne$y for#ed $ord differs
both e+icay and gra##aticay fro# the source $ord and the atter
beco#es its ho#ony#
;
.
7
See/ "h. 1 r i e s . The Structure of Engish. An 'ntroduction to the
"onstruction of Engish Sentences. (ondon& 7=68& %%. 6;,68.
8
See@ b. . \ _ Z O U Z Q Z s . |SQTZQJIJpZX LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=<6G
[. z. O S R L . OJYIS_L mLOLMZp_h R XlhQS LULIZWZiSTQJpJ TWOJX. [ TY.@ q[J,
68
't is to be noted that so#e #odern inguists have abandoned #any of
the co##ony hed vie$s of gra##ar. -ith regard to the #ethodoogy
e#%oyed their inguistic a%%roach differs fro# for#er treat#ents in
anguage earning. Structura gra##atica studies dea %ri#ariy $ith the
4gra##ar of structure4& and offer an a%%roach to the %robe#s of
4sentence anaysis4 that differs in %oint of vie$ and in e#%hasis fro# the
usua treat#ent of synta+
l
.
So#e inguists %refer to avoid the traditiona ter#inoogy and estabish
a cassification of $ords based ony on the distributive anaysis& i. e.& their
Lbiity to co#bine $ith other $ords of different ty%es. Thus& for instance&
the $ords and and *ut $i fa under one grou%& $hie *ecause and
,hether are referred to as beonging to another grou%.
The four #a.or %arts of s%eech 1noun$ ver*$ ad3ective$ adver*2 set u%
by the %rocess of substitution in \ h. 1ries! recorded #ateria are given no
na#es e+ce%t nu#bers@ class 1$ class @$ class h$ class i. Assu#%tions have
been #ade by "h. 1ries that a $ords $hich can occu%y the sa#e 4set of
%ositions4 in the %atterns of Engish singe free utterances #ust beong to
the sa#e %art of s%eech
;
. These four casses #ake u% the 4buk4of
functioning units in structura %atterns of Engish. Then co#e fifteen
grou%s of so,caed function $ords& $hich have certain characteristic in
co##on. 'n the #ere #atter of nu#ber of ite#s the fifteen grou%s differ
shar%y fro# the four casses. 'n the four arge casses& "h. 1ries %oints
out& the e+ica #eanings of the $ords de%end on the arrange#ent in
$hich these $ords a%%ear. 'n function,$ords it is usuay difficut if not
i#%ossibe to indicate a e+ica #eaning a%art fro# the structura #eaning
$hich these $ords signa.
"h. 1ries #ade an atte#%t to estabish the for#,casses of Engish
%urey syntacticay. Ais $ork %resents a #ethodica anaysis of a cor%us
of recorded fifty hours of diverse conversation by so#e three hundred
different s%eakers. This #ateria& in his $ords& covers the basic #atters of
Engish structure. The book %resents a #a.or inguistic interest as an
e+%eri#ent rather than for its achieve#ents.
The ne$ a%%roach D the a%%ication of t$o of the #ethods of
structura inguistics& distributiona anaysis and substitution D #akes it
%ossibe for "h. 1ries to dis%ense $ith the usua eight %arts of s%eech. Ae
cassifies $ords& as #ay be seen fro# the e+tracts into four 4for#,casses4&
designated by nu#bers& and fifteen grou%s of 4function $ords4& designated
by etters. The for#,casses corres%ond roughy to $hat #ost gra##arians
ca nouns and %ronouns& verbs& ad.ective and adverbs& though "h. 1ries
es%eciay $arns the reader against the atte#%t to transate the state#ents
$hich the atter finds in the book into the od gra##atica ter#s. The
grou% of function $ords contains not ony %re%ositions and con.unctions&
but aso certain s%ecific $ords that #ost
mOJTh pSO_LUTQJpJ XlhQJlULUZXr. M.D |.& 7=67& %. ;;=G . b. I P Q W S U Q J .
JURSOTZX R TJROS_SUUJ_ LUpIZsTQJ_ XlhQS QLQ _JOJIJpJ,TZUWLQTZiSTQZs TmJTJY
TIJRJJYOLlJRLUZX.D q[JmOJTh XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=<?& <.
7
See@ "h. 1ries. The Structure of Engish. (ondon& 7=68.
, 'bid.& %%. =:D7>>& grou% E and C.
6=
traditiona gra##arians $oud cass as a %articuar kind of %ronouns&
adverbs and verbs.
5ther #odern gra##arians retain the traditiona na#es of %arts of
s%eech& though the #ethods they use to identify the various %arts of
s%eech& the nu#ber of the# and the distribution of $ords a#ong the# are
a different fro# $hat is found in traditiona gra##ar. They aso e+cude
function $ords fro# the cassification of %arts of s%eech and give the#
entirey se%arate treat#ent
7
.
Setting aside function $ords and observing the re#aining $ords as
they are co#bined into utterances $ith cear and una#biguous structura
#eaning& -. 1rancis finds it necessary to identify four different %arts of
s%eech@ noun$ ver*$ ad3ective and adver*. 'n his anaysis nouns are
identified& for instance& by five for#a criteria& so#e #ore i#%ortant than
others. The #ost co##on noun,#arking signa is a grou% of function
$ords caed noun'deter#iners. These %recede the nouns they #ark& either
i##ediatey or $ith certain ty%es of $ords bet$eenG nouns have
infectionsG #any nouns #ay be identified as such by various noun,
#arking derivationa suffi+esG nouns fi certain characteristic %ositions in
reation to other identified %arts of s%eech in %hrases and utterances& etc.
Verb,#arking criteria as given by -.1rancis are the foo$ing@ infections&
function $ords& derivationa affi+es& %ositions and 4su%erfi+es4& V. e.
4#or%hoogica4 stress in cases ike i#port D to i#port4 contract D to
contract4 perfect D to perfect$ etc.
't #ust be recognised that recent studies and %ractica suggestions
#ade by structura inguists in this fied& though not yet 0uite successfu at
a %oints& sti ne$ and e+%eri#enta& are beco#ing increasingy
interesting and i#%ortant for anguage earning and %ractica training in
inguistic skis. The sub.ect #atter of structura gra##ar has aready
su%%ied #uch #ateria in the fied of descri%tive techni0ues. So#e ne$
#ethods of inguistic anaysis %ro#ise to be rather efficient and are no$
being tried out.
Engish schoo gra##ars dea e+tensivey $ith the %arts of s%eech&
usuay given as eight in nu#ber and e+%ained in definitions that have
beco#e traditiona. 't had ong been considered that these eight %arts of
s%eech D noun$ pronoun$ ad3ective$ ver*$ adver*$ preposition$
con3unction$ inter3ection D are basic cassifications that can be a%%ied to
the $ords of any anguage and that the traditiona definition furnishes an
ade0uate set of criteria by $hich the cassification can be #ade.
-e cannot ho$ever ad#it $ithout 0uestion that the eight %arts of
s%eech inherited fro# the %ast $i be the #ost satisfactory for %resent,day
Engish.
The inguistic evidence dra$n fro# our gra##atica study gives every
reason to subdivide the $hoe of the Engish vocabuary into eeven %arts of
s%eechG in %oint of fact& eight of the# are notiona $ords $hich #ake u%
the argest %art of the vocabuary and five are 4function $ords4&
co#%arativey fe$ in actua nu#ber of ite#s& but used very fre0uenty.
7
See/ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& %. ;8:G see
also/ R. HuVrk. The Use of Engish. (ondon& 7=6:& %. 9:.
70
Notiona or fuy,e+ica %arts of s%eech are@ nouns$ ad3ectives$ ver*s.$
adver*s$ pronouns$ nu#erals$ #odal ,ords and inter3ections. /re%ositions&
con.unctions and %artices are %arts of s%eech argey devoid of e+ica
#eaning and used to indicate various functiona reationshi% a#ong the
notiona $ords of an utterance.
)eneray s%eaking $e can say that a nouns& ad.ectives& verbs and
adverbs are ca%abe of #aking direct reference and are the #ain units
$hich carry the burden of referentia infor#ation& and that a other $ords
%rovide functiona infor#ation.
5%%ositiona reations bet$een different %arts of s%eech #ay be thus
sho$n as foo$s@
Auto,.0antic S#n,.0antic
noun& verb& ad.ective&
adverb& %ronoun& nu#era
%re%osition& con.unction&
%artice& au+iiary verb& co%ua
Fu n c t i o n Wor d ,
S#ntactic Function, Morpo!o"ica! Function,
%re%osition&
con.unction& %artice&
co%ua
artice& au+iiary verb
Capt.r HI
THE NO&N
The e+ico,gra##atica #eaning of the noun is denoting 4substance4
'n Modern Engish the #arked for#a characteristics of nouns are as
foo$s@ nouns have infections for nu#ber and case& they #ay be
associated $ith the definite or indefinite artice.
There is no gra##atica gender in Modern Engish
7
. The noun does
not %ossess any s%ecia gender for#s& neither does the acco#%anying
ad.ective& %ronoun or artice indicate any gender agree#ent $ith the head
noun. Unike #any anguages that have gender& Engish has very fe$ cear
for#a #arkers that indicate the gender of nounsG the situation in Engish
is #uch ess rigid and cear,cut since #any $ords 1dog$ for instance3 #ay
have he$ she or it as substitutes. 't thus see#s .ustified to restrict the ter#
4gender4 to those anguages that have %recise and #utuay e+cusive
noun,casses #arked by cear for#a #arkers.
Not every noun %ossesses such gra##atica categories as nu#ber and
case.
NUMBER
Modern Engish ike #ost other anguages distinguishes t$o nu#bers@
singular and plural. The #eaning of singuar and %ura see#s to be sef,
e+%anatory& that is the o%%osition@ one D #ore than one. -ith a this&
e+%ression of nu#ber in different casses of Engish nouns %resents certain
w difficuties for a foreigner to #aster.
As aready #entioned& %ura and singuar nouns stand in contrast as
dia#etricay o%%osite. 'nstances are not fe$& ho$ever& $hen their
o%%osition co#es to be neutraised. And this is to say that there are cases
$hen the nu#eric differentiation a%%ears to be of no i#%ortance at a. Aere
beong #any coective abstract and #ateria nouns. 'f& for instance& $e
ook at the #eaning of coective nouns& $e cannot fai to see that they
denote at the sa#e ti#e a %uraity and a unit. They #ay be said to be
douby countabes and thus fro# a ogica %oint of vie$ for# the e+act
contrast to #ass nouns@ they are& in fact& at the sa#e ti#e singuar and
%ura& $hie #ass $ords are ogicay neither. The doube,sidedness of
coective nouns $eakens the o%%osition and eads to the deveo%#ent of
either /uraia tantu#& as in@ ,eeds 2in a garden3& ashes$ e#*ers$ etc.& or
Singuaria tantu#& as in@ ,ildfo,l$ clerg($ foliage$ etc.
7
'n such %airs as actor D actress$ lion D lioness$ tiger D tigress$ etc. the difference
bet$een the nouns is %urey e+ica.
72
"o#%are the Ukrainian@ QPiSOV& pOJKV& MOVMV& TcJMZ& lSISUN&
IZTWX& MZiZUL. Si#iary in Russian@ MOJZ& MSUNpZ& QPMOZ& RTcJMh&
IZTWRL& MZiN& lSISUN. )er#an@ Etern& )esch$ister& F$iinge D /uraia
tantu#G das )efge& das -id& das 5bst D Singuaria tantu#. Si#iar
deveo%#ents #ay be traced in 1rench@ es %ois& es %inards& es as%erges.
'n so#e cases usage fuctuates& and the t$o for#s are interchangeabe&
e. g. *rain or *rains/ he has no *rains or little *rains4 victuals is #ore
co##on than victual4 oats than oat4 si#iary@ -is ,ages ,ere high. -o,
#uch ,ages does he get? That is a fair ,age. The( could not ta)e too
#uch pains.
The dua nature of coective nouns is sho$n inguisticay in various
$ays@ by the nu#ber of the verb or by the %ronoun referring to it& as for
instance& M( fa#il( are earl( risers$ the( are alread( here. Cf. M( fa#il( is
not large.
't is i#%ortant to observe that the choice bet$een singuar and %ura
de%ends on the #eaning attached to the noun. "o#%are aso@ 5e have
#uch fruit this (ear and The rich fruits of the heroic la*our of Soviet
people are visi*le fro# all the corners of the earth.
Si#iary@ The foot*all tea# is pla(ing ver( ,ell. Cf. The foot*all tea#
are having *ath and are co#ing *ac) here for tea.
A $ord shoud be said about styistic trans%ositions of singuar nouns
in cases ike the foo$ing@ trees in leaf$ to have a )een e(e$ *lue of e(e$
strong of #uscle. /atterns of this kind $i e+e#%ify synecdoche D the
si#%est case of #etony#y in gra##ar 24%ars %ro toto43.
The "er#ans ,on the victories. C( "od the( ,ere soldiers. T!e +ld
Hun was a soldier. Cut the( ,ere coo)ed too. The( ,ere all coo)ed... T!e
Hun would come down through the Trentino$ and cut the rail,a( at the
Vicen=a and then ,here ,ould the Italians *e? 2Ae#ing$ay3
The chap ,as so *ig no, that he ,as there nearl( all his ti#e$ li)e
so#e immoable, sardonic, !umorous eye nothing to decline of #en and
things. 2)as$orthy3
Cf. SOZ RPcJ RJTWOJ. SOZ PcJ JTWOJ. USpJ UL_SWLUUhs pILl.
TIhKUJ YhIJ MJ OLTTRSWL& QLQ IZQJRLI jQTGkcS. 2|SO_JUWJR3
5ther 4universas4 in e+%ressing %uraity $i be found in $hat #ay be
caed 4aug#entative4 %uras& i. e. $hen the %ura for#s of #ateria nouns
are used to denote arge a#ounts of substance& or a high degree of
so#ething. This is often the case $hen $e see the #atter as it e+ists in
nature. Such %ura for#s are often used for styistic %ur%oses in iterary
%rose and %oetry& e. g.@ the *lue ,aters of the Mediterranean$ the sands of
the Sahara &esert$ the sno,s of [ili#an3aro.
Si#iary in Russian@ TZUZS RJMh \OSMZlS_UJpJ _JOX& mSTQZ
\LcLOh& TUSpL bOQWZQZ.
oS R mJIXc YSISSW TUSp&
b RJMh P RSTUJs KP_XW. 2ynWiSR3
|nYIn SS TWSmSs LI_LlUhS TUSpL. 2SW3
Ukrainian@ \ZUV RJMZ \SOSMlS_UJpJ _JOX& mVTQZ \LcLOZ& TUVpZ
bOQWZQZ.
Cf. 1rench@ les eau0$ les sa*les4
)er#an@ die Slnde$ die 5lsser.
73
Attention #ust aso be dra$n to the e#otive use of %ura for#s of
abstract verba nouns in %ictoria anguage@
...it ,as a t!ousand pities he had run off ,ith that foreign girl D a
governess too7 2)as$orthy3
The loo) on her face$ such as he had never seen there *efore$ such as
she had al,a(s hidden fro# hi# ,as full of secret resentments, and
longings, and fears. 2Mitche3
The peculiar loo) ca#e into Cosinne('s face ,hich #ar)ed all his
ent!usiasms. 2)as$orthy3
-er face ,as ,hite and strained *ut her e(es ,ere stead( and s,eet
and full of pit( and un*elief. There ,as a lu#inous serenit( in the# and
the innocence in the soft *ro,n dept!s struc) hi# li)e a *lo, in the face$
clearing so#e of the alcohol out of his *rain$ halting his #ad$ careering
,ords in #od'flight. 2Mitche3
-e stood for a #o#ent loo)ing do,n at the plain$ heart'shaped face
,ith its long ,indo,'s pea) and serious dar) e(es. Such an un,ordl( face$
a face ,ith no defenses against life. 2Mitche3
:h7 5ilfrid has emotions, !ates, pities, wants, at least$ so#eti#es4
,hen he does$ his stuff is 3oll( good. :ther,ise$ he 3ust #a)es a song
a*out nothing D li)e the rest. 2)as$orthy3
/ura for#s of abstract nouns used for styistic %ur%oses #ay be traced
in anguage after anguage@
Ukrainian@ MP X WZcJn cJMJn&
ZRInTN D L JU mSOSMJ _UJn&
zSULiS MZRL RZOZULnWN&
l c_LOZ WZcJ RZTWPmLnWN
aYOZR RZTJQZs& pLs& YLsOLQ. 2SRiSUQJ3
Russian@ JRTnMP TWOLTWZ OJQJRhS
JW TPMSY lLoZWh USW. 2PKQZU3
aWOLMh. ULn X TILMQZc iSWhOS JWOLMh. 2eOnTJR3
1rench@ 9'avais rencontre plusieurs fois l'a#*assadeur$ dont la figure
fine porte l'e#preinte de fatigues -ui ne sont point toutes dues au0 travau0
de la diplo#atie. 21rance3
't shoud be noted& in %assing& that the %ura for# is so#eti#es used
not ony for e#%hasis in %ictoria anguage but to intensify the as%ective
#eaning of the verb& the iterative character of the action& in %articuar& e.
g.@
:h$ this ,as 3ust the )ind of trou*le she had feared ,ould co#e upon
the#. %ll the ,or) of this last (ear ,ould go for nothing. %ll her struggles
and fears and labours in rain and cold had *een ,asted. 2Mitche3
Relentless and stealth($ the *utler pursued his labours ta)ing things
fro# the various co#part#ents of the side*oard. 2)as$orthy3
The s#all #oon had soon dropped do,n$ and May night had faied
soft and $ar#& en$ra%%ing $ith its gra%e,boo# coour and its scents the
biion ca%rices& intrigues& %assions& ongings& and regrets of #en and
$o#en. 2)as$orthy3
The e#otive use of %ro%er nouns in %ura is aso an effective #eans of
e+%ressive connotation& e. g.@
74
Fleur$ leaning out of her ,indo,$ heard the hall cloc)'s #uffled chi#e
of t,elve$ the tin( splash of a fish$ the sudden sha)ing of an aspen's
leaves in the puffs of *ree=e that rose along the river$ the distant ru#*le
of a night train$ and ti#e and again the sounds ,hich none can put a
na#e to in the dar)ness$ soft o*scure e0pressions of uncatalogued
e#otions fro# #an and *east$ *ird and #achine$ or$ #a( *e$ fro#
departed .orsytes, /arties, 0ardigans, ta)ing night strolls *ac) into a
,orld ,hich had once suited their e#*odied spirits. 2)as$orthy3
V E+%ressive connotation is %articuary strong in the #eta%horic use of
the %ura of nouns denoting things to be considered uni0ue& e. g.@ %head of
the# ,as a tunnel of fire ,here *uildings ,ere *la=ing on either side of the
short$ narro, street that led do,n to the railroad trac)s. The( plunged into
it. % glare *righter than a do1en suns da==led their e(es$ scroching heat
seared their s)ins and the roaring$ crac)ling and crashing *eat upon ears
in painful ,aves. 2Mitche3
"o#%are the foo$ing e+a#%e in 1rench@
Leon/ ...D ^uel;uefois... 3'( reste... a regarder le soleil couchant.
!##a/ D 9e ne trouve rien d'ad#ira*le co##eles soleils
couc!ants... #ais TI *ord de la #er$ surtout.
1
Very often the %ura for#& besides its s%ecific #eaning #ay aso
retain the e+act #eaning of the singuar& $hich resuts in ho#ony#y.
73 custo# ` ha*it$ custo#s ` 73 %ura of ha*it
;3 duties
;3 colour D tint$ colours ` 73 %ura of tint
;3 fag
83 effect ` result$ effects ` 73 resuts
;3 goods and chattes
:3 #anner ` #ode or $ay& #anners ` 73 #odes& $ays
;3 behaviour
<3 nu#*er D a tota a#ount of units& nu#*ers ` 73 in counting
;3 %oetry
63 pain D suffering& pains ` 73 %ura of suffering
;3 effort
93 pre#ise ` a state#ent or %ro%osition& pre#ises D
73 %ro%ositions
;3 surrounding to a house
?3 ;uarter ` a fourth %art& ;uarters ` 73 fourth %arts
;3 odgings There are aso
doube %uras used $ith so#e difference of #eanings@
73 *rother 73 *rothers 2sons of one #other3
;3 *rethren 2#e#bers of one co##unity3
;3 genius 73 geniuses 2#en of genius3
;3 genii 2s%irits3
83 cloth 73 cloths 2kinds of coth3
;3 clothes 2artices of dress3
:3 inde0 73 inde0es 2tabes of contents3
;3 indices 2in #athe#atics3
7
See/ /. d. Z J W O J R T Q Z s . aiSOQZ mJ pOL__LWZiSTQJs TWZIZTWZQS
OLUPlTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=<6& O. <;.
*oube %uras $ith the differentiation of #eaning
$i be found in other anguages.
Cf. Russian@
lPY D
73 lPYh
1ME QFc2
;3 lPYNX
1eIKm2
IZTW D
73
IZTWNX
1OJQJMT2
;3 IZTWh
1ncPTbI$ UJKJST2
_P D 73 _PNX
;3 _PZ
1ocWJGmJ PcUIf2
WJU D 73 WJUL
1EFFJGpI2
;3 WJUh 1SMcpI2 There are so#e %uras
$hich have been borro$ed fro# foreign nouns@
Singuar /ura
Latin
agendu# agenda
datu# data
dictu# dicta
erratu# errata
#e#orandu# #e#oranda
#ediu# #edia
stratu# strata
focus foci
for#ula for#ulae
fungus fungi
genus genera
a0is a0es
appendi0 appendices
series series
species species
Singuar /ura
"ree)
anal(sis anal(ses
*asis *ases
crisis crises
h(pothesis h(potheses
parenthesis parentheses
thesis theses
pheno#enon pheno#ena
criterion criteria
Singuar /ura
French
*eau *eau0 2or *eaus2
Ukrainian@
lPY D
73 lPYZ
;3 lPY!X
IZTW D
73 IZTWX
;3 IZTWZ
*ureau *ureau0
#onsieur #essieurs
#ada#e #esda#es
96
Mention shoud be #ade in this connection of nouns $hich have t$o
%arae variants in the %ura e+acty aike in function but different in their
styistic s%here of a%%ication& e. g.@
co, D co,s and )ine 1arch.$ no$ chiefy %oetic3
foe D foes and fone 1arch.2
shoe D shoes and shoen 1arch.2
Un%roductive archaic ee#ents are so#eti#es used to create the
at#os%here of eevated s%eech. This #ay aso be traced in other
anguages. "o#%are the Russian@
ThU D 73 ThUJRNX& ThUJRSsG
;3 ThUh& ThUJR 2e. g.@ HmGm EFJWJHFMT2.
Mor%hoogica variation $i be found in nouns foreign in origin.
Through the natura %rocess of assi#iation so#e borro$ed nouns have
deveo%ed %arae native for#s& as in@
for#ula D for#ulae$ for#ulas
ter#inus D ter#ini$ ter#inuses
focus D foci$ focuses stratu#
D strata$ stratu#s
1oreign %uras are decidedy #ore bookish than the native ones.
1or a the detais concerning the gra##atica organisation of nouns
and their %atterning in different kind of structures students are referred to
the te+t,books on Engish gra##ar. T$o things shoud be noted here.
't is i#%ortant to observe that in certain conte+ts nouns can $eaken
their #eaning of 4substance4 and a%%roach ad.ectives thus #aking the idea
of 0uaities of the given substance %redo#inant in the s%eaker!s #ind.
Nouns functioning in this %osition are generay #odified by adverbias of
degree& e. g.@
<\ou ,ere al,a(s more of a realist than 9on4 and never so innocent<.
2)as$orthy3
<5e're all fond of (ou<$ he said$ <If (ou'd onl(< Dhe ,as going to sa($
<*ehave (ourself<$ *ut changed it to D 4if (ou'd onl( *e more of a wife to
hi#<. 2)as$orthy3
<5h( had he ever *een fool enoug! to see her again<. 2)as$orthy3
"2ot muc! of an animal, is it?< groaned Rhett. <Loo)s li)e he'll die.
Cut he is the *est I could find in the shafts<. 2Mitche3
The use of a noun rather than an ad.ective is very often %referred as a
#ore forcibe e+%ressive #eans to intensify the given 0uaity. "o#%are the
foo$ing synony#ic for#s of e+%ression@
-e ,as ;uite a success.D -e ,as ;uite successful.
It ,as good fun.D It ,as funn(.
And here are iustrative e+a#%es of nouns $eakening their #eaning
of 4substance4 and a%%roaching adverbs.
Such adverbia use sho$s great diversity. *ee%,rooted in Engish
gra##ar& this use is #ost idiosyncratic in its nature. -e find here %atterns
of different structura #eaning@
a3 adverbia reations of ti#e& as in@ life long$ ,ee) long$ age long$ etc.G
77
b3 adverbia reations of co#%arison@ stra, (ello,$ silver gre($ ash
*lond$ ice cold$ sno, ,hite$ iron hard$ s)( *lue$ dog tired$ paper ,hite$
pencil thin$ ruler straight$ pri#rose (ello,$ *ric) red$ *lade sharp4
c3 different degree of 0uaity@ #ountains high$ a *it longer$ a trifle
easier$ a shade dar)er$ an)le deep.
/atterns of this kind are generay used #eta%horicay and function as
e+%edients to e+%ress intensity and e#%hasis& e. g.@ <I'll send .or) to
Macon to'#orro, to *u( #ore seed. +o, the \an)ies ,on't *urn it and
our troops ,on't need it. "ood Lord$ cotton ought to go s#y !ig! this fall<.
2Mitche3
1urther e+a#%es are@
-e is ,orld too #odest. That ,as lots better. This ,as !eaps better. -e
,as stone deaf to our re;uest. 5aves ,ent #ountains high. The #ud ,as
an)le deep.
Adverbia use of nouns $i aso be found in such %re#odification
structures as@ *one tired$ dog tired$ #ustard coloured$ horror struc)$ etc.
'n the gra##ar of nouns there have aso deveo%ed inter.ectiona uses
$hich see# to convert nouns into s%ecia kind of 4intensifiers4& e. g.@
5hat the dic)ens do (ou ,ant? 5hat the #ischief do (ou ,ant?
1urther e+a#%es are@
The !ell (ou sa( ` (ou don't sa( so.
Li)e !ell I ,ish X
I ,ill li)e !ell 8 I ,ill not
5here in the hell (ou are going?
-o, the devil should I )no,?
Adverbs of affir#ation and negation (es and no are intensified in
e#%hasis by the %ro+i#ity of a bad ba$ing hell$ e. g.@ -ell$ (es7 -ell$
no7
"ASE
)ra##arians see# to be divided in their o%inion as to the case,syste#
of Engish nouns. 5%en to thought and 0uestioning& this %robe# has
a$ays been #uch debated. The #ost co##on vie$ on the sub.ect is that
nouns have ony t$o cases@ a co##on case and a genitive or %ossessive
case
1
. The co##on case is characterised by a Eero suffi+ 1child$ *o($ girl$
student2$ the %ossessive case by the infection ],E^ and its %honetic variants
],s^& ],iE^& in s%eing ''s. The uses of the genitive are kno$n to be s%ecific&
those of the co##on case genera. 'n ter#s of #odern inguistics& $e can
therefore say that both for#ay and functionay& 2he co##on case is
un#arked and the genitive #arked.
7
See/ B. A. O S R L . TWJOZiSTQLX _JOJIJpZX LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. M.D |.&
7=6>G [. A. O S R L . TWJOZiSTQZs TZUWLQTZT LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.D |.& 7=67G
[. 'yish. The Structure of Modern Engish. M.,(.& 7=6<G [. z. Z p L M I J & . .
R L U J R L& |. |. JZQ. \JROS_SUUhs LUpIZsTQZs XlhQ. f.D |.& 7=<6G a.
Ces%ersen. A Modern Engish )ra##ar on Aistorica /rinci%es. (ondon,"o%enhagen&
7=6<G 5. Ces%ersen. Essentias of Engish )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=88. :ther advanced *oo)s
and detailed studies on this specialised topic are/ [. f. Z O _ P U T Q Z s . aY
LULIZWZiSTQZc QJUTWOPQZXc. [ TY.@ qbULIZWZiSTQZS QJUTWOPQZZ R XlhQLc
OLlIZiUhc WZmJRr. f.D |.. 7=6<G f. f. dPc_LU. dILpJINUhS LULIZWZiSTQZS
QJUTWOPQZZ QLQ JTJYhs RZM TJiSWLUZs iLTWZiUJpJ Z mJI,
78
There are gra##arians& 5. " u r # e and M.
* e u t s c h b e i n
7
& for instance& $ho recognise f o u r cases
#aking reference to no#inative& genitive& dative and accusative@ the
genitive can be e+%ressed by the ,! s,infection and by the of,
%hrase& the dative by the %re%osition to and by $ord,order& and
the accusative by $ord order aone. E. S o n n e n s T h e i n
insists that Engish has a vocative case since $e #ay %re%ose an
inter.ection oh before a na#e.
't is to be noted that the choice bet$een the t$o o%%osite
vie$%oints as to the category of case in Engish re#ains a #atter
of inguistic a%%roach. 1ro# the vie$%oint of infectiona
#or%hoogy the inade0uacy of 4%re%ositiona decension4 is
obvious. Using (atin categories $hich have no reevance for
Engish invoves inventing distinctions for Engish and ignoring the
distinctions that Engish #akes.
The #eaning of 4accusative4 in a t$o,ter# syste# no#inative D
accusative$ for instance& is different fro# the #eaning of
4accusative4 in a four, or five,ter# syste#. The ter# 4co##on case4
see#s therefore #ore .ustified than 4the accusative4. 'f $e ca hi#
an 4accusative4 in e+%ressions ike I o*e( hi#$ I a# li)e hi#$ It ,as on
hi#$ the ter# 4accusative4 #ay actuay hinder $hen $e transate into
another anguage $hich has an accusative aong $ith severa other
cases and in $hich the $ord for o*e( takes the dative& the $ord for li)e
the genitive and the $ord on abative& as they do in (atin.
45f course& the #or%hoogica o%%osition no#inative D accusative
#ust be e+%ressed by so#ething in Engish. But this 4so#ething4 is not
a #or%hoogica o%%osition& for there is no #or%hoogica differentiation
bet$een the no#inative and the accusative of nouns4.
;
-e #ust not& of course& ook at Engish through the attice of
categories set u% in (atin gra##ar. The e+tent to $hich one can re#ain
unconvinced that Engish has a gra##ar ike (atin is %robaby the
basis of the fauty vie$%oint that Engish has no gra##ar at a .
(atin distinguishes sub.ect& direct ob.ect& indirect ob.ect by case,
differences 2differences in the infe+ion of the $ord3 and arrange#ent
is not very i#%ortant. Engish aso distinguishes sub.ect& direct ob.ect&
and indirect ob.ect& but it does so argey by arrange#ent& e. g.@
The pupil handed the teacher his e0ercise.
-e *ought his little girl #an( nice to(s.
-ith a this& it can hardy be denied that there e+ist in Modern Engish
%re%ositiona structures denoting e+acty the sa#e gra##atica reation
as& say& the %ossessive case infection or $ord order distinguishing the
accusative fro# the dative. These are the so,caed <of'phrase< and <to'
phrase<$ in $hich the %re%ositions of and to function as gra##atica
indicators of %urey abstract syntactic reations identica $ith those
UJpJ TIJRL. [ TY.@ q[JmOJTh pOL__LWZiSTQJpJ TWOJXr. f.& 7=<<G [. z. OSRL.
OJYIS_L mLOLMZp_h R XlhQS LULIZWZiSTQJpJ TWOJX. [ TY.@ q[JmOJTh pSO_LUTQJpJ
XlhQJlULUZXr. f.D |.& 7=67.
7
See/ M. *eutschbein. Syste# der neuengischen Synta+& 7=;?G ). \ur#e. A
)ra##ar of the Engish (anguage. (ondon,Ne$ York& 7=87.
;
See/ Trnka B. 5n the Synta+ of the Engish Verb fro# "o+ton to *ryden /rague&
7=8>
9=
e+%ressed by cases. The gra##atica anaysis of such %hrases for their
fre0uency& variety and ada%tation #ust& surey& go %arae $ith the study
of the #or%hoogica category of case $hich in %resent,day Engish is
kno$n to have deveo%ed 0uite a s%ecific character.
The anaytica character of so#e %re%ositiona %hrases in Russian is
described by V. V. VVnJgradJv@
q[ OPTTQJ_ IZWSOLWPOUJ_ XlhQS T V''DV''' RR. mOJWSQLSW
_SMISUUhs& UJ pIPYJQZs mOJSTT TZUWLQTZiSTQZc Zl_SUSUZs R TZTWS_S
mLMSUhc JWUJKSUZs. PUQZZ _UJpZc mLMSSs JTIJUXnWTX Z
MZSOSUZOPnWTX TJiSWLUZX_Z T mOSMIJpL_Z. [TS XOiS
JYULOPZRLSWTX RUPWOSUUSS OLTTIJSUZS R TS_LUWZiSTQJs TZTWS_S
mOSMIJpJR. [ WJ ROS_X QLQ JMUZ mOJTWhS mOSMIJpZ@ OKR$ OE$ eJQJO$ eQI$
eEO$ pQEPJ$ HpMESL$ WJQJS$ PJUOc$ L WS_ YJISS mOSMIJpZ ULOSiUJpJ WZmL@
nKIS$ HQJOI$ PIPE Z W. m. D mJiWZ SIZQJ_ TJcOLUXnW TRJZ OSLINUhS
ISQTZiSTQZS lULiSUZX& MOPpZS mOSMIJpZ@ T$ ST$ IS$ M$ GT$ EFWTHFI$ GTO$
EF$ eE$ eQE$ H$ c D R JWMSINUhc TSOLc TRJSpJ PmJWOSYISUZX& ZUhS R
_SUNKSs TWSmSUZ& ZUhS RmIJWN MJ mJIUJpJ mOSROLoSUZX R mLMSUhS
mOSZQTh& JTILYIXnW TRJZ ISQTZiSTQZS lULiSUZX& L ZUJpML mJiWZ
TJRTS_ WSOXnW Zcr
1
.
't is i#%ortant to re#e#ber that the gra##atica content of the
%ossessive case is rather co#%e+. Besides i#%ying %ossession in the
strict sense of the ter#& it is $idey current in other functions. "o#%are
such %atterns& as@
a3 #( sister's roo# 2genitive of k the roo# of #( sister
%ossession3
b3 #( sister's arrival 2sub.ective k the arrival of #( sister
genitive3
c3 the cri#inal's arrest 2ob.ective k the arrest of the cri#inal
genitive3
d3 a child's language q 20uaitative k the childish language a
,o#an's college q genitive3 k a college for ,o#en
e3 a #onth's rent X 2genitive of k a #onthl( rent
f3 three hours' dela( 8 #easure3 k a dela( for three hours
There is no for#a difference bet$een sub.ective and ob.ective
genitive$ bet$een genitives denoting %ossession and 0uaitative genitives$
but this kind of a#biguity is usuay $e carified by inguistic or
situationa conte+t. Thus& #other's care #ay #ean qInYJR _LWSOVr D
$ith reference to so#e individua& and q_LWSOZUTNQL InYJRr in its
genera 0uaitative sense. The #eaning of the %hrase #ay vary $ith the
conte+t.
The sa#e is true of such uses as ,ife's dut($ child's ps(cholog($
la,(er's life$ #an's dut($ etc.
The genitive of #easure or e+tent is easiy recognised as fairy
co##on in e+%ressions of a certain %attern& e. g.@ a #o#ent's silence$ a
da('s ,or)$ a #inute's reflection$ to a hair's *readth$ etc.
7
[. [. [ Z U J p O L M J R . {PTTQZs XlhQ. f.& 7=:9& %%. 6=<D9>>. ?>
The genitive infection is aso used $ith certain $ords $hich other$ise
do not confor# to noun %atterning& as in (esterda('s rain$ to'da('s #atch$
to'#orro,'s engage#ent. These are not idio#s& $ith their tota e+ica
#eaning fi+ed& but ony fi+ed %atterns or usage.
(i#its of s%ace do not %er#it to take notice of a idio#atic %atterns
estabished in this %art of Engish gra##ar. A fe$ further e+a#%es $i
suffice for iustration. These are& for instance@ I'# friends ,ith (ou$ $here
friends is %robaby %art of the indivisibe idio# <*e friends ,ith< A j
noun8pronoun$ used %redicativey.
/atterns $ith <of A genitive< usuay have a %artitive sense denoting
<one of<$ e. g./ It is a novel of 9. London's1Done of his novels2. Cf. It is a
novel *( 9. London. 1Da novel ,ritten *( 9. London2.
Si#iary@ Fleur's a cousin of ours$ 9on. 2)as$orthy3
'n e+%ressive anguage this for# #ay beco#e %urey descri%tive.
Endo$ed $ith e#otive functions in s%ecia inguistic or situationa
conte+t it #ay $eaken its gra##atica #eaning and ac0uire sub.ective
#oda force denoting ad#iration& anger& %raise& dis%easure& etc.& e. g.@
Margaret ... ,as ta)en *( surprise *( certain #oods of !er hus*and's.
2)aske3
The ,!s infection offers so#e %ecuiar difficuties of gra##atica
anaysis in idio#atic %atterns $ith the so,caed grou%,genitives& e. g.@ Mr.
,hat's'his'na#e's re#ar)$ or -e said it in plent( of people's hearing.
There are aso %atterns ike <the #an I sa, (esterda('s son< 0uoted by
A. S$eet
7
. 5ne #ore e+a#%e.
The *londe I had *een dancing ,ith's na#e ,as Cernice so#ething
Cra*s or [re*s. 2Sainger3
-e cannot fai to see that the 's beongs here to the $hoe structure
noun A attri*utive clause.
*ifferent kind of such grou%,genitives are not infre0uent and see# to
be on the increase in %resent,day coo0uia Engish.
Mention shoud aso be #ade of the %arae use of the !s for# and the
%re%osition of found in %atterns ike the foo$ing@
In the light of this it ,as 3yman's *elief and it is #ine D that it is a
man's dut( and the dut( of his friend to see to it that his e0it fro# this
,orld$ at least$ shall *e #ade ,ith all possi*le dignit(. 2Tayor3
;
And here are a fe$ e+a#%es of s%ecia use of the %ossessive case in
fossiised e+%ressions of the for#ua character& such as@ to one's heart's
content$ for pit('s sa)e$ out of har#'s ,a($ at one's fingers' ends$ for old
ac;uaintance's sa)e$ for appearance's sa)e. These e+%ressions $ere
gra##aticay reguar and e+%icabe in their day& but they foo$
gra##atica or se#antic %rinci%es $hich have no$ faen into disuse.
There are aso %eonastic %atterns $ith the %ost,%ositiona genitive
intensifier o,n used $ith the 's,for#& e. g.@ Mar('s o,n dressing'ta*le.
A $ord shoud be said about the %urey idio#atic absoute use of the
genitive case $ith ocative force in %atterns ike the foo$ing@
I *ought this at the grocer's.
7
See@ A. S$eet. A Ne$ Engish )ra##ar. 5+ford& 7=<<.
;
^uoted *( B. 'PVsh. The Structure of Modern Engish. M.& 7=6<& %. :=.
?7
The *a)er's is round the corner.
The fa#ous St. .aul's is one of the principal sights of London.
1or#ations of this kind are on the borderine bet$een gra##ar and vocabuaryG the
,!s,infection see#s to have deveo%ed into a derivative suffi+ used to for# a noun fro#
another noun.
The reative distribution of the of,%hrase and the 's,infection& as a recurrent feature of
the anguage& #ust be given due attention in earning stye and usage in Engish.
't is interesting to note& in concusion& that there is a change going on in %resent,day
Engish $hich runs counter to the genera trend to$ards oss of infections& that is the
s%reading of 's,genitive at the e+%ense of the of,genitive. Unti a fe$ years ago& the
genitive $ith 's $as used in #odern ti#es #ainy $ith nouns $hich coud be re%aced 2in
the singuar3 by the %ronouns he and she$ but not $ith nouns $hich coud be re%aced by
the %ronoun it/ so that %eo%e nor#ay said the #an's face and the ,o#an's face$ but the
face of the cloc) and the surface of the ,ater. The 's,genitive $as used in certain
e+%ressions of ti#e and distance 1an hour's ti#e2$ and coud be used $ith #any nouns
re%aceabe in the singuar by it or the( 1the "overn#ent's decision24 as is $e kno$n&
there $as aso a nu#ber of co##ony used %hrases $here the 's,genitive $as used even
though the noun $as one $hich coud be re%aced in the singuar ony by it 1+e, \ear's
&a($ the ,ater's edge2. 'n recent years& ho$ever& the 's,genitive has co#e into co##on
use $ith nouns $hich are re%aceabe in the singuar ony by it. Aere are a fe$ e+a#%es
taken fro# re%utabe sources@ resorts' ,eather k the ,eather of seaside to,ns4 hu#an
nature's diversit( k the diversit( of hu#an nature4 the ga#e's la,s B the la,s of the
ga#e. Many #ore e+a#%es $i be found in books and in ne$s%a%ers. -e cannot fai to
see that this tendency for 's to re%ace of is a deveo%#ent fro# the anaytic to the
synthetic@ the of,%hrase is re%aced by the 's,infection.
The reative distribution of the of,%hrase and the 's,genitive as a recurrent feature of
the anguage& #ust be given due attention as reevant to synony#y in gra##ar.
't $i be i#%ortant to re#e#ber that the distinction bet$een iving and ifeess things is
not cosey observed& and the 's,genitive is often used in designations of things to i#%art
descri%tive force and at the sa#e ti#e stress the governing noun.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es given by ). "ur#e are@
5hen I thin) of all the sorro, and the *arrenness that has *een ,rought in #( life *(
,ant of a fe, #ore pounds per annu#$ I stand aghast at money's significance.
...for the sa)e of the mind's peace$ one ought not to in;uire into such things too
closel(.
% boo#'s chances depend #ore on its selling ;ualities than its ,orth
1
.
Aere is a very good e+a#%e fro# )as$orthy to iustrate the state#ent@
7
See/ ). "ur#e. A )ra##ar of the Engish (anguage. (ondon,Ne$ York& 7=87.
82
-e had chosen the furniture hi#self$ and so co#pletel( that no
su*se;uent purchase had ever *een a*le to change the roo#'s
at#osphere. 2)as$orthy3
Associations $ith ife are certainy strong in %ersonification& e. g.@ the
ocean's roar or Truth's greatest victories$ etc. 1urther iustrations taken
fro# re%utabe sources are@
resorts' ,eather k the ,eather of seaside to,ns
hu#an nature's diversit( k the diversit( of hu#an nature
the ga#e's la,s k the la,s of the ga#e
The s%reading of the 's,genitive in %resent,day Engish at the e+%ense
of the of,%hrase is& in fact& a deveo%#ent fro# the anaytic to the
synthetic $hich see#s to run counter to the genera trends to$ards the oss
of infections.
The synony#ic encounter of the !s,genitive and the of,%hrase #ay be
iustrated by e+a#%es $ith 4genitive of %ossession4& 4sub.ective and
ob.ective genitive4& but the use of the 's,genitive in Modern Engish is
co#%arativey restricted here and the of,%hrase is very e+tensivey used in
virtuay the sa#e sense@
Soa#es' daughter k, the daughter of Soa#es
his sister's arrival k, the arrival of his sister
dut('s call k the call of the dut(
the children's education k the education of the children
't is to be noted that in #any cases the s%ecia #eaning of the genitive
de%ends on the intrinsic #eaning of each of the t$o $ords connected& and
is therefore in each case readiy understood by the hearer. The of,%hrase
denoting %ossession is generay %referred $hen the noun is #odified by a
engthy attributive ad.unct attached to it.
The 's,for# is rarey used as the ob.ective genitive. The of,%hrase in
this function is fairy co##on& e. g.@ the sense of *eaut($ the sense of
s#ell$ love of life$ the reading of *oo)s$ the feeling of safet($ a lover of
poetr($ etc.
The& of,%hrase in Modern Engish is $idey current in various ty%es of
structures& denoting@
a3 the idea of 0uantity or %art 24%artitive genitive43& e. g.@ a piece of
*read$ a lu#p of sugar$ a ca)e of soap$ etc.G
b3 #ateria of $hich a thing is done& e. g.@ a dress of sil)4
c3 %osition in s%ace or direction& e. g.@ south of Mosco,$ ,ithin 1r
#iles of London4
d3 reations of ti#e& e. g.@ of an evening$ of late$ all of a sudden4
e3 attributive reations& e. g.@ the language of a child Da child's
language$ the voice of a ,o#an Da ,o#an's voice$ etc.G
f3 co#%osition or #easure& e. g.@ a group of children$ a herd of cattle$
a floc) of *irds$ a s,ar# of *ees$ etc.
There are aso %atterns $ith the of,%hrase functioning as the a%%ositive
genitive& e. g.@ the cit( of Ro#e$ the Repu*lic of France$ etc.
Aongside $ith this a%%ositive construction there is another. The
a%%ositive #ay be %aced after the governing noun& e. g.@ La)e Michigan$
the River Tha#es$ etc.
83
THE ARTICLE
)ra##arians are not a$ays agreed as to the gra##atica status of the
artice in Modern Engish.
'n structura gra##ars the artice is often dis%ensed $ith as a se%arate
%art of s%eech and absorbed into the ad.ective cass.
The na#e 4deter#iners4 is then given to cosed syste# ite#s& $hich&
functioning as ad.uncts& sho$ their head,$ords to be nouns. The #ost
centra ty%e of 4deter#iner4 is that to $hich $e traditionay give the
na#e artice.
So#e gra##arians consider the artice to be a kind of #or%he#e. The
absence of the artice is accordingy referred to as 4Eero,#or%he#e4
a%%ied in infected anguages to certain for#s having no gra##atica
endings and thus differing fro# such for#s of the sa#e $ord as have their
o$n endings. This state#ent is o%en to 0uestion and not in every sense
vaid. 't see#s #ore in accordance $ith the nature of the anguage to
identify the Engish artice as a ty%ica #or%hoogica category& a s%ecia
function,$ord used as an overt #arker of the noun and contributing to its
#eaning.
The %ractice %revaent in Engish gra##ars is to describe the
#utifarious use of the artice $ith different casses of nouns. Reference is
generay #ade to its %articuarising& generaising& defining& descri%tive
and other functions as $e as traditiona idio#atic use. '#%ortant
treat#ents of the sub.ect& $ith absence of artice aso incuded as a ter# in
the artice syste#& $i be found in the gra##ar books and $ork,%a%ers
given in our reference ist. Students of Engish $i a$ays find it he%fu
to consut such sources for the study of the artices in Engish as :0ford
!nglish &ictionar( and "hristo%hersen!s #onogra%h The %rticles/ a Stud(
of Their Theor( and Use.
The definite and the indefinite artice as #utuay e+cusive stand in
obvious contrast. Their use is buit around contrasting definiteness and
indefiniteness$ generalisation and concretisation.
-ith absence of artice functioning as a ter# in the artice syste#
2so#eti#es referred to as the Eero,for#3 distinction #ust aso be #ade
bet$een such contrastive uses based on the category of nu#ber as@
Singular 2the indefinite artice3 @@ .lural 2absence of artice3 Counta*le
2the indefinite artice3 @@ Uncounta*le 2absence of artice3
-ith regard to the criteria e#%oyed in our anaysis $e have certain
observations $hich are %ertinent to a su##ary state#ent. 'n the first
%ace& it is i#%ortant to be cear about the gra##atica #eaning of each
artice& finding out $hether it has one or severa #eanings& each of the#
signaed by the conte+t. -e cannot describe& for instance& the #eanings of
one artice ony in ter#s of ho$ it contrasts $ith the other& but #ust take
account of conte+tua indicationsG $e have to ook at contrasting %atterns
rather than contrasting for#s. And here the 0uestion naturay arises about
the invariabe #eaning of the artice& by $hich $e #ean& taking the vie$
%ut for$ard by A. 'sachenko
7
& a stabe ee#ent in its
7
See/ b. [. T L i S U Q J . a pOL__LWZiSTQJ_ lULiSUZZ. q[JmOJTh
XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=6:.
84
gra##atica #eaning that is a$ays %reserved irres%ective of the conte+t
in $hich it occurs.
't see#s %erfecty reasonabe to say& for instance& that the invariabe
gra##atica #eaning of the indefinite artice is that of generaisation. As
a #atter of fact& this ee#ent of #eaning& i. e. referring an ob.ect to a
$hoe cass of si#iar ones $ithout its individua %ecuiarities& is
%reserved in a the variety of its uses. E+a#%es are@
a3 % stitch in ti#e saves nine. b3 % little *ird perched on the tree. c3 %
*ird #a( *e )no,n *( its song. d3 Cirds of a feather floc) together. e3 The(
,ere tal)ing to a *o( I )no, ,ell. f3 I consider this picture a #asterpiece
of art.
As can be seen fro# the above e+a#%es& the invariabe ee#ent of
indefiniteness is %reserved in a the %atterns. The difference in #eaning
$i be sought in the %articuar ty%e of %redication in $hich the artice
a%%ears.
25bserve the difference in #eaning if $e re%ace a by the in the above
sentencesG consider that it is not a$ays the sa#e difference3.
The indefinite artice in its fu range stands in contrast to the definite
artice. The invariabe #eaning of the atter is that of restriction and
concretisation.
The definite artice the is an unstressed variant of the de#onstrative
that. 1ro# the %oint of vie$ of #eaning it functions as a ess forcefu
e0uivaent of this as $e as that.
Cf. -o, do (ou li)e the ,eather?
-o, do (ou li)e this ,eather?
The distinctive feature of the definite artice in such %arae uses is that
the ee#ent of %ointing is nor#ay $eaker $ith the than $ith the
de#onstrative %ronoun. There is si#iar direction of the attentionG but
there is #ore de%endence on obviousness and ess on seection by #eans
of %ointing of one kind or another. Vie$ed fro# this ange& the definite
artice is a great dea ike he and it. "haracteristicay the indicates that
identification see#s co#%ete on the basis of cons%icuousness in the
%articuar situation or conte+t.
<-o, did (ou do it$ this rotten thing?< he as)ed. <Let #e see the
plates. \es. \es. That's it. \ou loo) health( as a goat. 5ho's the prett(
girl?< 2Ae#ing$ay3
*ifficuties often arise $hen the %resence or absence of the artice
signas contrasted structura reationshi%s. Such kind of contrast is seen&
for instance in@
a *o,l or vessel // a *o,l or a vessel. The first $i #ean that *o,l
and vessel are synony#s and no contrast bet$een the t$o is intended. 'n
the second& the intention is to contrast the t$o and i#%y that if the ob.ect
is *o,l$ it is not a vessel. This contrast is not inherent in the a as such& but
in the different structura reationshi% $hich the %resence or absence of the
indefinite artice signas.
Such reations #ay be #arked by radicay different #eans in various
other anguages.
Variations in the use of the artices and their significant absence #ust
be e+a#ined in the gra##atica environ#ent in $hich nouns
85
occur. The structura and e+ica #eanings of nouns a%%ear ine+tricaby
invoved and are inse%arabe. The #eaning of the artice reveas itsef in
actua s%eech& i. e. in reation to a noun used in a given conte+t.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es to iustrate the state#ent are given beo$.
5thers $i readiy occur to the student.
%nd in Soa#es$ loo)ing on his father so ,orn and ,hite and ,asted$
listening to his strangled *reathing$ there rose a passionate vehe#ence of
anger against +ature$ cruel$ ine0ora*le +ature$ )neeling on the chest of
that ,isp of a *od($ slo,l( pressing out the *reath$ pressing out the life of
the *eing ,ho ,as dearest to hi# in the ,orld. -is father$ of all #en$ had
lived a careful life, #oderate$ a*ste#ious$ and this ,as his re,ardD to
have life slo,l($ painfull( s;uee=ed out of hi#. 2)as$orthy3
...It had *een t!e old $ngland$ ,hen the( lived do,n (et here D t!e
$ngland of pac#!orses and ver( little s#o)e$ of peat and ,ood fires, and
,ives ,ho never left (ou$ *ecause the( couldn't$ pro*a*l(. % static
$ngland, that dug and ,ove4 ,here (our parish ,as (our ,orld$ and (ou
,ere a church,arden if (ou didn't ta)e care. 2)as$orthy3
't is to be noted that the use of the artice $ith abstract noun has its
o$n idiosyncratic traits in Engish and %resents s%ecia difficuties for a
foreign student to #aster.
"ontrasting use of the artice& de%ending on the conte+t& the #eaning
of noun ad.uncts in %articuar& is often an effective #eans to %roduce
e#%hasis in %ictoria anguage& e. g.@
The river ,as ,hitening4 the dus) see#ed held in the trees$ ,aiting to
spread and fl( into a s)( 3ust drained of sunset. Ver( peaceful$ and a little
rie D the hour *et,een7 Those starlings #ade a rac)et D disagreea*le
*eggars4 there could *e no real self'respect ,ith such short tails7 The
s,allo,s ,ent *($ ta)ing 'night'caps' on guats and earl( #oths4 and the
poplars stood so still D 3ust as if listening D that Soa#es put his hand to
feel for *ree=e. +ot a *reath? %nd then$ all at once D no s,allo,s fl(ing$
no starlings4 a chal)( hue over river$ over s)(7 The lights sprang up in the
house. % night'fl(ing *eetle passed hi#$ *oo#ing. The de, ,as failing D
he felt it$ #ust go in. %nd as he turned$ ;uic)l($ dus) softened the trees$ the
s)($ the river. 2)as$orthy3
Aere is a good e+a#%e to sho$ ho$ effective is the re%etitive use of
nouns $ith the definite artice for styistic %ur%oses in narration@
It ,as hot that night. Coth she and her #other had put on thin$ pale
lo, froc)s. The dinner flo,ers ,ere pale. Fleur ,as struc) ,ith the pale
loo) of ever(thing4 her father's face$ her #other's shoulders4 the pale
panelled ,alls$ the pale gre( velvet( carpet$ the la#p'shade$ even the soup
,as pale. There ,as not one spot of colour in the roo#$ not even ,ine in
the pale glasses$ for no one dran) it. 5hat ,as not pale ,as *lac) Dher
father's clothes$ the *utler's clothes$ her retriever stretched out e0hausted
in the ,indo,$ the curtains *lac) ,ith a crea# pattern. % #oth ca#e in$
and that ,as pale. %nd silent ,as that half'#ourning dinner in the heat...
-er father called her *ac) as she ,as follo,ing her #other out. She
sat do,n *eside hi# at #e ta*le$ ana$ unpinning the pale hone(suc)le$ put
it to her nose. 2)as$orthy3
The re%etitive use of the definite artice $ith abstract nouns is an
86
effective #eans to intensify their e#otive favour in a given conte+t.
E+a#%es are nu#erous@
Thin) of the need( #an ,ho has spent his all$ *eggared hi#self and
pinched his friends$ to enter the profession$ ,hich ,ill never (ield hi# a
#orsel of *read. T!e waiting Mt!e !ope Mt!e disappointment Mt!e
fear M t!e misery M t!e poerty M the *light on his hopes$ and end to
his career D the suicide perhaps$ or the sha**($ slip'shod drun)ard.
2*ickens3
5bserve aso the use of the definite artice $ith %ro%er nouns for
styistic %ur%oses in the foo$ing sentences@
5h( should not the a*le and ,onderful Co,per,ood *e allo,ed to
#a)e the t,o of the# rich? 2*reiser3
%unt -ester$ the silent$ the patient$ that *ac),ater of the fa#il( energ($
sat in the dra,ing'roo#$ ,here the *linds ,ere dra,n4 and she too$ had
,ept at first$ *ut ;uietl($ ,ithout visi*le effect... She sat$ sli#$ #otionless$
stud(ing the grate$ her hands idle in the lap of her *lac) sil) dress.
2)as$orthy3
If Li= ,as #( girl and I ,as to snea) out to a dance coupled up ,ith
an %nnie$ I'd ,ant a suit of chain ar#our on under #( gladso#e rags.
2Aenry3
The use of the artice $ith co##on and %ro%er nouns is often an
effective #eans of e+%ressive connotation& e. g.@
4...[no, #( partner? :ld Ro*inson<. <\es$ the Ro*inson. &on't (ou
)no,? The notorious Ro*inson<. 2"onrad3
4...-o, goes it?<
<%ll ,ell< said Mr. "ills pushing the *ottle to,ards hi#.
-e too) it up and having surve(ed and s#elt it said ,ith e0traordinar(
e0pression/
<The?<
<The<$ returned the instru#ent #a)er. Upon that he ,histled as he
filled his glass and see#ed to thin) the( ,ere #a)ing holida($ indeed.
2*ickens3
'nstances are not fe$ $hen the o#ission of the artice is aso a #atter
of styistic considerations in narration& in free and easy coo0uia stye or&
say& re%resented s%eech in iterary %rose.
See ho$ the use of the nouns $ithout the artice is in har#ony $ith
the structure of the foo$ing sentences@
It had a si#ple sche#e D ,hite pon( in sta*le$ pigeon pic)ing up
so#e grains$ s#all*o( on upturned *as)et eating apple. 2)as$orthy3
There ,as a dro,s( hu# of ver( distant traffic4 the creepered trellis round
the garden shut out ever(thing *ut s)($ and house$ and pear'tree$ ,ith its
top *ranches still gilded *( the sun. 2)as$orthy3
!ngine$ ,heels and carriages ca#e ,ithin a fe, (ards$ ripping the
vie, into tatters of *lue s)( and field$ each in a deci#ated second dancing
*et,een the carriage'gaps.
A $ord #ust be said about a distinct trend in #odern Engish synta+ is
the o#ission of the definite and indefinite artices in various $ays fa#iiar
to students of Engish and other Euro%ean anguages.
The oss of the definite artice has affected certain s%ecific %hrases& e. g.@
go to universit( for go to the universit(
all #orning for all the #orning
?9
all ,inter for all the ,inter
all ,ee) for all the ,ee)$ etc.
a #a3orit( of ... see#s to re%ace the #a3orit( of ...
't is difficut to see anything to be gained by the change so far as
distinction of #eaning is concerned& since the od and ne$ uses a%%ear to
be synony#ous
7
.
R.=i,ion Mat.ria!
7. Be ready to discuss the basic assu#%tions for the definition of %arts
of s%eech as the ta+ono#ic casses of $ords.
;. "o##ent on o%%ositiona reations bet$een different %arts of s%eech.
8. )ive co##ents on the inter%aradig#atic ho#ony#y as being
reevant to structura a#biguity in Modern Engish.
:. )et ready to discuss the o%%osition 4oneness D %uraity4 as being
e+%ressed in Modern Engish.
<. "o##ent on functiona trans%ositions of singuar for#s in the
category of nu#ber.
6. Be ready to discuss the %robe# of case in Modern Engish.
9. "o##ent on the %oyse#y of the %ossessive case.
?. )ive co##ents on the synony#ic 4encounter4 of the !s,genitive
and the of,%hrase.
=. *escribe the distributiona vaue of the of,%hrase in Modern Engish.
7>. )ive iustrative e+a#%es of styistic trans%ositions in the
gra##ar of nouns. "o#%are si#iar deveo%#ents in other anguages.
77. "o##ent on the use of the grou%,genitive in Modern Engish.
7;. Be ready to give co##ents on the inguistic change going on in
%resent,day Engish in the use of the !s,genitive at the e+%ense of the of,%hrase.
78. Be ready to discuss the %robe# of the artice in Modern Engish.
7:. )ive co##ents on the absence of the artice functioning as a ter#
in the artice syste#.
7<. Variations in the use of the artices and their significant absence
#ust be e+a#ined in the gra##atica environ#ent in $hich nouns occur.
The #eaning of the artice reveas itsef in actua s%eech. "an you give a
fe$ e+a#%es to iustrate the state#entv
76. *ifficuties often arise $hen the %resence and absence of the
artice signas contrasted structura reationshi%s. )ive e+a#%es to
iustrate the state#ent.
79. Revie$ your kno$edge of the styistic functions of the artices in
Modern Engish.
7
See/ B. 1Jster. The "hanging Engish (anguage. )reat Britain& 7=97.
Capt.r I' THE
ADLECTI'E
An ad2.cti=. is a $ord $hich e+%resses the attributes of substances
1good$ (oung$ eas($ soft$ loud$ hard$ ,ooden$ fla0en2. As a cass of e+ica
$ords ad.ectives are identified by their abiity to fi the %osition bet$een
noun,deter#iner and noun and the %osition after a co%ua,verb and a
0uaifier.
"onsidered in #eaning& ad.ectives fa into t$o arge grou%s@
a3 0uaitative ad.ectives&
b3 reative ad.ectives.
9ua!itati=. ad2.cti=., denote 0uaities of siEe& sha%e& coour& etc.
$hich an ob.ect #ay %ossess in various degrees. Huaitative ad.ectives
have degrees of co#%arison.
R.!ati=. ad2.cti=., e+%ress 0uaities $hich characterise an ob.ect
through its reation to another ob.ectG ,ooden ta*les k ta*les #ade of
,ood$ ,oollen gloves k gloves #ade of ,ool$ Si*erian ,heat B ,heat
fro# Si*eria. 1urther e+a#%es of reative ad.ectives are@ rural$ industrial$
ur*an$ etc.
(inguisticay it is uttery i#%ossibe to dra$ a rigid ine of
de#arcation bet$een the t$o casses& for in the course of anguage
deveo%#ent the so,caed reative ad.ectives graduay deveo% 0uaitative
#eanings. Thus& for instance& through #eta%horic e+tension ad.ectives
denoting #ateria have co#e to be used in the figurative sense& e. g.@
golden age lJIJWZs RVQ& golden hours oLTIZRZs iLT& golden #ean lJIJWL
TSOSMZUL& golden opportunit( iPMJRL ULpJML& golden hair lJIJWLRS
RJIJTTX& etc. "o#%are aso@ ,ooden chair and ,ooden face$ ,ooden
#anners4 fla0en threads and fla0en hair.
The ad.ective leaden ] #ade of lead is often used $ith s%ecia
ausion to its 0uaities. Cf. a leaden plate and a leaden sleep$ leaden
at#osphere$ leaden s)(. Through #eta%horic e+tension leaden has aso
co#e to #ean 4o$ in 0uaity4& 4chea%4& 4heavy4 or 4du4 inaction& in
feeing& understanding& etc. synony#ous $ith sluggish _IXRZs.
Anaogous deveo%#ents #ay easiy be found in other anguages.
't see#s %ractica to distinguish bet$een base ad.ectives and derived
ad.ectives
7
.
Ba,. ad2.cti=., e+hibit the foo$ing for#a 0uaities@ they #ay take
infections 'er and 'est or have so#e #or%ho%hone#ic changes in
7
See/ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& %. ;9>.
?=
cases of the su%%etion& such as& for instance& in good D*etter Dthe *est4
*ad D ,orse D the ,orst. Base ad.ectives are aso distinguished for#ay
by the fact that they serve as ste#s fro# $hich nouns and adverbs are
for#ed by the derivationa suffi+es 'ness and 'l(.
Base ad.ectives are #osty of one syabe& and none have #ore than
t$o syabes e+ce%t a fe$ that begin $ith a derivationa %refi+ un'or in'$
e. g.@ unco##on$ inhu#an$ etc. They have no derivationa suffi+es and
usuay for# their co#%arative and su%erative degrees by #eans of the
infectiona suffi+es 'er and 'est. Huite a nu#ber of based ad.ectives for#
verbs by adding the derivationa suffi+ 'en$ the %refi+ en' or both@ *lac)en$
*righten$ cheapen$ s,eeten$ ,iden$ enrich$ enlarge$ e#*itter$ enlighten$
enliven$ etc.
D.ri=.d ad2.cti=., are for#ed by the addition of derivationa suffi+es
to free or bound ste#s. They usuay for# anaytica co#%aratives and
su%eratives by #eans of the 0uaifiers #ore and #ost. So#e of the #ore
i#%ortant suffi+es $hich for# derived ad.ectives are@
;a-!. added to verbs and bound ste#s& denoting 0uaity $ith
i#%ication of ca%acity& fitness or $orthness to be acted u%onG 'a*le is
often used in the sense of 4tending to4& 4given to4& 4favouring4& 4causing4&
4abe to4 or 4iabe to4. This very co##on suffi+ is a ive one $hich can
be added to virtuay any verb thus giving rise to #any ne$ coinages. As it
is the descendant of an active derivationa suffi+ in (atin& it aso a%%ears
as a %art of #any $ords borro$ed fro# (atin and 1rench. E+a#%es
for#ed fro# verbs@ re#ar)a*le$ adapta*le$ conceiva*le$ drin)a*le$
eata*le$ regretta*le$ understanda*le$ etc.G e+a#%es for#ed fro# bound
ste#s@ capa*le$ porta*le$ via*le. The un%roductive variant of the suffi+
'a*le is the suffi+ 'i*le 2(atin 'i*ilis$ '*ilis2$ $hich $e find in ad.ectives
(atin in origin@ visi*le$ forci*le$ co#prehensi*le$ etc.G 'i*le is no onger
used in the for#ation of ne$ $ords.
;a!& ;ia! 2(at. 'alls$ 1rench 'al$ 'el2 denoting 0uaity 4beonging to4&
4%ertaining to4& 4having the character of4& 4a%%ro%riate to4& e. g.@
ele#ental$ *acterial$ auto#nal$ funda#ental$ etc.
The suffi+ 'al added to nouns and bound ste#s 1fatal$ local$ natural$
national$ traditional$ etc.3 is often found in co#bination $ith 'ic$ e. g.@
*iological$ *otanical$ 3uridical$ t(pical$ etc.
;i, D)er#anic in origin& denoting nationaity& 0uaity $ith the
#eaning 4of the nature of4& 4beonging to4& 4rese#bing4 aso $ith the
sense 4so#e$hat ike4& often i#%ying conte#%t& derogatory in force& e.
g.@ Tur)ish$ *ogish$ outlandish$ ,hitish$ ,olfish.
,y D )er#anic in origin& denoting 0uaity 4%ertaining to4& 4abounding
in4& 4tending or incined to4& e.g.@ roc)($ ,ater($ *ush($ #il)($ sunn($ etc.
THE CATEGOR( OF INTENSIT( AND COMPARISON
)ra##arians see# to be divided in their o%inion as to the inguistic
status of degrees of co#%arison of ad.ectives for#ed by #eans of #ore
and 1the2 #ost. 'n books devoted to teaching gra##ar the atter are
traditionay referred to as anaytica for#s. But there is aso another vie$
90
based ony on for# and distribution according to $hich #ore and 1the2
#ost are referred to as ordinary 0uaifiers and for#ations ike #ore
interesting and the #ost interesting $hich go %arae $ith such free $ord,
grou%s as less interesting and the least interesting are caed %hrasa
co#%aratives and su%eratives. Attention is then dra$n to the fact that
#ore and #ost #ay aso easiy co#bine $ith nouns& e. g.@ #ore attention$
#ore people$ #ost people$ etc.
1
This is& in fact& an od discussion& dating back at east as far as A.
S$eet as to $hether the #or%he#es of co#%arison 'er$ 'est are infections
or suffi+es. A. S$eet s%oke of the# as infectiona but considered such
for#ations a#ost as #uch a %rocess derivation as of infection
;
.
More i#%ortant that this difficuty in ter#inoogy are so#e other
%oints about ad.ectives.
*istinction $i be #ade bet$een 0uaitative ad.ectives $hich have
4gradabe4 #eanings and those $hich have 4absoute4 #eanings.
A thing can& for instance& be #ore of less narro,$ and narro, is a gradabe
ad.ective for $hich corres%onding gradations $i be e+%ressed either by
anaytica or& $hen stye de#ands& by infected for#s@ narro, D
narro,er D the narro,est narro, D #ore narro, D the #ost narro,
"ontrasted to ad.ectives $ith such 4gradabe4 #eanings are 0uaitative
ad.ectives $ith 4absoute4 #eaning& e. g.@ real$ e;ual$ perfect$ right$ etc.
These are& in their referents& inca%abe of such gradations. Un#odified&
they #ean the absoute of $hat they say. -ith #ore and #ost or $hen
infected they #ean <#ore nearl( real<$ <nearest of all to *eing real<$
<#ore nearl( e;ual< or <nearest of all to *eing e;ual<$ etc.
Anaytica and infected for#s of co#%arison cannot be referred to as
a$ays absoutey identica in function. The structure of the anaytica
for# %er#its contrastive stress,shifts and is therefore %referabe $hen
occasion de#ands. Stress on #ore and #ost $i focus attention on the
notion of degree& and stress on the ad.ective $i #ake the e+ica content
of the ad.ective #ore %ro#inent. "o#%are the foo$ing@ 273 -e is
!ealt!ier than his *rother. 2;3 -e is #ore health( than his *rother. 283 -e
is #ore health($ *ut less capa*le.
A universa feature in the gra##ar of ad.ectives is the absoute use of
co#%aratives and su%eratives. These for#s are so#eti#es used $here
there is no direct co#%arison at a& as in@ The *etter part of valour is
discretion 2Shakes%eare3G a *etter'class cafg$ sooner or later 2The Short
5+ford *ictionary3& etc. Cf.@ RZoL JTRVWL& mOJMPQWZ QOLoJ XQJTWV& etc.
Si#iary in )er#an@
ein alterer Mann IVWUX InMZUL Dein alter Mann TWLOL InMZUL.
eine grossere Stadi USRSIZQS _VTWJ Deine grosse Stadt RSIZQS _VTWJ.
The gra##atica content of the su%erative degree is that of degree of a
%ro%erty sur%assing a other ob.ects #entioned or i#%ied by the conte+t
or situation. There are cases& ho$ever& $hen the #eaning of
7
See/ -. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& %. ;9G A. Ai.
'ntroduction to (inguistic Structures. Ne$ York,Bir#ingha#& 7=<?& %. 76?.
;
See@ A. S$eet. A Ne$ Engish )ra##ar. 5+ford& 7=<<.
91
the su%erative co#es to be essentiay different& and ony a very high
degree of 0uaity or %ro%erty is #eant& $ith no co#%arison at a. This is
the so,caed 4eative4 2(at. gradus elativus2$ e. g./ I should do it ,ith the
greatest pleasure.
1urther e+a#%es are@
-e's got the #ost *eautiful #other$ ,ith lovel( silver( hair and a
(oung face ,ith dar) e(es. 2)as$orthy3
<It's #ost distasteful to #e<$ he said suddenl(. 4 +othing could *e
#ore so<. 2)as$orthy3
<M( health is *etter for it<$ he added hastil(. <%nd I a# ver( happ($
#ost happ(<. 2(ondon3
Absoute su%eratives $i be found in such %atterns in Ukrainian as@ R
ULsQJOJWKZs WSO_VU& R ULsQOLoJ_P ULTWOJ& ULs_ZIVKL InMZUL. Cf.
Russian@ RSIZiLsKZs PiSUhs& _ZISsKZs iSIJRSQ& R ULZIPiKS_
ULTWOJSUZZ& R QOLWiLsKZs TOJQ& etc. Si#iary in )er#an@ in *ester
Sti##ung$ in )>r=ester Zeit$ lie*ster Freund. 1rench@ Cette chsre enfant7
soupira la #attresse de pension de sa voi0 la plus tendre. 21rance3.
't is of interest to note that in certain conte+ts the co#%arative degree
of ad.ectives #ay function as a styistic aternative of 4absoute
su%erative4. The highest degree of 0uaity co#es to be e+%ressed here by
co#%arative contrast. The use of such 4co#%arative eatives!! is highy
effective and coourfu& e. g.@
Could a #an o,n an(thing prettier than this dining ta*le ,ith its deep
tints$ the starr($ soft'petalled roses$ the ru*( coloured glass$ and ;uaint
silver furnishing4 could a #an o,n an(thing prettier than the ,o#an ,ho
sat at it? 2)as$orthy3
Loo) at her sitting there. &oesn't she #a)e a picture? Chardin$ eh?
I've seen all t!e most beautiful ,o#en in the ,orld4 I've never seen
an(one more beautiful than Mada#e &ir) Stroeve. 2Maugha#3
...Into a denser gloo# than ever Cosinne( held on at a furious pace4
*ut his pursuer perceived #ore #ethod in his #adness D he ,as clearl(
#a)ing his ,a( ,est,ards. 2)as$orthy3
...In his leisure hours he pla(ed the piccolo. +o one in !ngland ,as
#ore relia*le.
...<-e's i#aginative$ \ol(on.<
<\es$ in a sanguinar( ,a(. &oes he love an(one 3ust no,?<
<+o4 onl( ever(one. There never ,as an(one *orn #ore loving or
#ore lova*le than 9on.<
<Ceing (our *o($ Irene.< 2)as$orthy3
'ntensification of a 0uaitative #eaning e+%ressed by ad.ectives #ay
be %roduced by@
73 adverbia intensifiers@ #uch$ a great deal$ far$ *( far$ far and a,a($
(et$ still and all$ e. g.@ #uch *etter$ still further$ all hot and *othered$ all
*locd(4
-e is far the #ost distinguished student in the group.
This ,ee) ,as *( far the *usiest ,e have ever had.
-e ,as far and a,a( the *est e0a#ple to follo,.
Si#iar in function are such intensifiers in Russian as@ UL_UJpJ& QPML&
RTS& SoS& etc.
=;
Si#iary in Ukrainian@ ULYLpLWJ& oS& MLISQJ& QPMZ.
S oSMOVKS YPIJ TJUS. PMZ QOLoS YPIZ PTmVcZ ULKJ SQTmSMZV.
;3 gra##atica %eonas#s@ a3 deafer than deaf$ ,hiter than ,hite4 b3
the ,hitest of the ,hite$ the greenest of the green.
!ver( little colon( of houses has its church and school'house peeping
fro# a#ong the ,hite roofs and shad( trees4 ever( house is t!e w!itest of
t!e w!ite, ever( Venetian *lind t!e greenest of the green4 ever( fine da('s
s)( the *luest of t!e blue. 2*ickens3
"o#%are the Ukrainian@ iZTWVKS iZTWJpJ& ISpKS ISpQJpJ& XTUVKS
XTUJpJ& etc.G si#iary in Russian@ iZoS iZTWJpJ& TILoS TILMQJpJ& XTUSS
XTUJpJ& etc.
83 the co#bination of a Su%erative $ith an of,%hrase $hich renders
the #eaning of a %artitive genitive& e. g.@ Che)hov is the greatest of all
,riters of short stories. /atterns of this kind are fairy co##on in
e+%ressive anguage.
<:f all things in the ,orld don't (ou thin) caution's the #ost a,ful?
S#ell the #oonlight7< She thrust the *losso# against his face4 9on agreed
giddil( that of all things in the ,orld caution ,as the ,orst$ and *ending
over )issed the hand ,hich held his. 2)as$orthy3
:3 the idio#atic variety of the %artitive genitive& e. g.@
Ceaut( is t!e wonder of all ,onders. 2-ide3
Scarlet 3er)ed her hands a,a( fro# his grasp and sprang to her feet<$
<I D(ou are the #ost ill'*red #an in the ,orld$ co#ing here at this time
of all ti#es ,ith (our filth( D I should have )no,n (ou'd never change.
2Mitche3
1urther e+a#%es are@ a patriot of patriots$ a ,ord of ,ords$ a hero of
heroes. Anaogous e+a#%es in Ukrainian@ MZRJ l MZR& pSOJs l pSOJR&
cJOJYOZs l cJOJYOZc& etc. Cf. Russian@ iPMJ Zl iPMST& pSOJs Zl pSOJSR&
cOLYOS Zl cOLYOSJR& QOLTLRZL Zl QOLTLRZ& etc. 1rench@ le #iracle
des #iracles4 )er#an@ der -eld der -elden.
<3 the variant for# of the %artitive genitive& e. g.@ la,(ers' la,(ers 2 `
the *est of all la,(ers2$ an actor's actor 1D the *est of all actors2$
si#iary& a *allpla(er's *allpla(er.
63 the of,%hrase in the function of the so,caed 4genitivus 0uaitatis4&
a universa deveo%#ent in #ost anguages.
Synony#ous $ith ad.ectives %ro%er& #odification structures of this
ty%e abound in iterary use. The inguistic essence of the structure is to
render the idea of 0uaity through the reationshi% of one ob.ect to the
other.
qfUJpZS OLlIZiUhS RSoZ TJTWJXW R TPoSTWRSUUJ_ RlLZ_JMSsTWRZZ
iSOSl TRJZ TRJsTWRLG TRJsTWRJ STWN TL_JS RlLZ_JMSsTWRZSr
7
.
E+a#%es are@ a loo) of 3o( ` a 3o(ful loo)$ a #an of energ( ` an
energetic #an$ a thing of great i#portance ` a ver( i#portant thing$
,riters of great repute ] ver( reputa*le ,riters$ a glance of conte#pt ]
a conte#ptuous glance$ a thing of great value D a valua*le thing$ a #an
of genius 1Cf. arch. genia3& etc.
7
q|SUZUTQZs TYJOUZQr '& %%. 7::D7:<.
=8
"o#%are anaogous structures in other anguages. Russian@ RJmOJT
YJINKJs RLUJTWZ D JiSUN RLUhs RJmOJTG iSIJRSQ YJINKJs
gOPMZZZ D JiSUN gOPMZOJRLUUhs iSIJRSQ. Ukrainian@ TmOLRL
RSIZQJpJ lULiSUUX D MPS RLIZRL TmOLRLG InMZUL RSIZQJpJ OJlP_P
DMPS OJlP_UL InMZUL 2the so,caed3 qOJMJRZs JlULiLINUZsr.
1rench@ affaire d'i#portance ` affaire i#portante$ *i3ou0 de pris ` *i3ou
prgcieu04 une affaire d'urgence D une affaire urgente4 un 3ardin de *eautg
` un *eau 3ardin. )er#an@ die Sache von grosser 5ichtig)eit ` eine sehr
,ichtige Sache.
)enitivus 0uaitatis is used to e+%ress #ore co#%e+ and #ore subte
shades of #eaning than ordinary ad.ectives do. The diversity of their use
for styistic %ur%oses in various anguages shoud not esca%e our notice.
She conceived of delights ,hich ,ere not$ sa, lights of 3o( that never
,ere on land or sea. 2*reiser3.
It ,as the *est of ti#es$ it ,as the ,orst of ti#es$ it ,as t!e age of
wisdom$ it ,as t!e age of foolis!ness, it ,as t!e epoc! of belief$ it ,as
t!e epoc! of incredulity, it ,as the season of lig!t, it ,as t!e season of
dar#ness, it ,as t!e spring of !ope, it was t!e winter of despair$ ,e had
ever(thing *efore us$ ,e had nothing *efore us... 2*ickens3
93 noun,%hrases N j '
sef
Da styistic aternative of the absoute
su%erative degree 2so,caed 4eative43& e. g.@
Mr. .ic),ic) is )indness itself. \ou are
patience itself ` \ou are #ost patient. She ,as
prudence itself D She ,as #ost prudent.
/hrases of this sort are #ore forcefu and e+%ressive that the res%ective
ad.ective in the su%erative degree. Such structures of %redication are good
evidence of the fact that 0uaity in so#e cases can be e+%ressed #ore
effectivey by a noun than an ad.ective.
?3 noun,%hrases all A N@
She is all patience$ (ou're all activit(.
She is all goodness 1Cf. She is ver( good2. -e is all nerves. 1Cf. -e is
ver( nervous2.
-e ,as all the )indest consideration 1Cf. -e ,as #ost considerate2.
The use of nouns instead of ad.ectives gives added e#%hasis to the
given 0uaity. "onsider aso the foo$ing e+a#%e@
9une stood in front$ fending off his idle curiosit( D a little *it of a
thing as so#e*od( once said D all hair and spirit$ ,ith fear less *lue
e(es$ a fir# 3a,$ and a *right colour$ ,hose face and *od( see#ed to
slender$ for her cro,n of her red'gold hair. 2)as$orthy3
=3 the use of abstract nouns #ade fro# ad.ectives. "o#%are@
her soft hair the softness of her hair
red roses the red 1ness2 of the roses
dar) despair the dar)ness of despair
the dar) night the dar) of night
7>3 the use of nouns in the function of e#%hatic #odifiers.
'n such uses nouns $eaken their #eaning of 4substance4 and a%%roach
=:
adverbs. This adverbia use of nouns sho$s great diversity. 't $i be
he%fu to distinguish the foo$ing@
a3 reations of ti#e& as in@ life long$ ,ee) long$ age long$ etc. b3
co#%arison@ 2different degrees of 0uaity3 cold *lac)$ stra, (ello,$ silver
gre($ lil( ,hite$ ash *lond$ ice cold$ sno, ,hite$ iron hard$ s)( *lue$ dog
tired$ paper ,hite$ pencil thin$ ruler straight$ pri#rose (ello,$ *ric) red$
*lade sharp$ dirt cheap4 #ountains high$ a *it longer$ a trifle easier$ a
shade dar)er$ an)le deep.
/atterns of this kind are generay used #eta%horicay and function as
e+%edients of e+%ress intensity and e#%hasis& e. g.@
I'll send .or) to Macon to'#orro, to *u( #ore seed. +o, the \an)les
,on't *urn it and our troops ,on't need it. "ood Lord$ cotton ought to go
s)( high this fall. 2Mitche3
1urther e+a#%es are@
-e is ,orld too #odest. That ,as lots *etter. This ,as heaps *etter. -e
,as stone deaf to our re;uest. The #ud ,as an)le deep.
Si#iar use of nouns $i aso be found in such %atterns as@ *one tired$
dog tired$ #ustard coloured$ horror struc)$ etc.
773 the use of intensifying adverbs& e. g.@ co#pletel($ entirel($
thoroughl($ utterl($ a,full($ terri*l($ fearfull($ frightfull($ dreadfull($
franticall($ *eastl($ terrificall($ etc.
The use of a noun rather than an ad.ective is very often %referred as a
#ore forcibe e+%ressive #eans to intensify the given 0uaity. "o#%are
the foo$ing synony#ic for#s of e+%ression@
-e ,as ;uite a success. D -e ,as ;uite successful.
It ,as good fun.D It ,as funn(.
Nouns functioning in this %osition can be #odified by adverbias of
degree& e. g.@
\ou ,ere al,a(s #ore of a realist than 9on4 and never so innocent.
2)as$orthy3
< 5e're all fond of (ou<$ he said$ <If (ou'd onl(< D he ,as going to
sa($ <*ehave (ourself<$ *ut changed it to ]<If (ou'd onl( *e #ore of a ,ife
to hi#<. 2)as$orthy3
<+ot #uch of an ani#al$ is it?< groaned Rhett. <Loo)s li)e he'll die.
Cut he is the *est I could find in the shafts'. 2Mitche3
7;3 the use of idio#atic co#%arisons& e. g.@ as good as gold$ as *old
as *rass$ as fit as a fiddle$ as ,hite a sheet$ as *us( as a *ee$ etc.
783 intensity of #eaning is #ost effective in %atterns $here the
deter#ining and the deter#ined ee#ents of the denotation #utuay
e+change their res%ective %arts& e. g.@ a 3e,el of a nature$ a devil of a
3ourne($ etc.
There is a$ays seection in such styistic devices skifuy #astered
by creative $riters. Aere is a cassica e+a#%e to see ho$ the effective use
of gra##atica synony#s of ad.ectives ends variety to s%eech in %ictoria
anguage@
<"o(a$ ,ith his satiric and surpassing precision$ his original <line<'$
and the daring of his light and shade$ could have reproduced to
ad#iration the group asse#*led round %nnette's tea'tra( in the ingle'noo)
*elo,. -e alone$ perhaps$ of painters ,ould have done 3ustice to the
sunlight
=<
filtering through a screen of creeper to t!e loely pallor of brass, the old
cut glasses, the thin slices of le#on in pale amber tea, 3ustice to %nnette
in her *lac) lac( dress4 t!ere ,as somet!ing of t!e fair Spaniard in !er
beauty, though it lac)ed the spiritualit( of that rare t(pe4 to 5inifred' s
gre('haired$ corseted solidit(4 to Soa#es$ of a certain gre( and flat4
c!ee#ed distinction, to the vivacious Michael Mont$ pointed in ear and
e(e4 to I#ogen$ dar)$ luscious of glance$ gro,ing a little stout4 to .rosper
.rofond$ wit! !is e5pression as w!o s!ould say, "%ell, (r. Goya, w!at's
t!e use of paintin' t!is small party'" Finall($ to 9ac) Cardigan$ wit! !is
s!ining stare and tanned sanguinity betraying t!e moing principle6
<I'# !nglish$ and I live to *e fit<. 2)as$orthy3
't is to be noted that different shades of intensity of a 0uaitative
#eaning #ay be e+%ressed by derivationa %refi+es& such as@ archi'$
e0tra'$ h(per'$ ultra'$ etc.& e. g.@ e0traordinar( h(percritical$
h(persensitive$ superhu#an$ superfine$ ultrafashiona*le$ ultra'rapid.
E+%ressive negation of a 0uaitative #eaning is so#eti#es i#%ied in
ad.ectives $ith negative %refi+es. *e%ending on the e+ica #eaning of the
ste# and the conte+t ad.ectives $ith the %refi+es in' and un' #ay have a
%ositive #eaning or indicate a high degree of a given 0uaity& e. g.@
invalua*le$ inco#para*le$ incredi*le$ unthin)a*le$ etc.
S&BSTANTI'ATION OF ADLECTI'ES
*erivation $ithout a derivative #or%he#e has been variousy treated
by gra##arians. 't has been custo#ary to s%eak of the conversion of
nouns& ad.ectives and verbs. The ter# conversion has been used for
various things. A. Kruisinga& for instance& #akes reference to conversion
$henever a $ord takes on a function $hich is not its basic one& as the use
of an ad.ective as a %ri#ary 1the poor$ the Critish$ shreds of pin)$ at his
*est2. Ae incudes here 0uotation $ords 1his< I don't )no,'s< and nouns
used as %re,ad.uncts ike stone ,all and this does not see# .ustified.
*istinction #ust naturay be #ade bet$een $hoy and %arty
substantivised ad.ectives.
Modern Engish ad.ectives #ay be either $hoy or %arty
substantivised. By $hoy substantivised ad.ectives $e #ean ad.ectives
$hoy converted into nouns. Such ad.ectives #ay be %receded by the
artice& take the %ura infection and #ay be used in the %ossessive case& e.
g.@ a native$ the native$ t,o natives$ a native's character$ etc.
Ad.ectives ony %arty converted into nouns take the definite artice 2as
reguar nouns do3 but are neither infected for the %ura nor can be used in
the %ossessive case. The definite artice has aso a different function fro#
that it $oud have $hen used $ith a noun@ the happ( #eans 4ha%%y
%eo%e4 in genera. Such substantivised ad.ectives kee% #uch of their
ad.ectiva nature& $hich $e see in the %ossibiity of 0uaifying the# by
#eans of adverbs@ e. g. the reall( happ(.
Substantivation of abstract ad.ectives intensifies the $ord #eaning and
often serves styistic %ur%oses as a coourfu #eans of e#%hasis in iterary
stye. "onverted nouns of this kind are generay used in singuar
constructions& as in@
=6
Steel'*lue of the fallen evening$ *are plane'trees$ ,ide river$ frost(
(ear7 -e turned to,ard ho#e.
...The fine$ the large$ the florid D all off7 2)as$orthy3
%nother shift of the *o0$ and so#e other had *eco#e the *eautiful$ the
perfect. 2*reiser3.
-e drove slo,l($ en3o(ing the ;uiet of the evening. 2"ronin3.
In that #o#ent of e#otion he *etra(ed the Fors(te in hi# D forgot
hi#self$ his interests$ his propert( D ,as capa*le of al#ost an(thing4 ,as
lifted into the pure ether of the selfless and unpractical. 2)as$orthy3
The i#possi*le ,as not on her side and she )ne, it$ sensed rightl( that
it never ,ould *e. 2Siitoe3
Cf./ Russian@ [TS MmHEpEJ$ RTS eQJpQTHGEJ$ {LZTL LRIJRUL ...
2ScJR3
uQJpQTHGEJ MJIUJ YhWN RSIZiLRJ.
Ukrainian@ uQJpQTHGJ mJRZUUS YPWZ RSIZiUZ_.
Substantivation of ad.ectives of coour for styistic %ur%oses is aso
rather a fre0uent occurrence.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are@
5hat (ou have on D that fla0'*lue D is ad#ira*le for colour4
*ac)ground of s)( D through that ,indo, D (es$ not too *lue D an
!nglish ,hite in it. 2)as$orthy3
5ithout the e0pedition there ,ould *e no future$ onl( a present$ an
ocean of dar)ness *ehind the thin *lue of the da($ a circle of *lea)
hori=ons dotted *( fires *urning out their derelict fla#es. 2Siitoe3
5hen the stor# stopped the fields ,ere ,hite over$ the s)( a mil# *lue$
lo, and still threatening. 2Siitoe3
So (oung$ the little leaves of brownis! gold4 so old$ t!e w!ite4grey4
green of its thic) rough trun). 2)as$orthy3
%nd al#ost unconsciousl( he rose and #oved nearer4 he ,anted to see
the e0pression on her face. -er e(es #et his unflinching. -eavens7 -o,
clear the( ,ere$ and ,hat a dar# brown against that ,hite s)in$ and that
*urnt'a#*er hair7 2)as$orthy3
There ,as a scent of hone( fro# the li#e trees in flo,er$ and in the s)(
t!e blue ,as *eautiful$ ,ith a fe, ,hite clouds ,hich loo)ed and perhaps
tasted li)e le#on ice. 2)as$orthy3
Trans%osition of ad.ectives into the cass of a%%eative nouns has its
o$n e+%ressive vaue. 'n coo0uia Engish this is rather a fre0uent
occurrence. E+a#%es are@
5hat have (ou done$ my little sill(. Co#e on$ my sweet. 5ait a couple
of #inutes$ loely)< Listen$ #( dear.
't $i be of interest to note that the #eaning of substance can find its
e+%ression in occasiona substantivation of other %arts of s%eech such as&
for instance& infinitives& %artici%es& %ronouns. Such uses are naturay
essentiay different and iustrate nothing but syntactic %atterns.
-ere's a prett( go7 Let's have a go at it7 That ,as a great find, a -uiet
read after supper7
The desire for a #ore in,ard light had found e0pression at last$ t!e
unseen had inspected on t!e seen. 21orster3
Let #e tell (ou a little somet!ing a*out #( life$ ,ill (ou? It ,on't ta)e
long. 2*reiser3
=9
-e ,ondered ho, she could sa( these things ,ith such an e0pression
of suret($ see t,o (ears as *eing *ut a fg#initg s#all ,isdo#'tooth of ti#e$
a not!ing that to hi# loo)ed li)e avast ocean ,ith no opposite shore
visi*le. 2Siitoe3
!ver( hour the )aleidoscope of hu#an affairs thre, a ne, lustre upon
so#ething$ and there,ith it *eca#e for her the desired D the all. 2*reiser3
...-e's rather li)e #e. 5e've got a lot in co##on. I had heard other
'we's' fro# her$ taunting #( 3ealous($ *ut not in such a tone as this. She
d,elt on it ,ith a soft and girlish pleasure. I ,as chained there. I fell
again into silence. Then I as)ed pere#ptoril( ,ho he ,as. 2Sno$3
%n(one else ,ould have gone to a doctor #onths ago$ she said. That
,ould have spared (ou a lot of ,orr( D and so#e of (our friends$ too$ I
#a( sa(. I'# ver( glad I #ade (ou go. I could hear t!ose I's$ a little
stressed$ assertive in the #iddle of her (earning of heal and soothe and
cherish. 2Sno$3
5ccasiona substantivation of sentence,frag#ents is aso a syntactic
#atter& an effective inguistic device used for styistic %ur%oses.
Substantivised frag#ents are generay #odified by the artice as an overt
%art,of,s%eech #arker or other noun,deter#iners. E+a#%es are@
% cup E'cocoa$ a cop( of the Ci*le and a five'*o* ,atch to ti#e out the
da(s of idleness left to the#. +ot ever that though/ I'# #a)ing it up.
The('re luc)( to get a t!an# you and *eco#e hot and *othered ,ith
gratitude if the( do$ or onl( spit the s#ell of t!an# you out ,hen it's too
late to do #uch else a*out it$ such as drop a nu*'end on a heap of paraffin
rags$ or trip one of the gaffern into a #anhole. 2Siitoe3
<:h$ ,eren't the( though$< laughed Cl(de ,ho had not failed to catch
t!e "Y78r set" also the <,here (ou have money and position". 2*reiser3
-e's #ad$ right enough. So ,hat shall I sa(? His "w!eer yer bin'"
turned the first spo)e of the sa#e old ,heel ,ith ever( ;uestion and
ans,er foreordained to,ards so#e violent erratic *lo,. 2Siitoe3
To his surprise$ Mr. Ford leaped into the air ,ith a "You don't say
so)< and the ne0t #o#ent$ ,ith *oth hands$ ,as sha)ing Martin's head
effusivel(. 2(ondon3
R.=i,ion Mat.ria!
7. "o##ent on anaytica and infected for# of co#%arison.
;. )ive co##ents on the cassification of ad.ectives in ter#s of
#eaning.
8. "o##ent on the distinction bet$een base ad.ectives and derived
ad.ectives.
:. 'ustrate the state#ent that reative ad.ectives can deveo%
0uaitative #eanings. )ive e+a#%es of such #eta%horic e+tension.
<. "o##ent on the noticeabe change going on in %resent,day in the
for#ation of the co#%arative and su%erative of dissyabic ad.ectives $here
for#s $ith 'er and 'est are being re%aced by for#s $ith #ore and #ost.
6. Be ready to discuss substantivation of ad.ectives in #odern Engish.
9. )ive e+a#%es of styistic trans%osition of ad.ectives into the cass
of a%%eative nouns.
=?
Capt.r '
THE 'ERB
The syste# of the Engish verb is righty considered to be the #ost
co#%e+ gra##atica structure of the anguage. The #ost troubeso#e
%robe#s are& indeed& concentrated in the area of the finite verb& and
incude& in %articuar& 0uestions tense& as%ect and #oda au+iiary usage.
This see#s to be an area of gra##ar $hich has a$ays gained the greatest
interest in anguage earning. -e can say $ith itte fear of e+aggeration
that earning a anguage is to a very arge degree earning ho$ to o%erate
the verba for#s of that anguage.
'n Modern Engish& as $e as in #any other anguages& verba for#s
i#%y not ony subte shades of ti#e distinction but serve for other
%ur%oses& tooG they are aso often #arked for %erson and nu#ber& for
#ood& voice and as%ect.
The gra##atica categories of the Engish verb find their e+%ression
in synthetica and anaytica for#s. The for#ative ee#ents e+%ressing
these categories are@ gra##atical affi0es$ inner inflection and function
,ords. So#e categories have ony synthetica for#s 1person$ nu#*er2$
others Dony anaytica 1voice distinction2. There are aso categories
e+%ressed by both synthetica and anaytica for#s 1#ood$ ti#e$ aspect2.
-e generay distinguish finite and non'finite for#s of the verb.
The gra##atica nature of the finite for#s #ay be characterised by
the foo$ing si+ o%%ositions $ith reference to@
a3 %erson I read / / -e reads
b3 nu#ber She reads / G The(
read She ,as / / The(
,ere
c3 ti#e reations I ,rite / / I ,rote I
,rite 4 / I shall ,rite
d3 #ood If he )no,s it no, / / If he )ne,
it no,
e3 The as%ective
character of the
verb
She ,as dancing for half an hour
2durative as%ect3 @ @ She danced
gracefull( 2co##on as%ect3
f3 voice
distinctions@
active D
5e invited hi# / / -e ,as
invited 1 as)ed / / I ,as as)ed
The non,finites 2verbids3 are@ the 'nfinitives& the )erunds and the
/artici%es. The foo$ing& for instance& are the non,finites of the reguar
verb to paint/
Non,%rogressive
'nfinitive
active %assive
active %erfect
%assive
%erfect
to paint to *e
painted to have
painted to have
*een painted
/rogressive 'nfinitive active active
%erfect
to *e painting to
have *een
painting
)erund active
%assive
active %erfect
%assive
%erfect
painting *eing
painted having
painted having
*een painted
/artici%e@
/resent /erfect
/ast
active
%assive
active
%assive
painting *eing
painted having
painted having
*een painted
painted
Verba for#s denoting ti#e reations are caed tenses. The t$o
conce%ts 4ti#e4 and 4tense4 shoud be ke%t ceary a%art. The for#er is
co##on to a anguages& the atter varies fro# anguage to anguage and
is the inguistic e+%ression of ti#e reations so far as these are indicated in
any given for#.
Ti#e is universay conceived as having one di#ension ony& thus
ca%abe of being re%resented by one straight ine. The #ain divisions #ay
be arranged in the foo$ing $ay@
%ast pr.,.ntNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN;:utur.
5r& in other $ords& ti#e is divided into t$o %arts& the %ast and the future& the %oint of
division being the %resent #o#ent& $hich& ike a #athe#atica %oint& has no di#ension& but
is continuay #oving to the right in our figure. These are the %ri#ary divisions of ti#e.
Under each of the t$o divisions of infinite ti#e $e #ay refer to so#e %oint as ying either
before or after the #ain %oint of $hich $e are actuay s%eaking. These #ay be referred to
as the secondary divisions.
't see#s %ractica to re%resent the t$o divisions as foo$s@
T. Pr.,.nt T.n,.3 She ,or)s and studies ,ith enthusias#. She is
reading.
T. Pa,t T.n,.3 The( continued their ,a(. The( ,ere
spea)ing ,hen I ca#e in.
T. Futur. T.n,.3 I shall co#e to see (ou to'#orro,. 5hat
,ill (ou *e doing at five?
7>>
The secondary divisions of ti#e are e+%ressed by the /resent /erfect&
/ast /erfect and 1uture /erfect Tenses.
The /resent /erfect@ She has ,ritten a letter to her friend.
I have *een ,or)ing for t,o hours.
The /ast /erfect@ -e had *een *ac) so#e t,o #onths *efore I
sa, hi#. I as)ed hi# ,hat he had *een doing
since I sa, hi# last.
The 1uture /erfect@ -e ,ill have finished his ,or) *( that ti#e. C(
the first of Ma( I shall have *een ,or)ing here
for v (ears$ 2a#ost out of use3.
Each tense has naturay its characteristic ti#e range& though every
tense #eets co#%etition fro# other tenses $ithin its characteristic range.
These co#%icated distinctions& $hich in s%eech are #ade auto#aticay
$ithout thinking& #ay be $e %resented in ter#s of binary o%%ositions.
These o%%ositions have a characteristic structure of the #ar)ed D
un#ar)ed ter# ty%e Da$ays in their functions& and so#eti#es in their
for#s. And this $i .ustify abeing the# in ter#s of a %ositive
characteristic contrasted $ith its absence 2the un#arked ter#3. Such are
the contrasts $hich o%erate throughout the range of the con.ugation and
free inde%endent variabes@
2a3 non'progressive Dprogressive 1continuous24
2b3 non'perfective D'perfective4
2c3 eEe'passive 1active2 Dpassive.
The %rogressive 2continuous3& as a %ositive ter# in a contrast&
indicates& $here necessary& to the fact that an 4action4 is thought of as
having 2having had or to have3 duration or %rogression. The %erfective
adds a %ositive i#%ication of <*eing in a state resulting fro# having...4G
indicates that the action is thought of as having conse0uences in or being
te#%orariy continuous $ith L 4no,4 or <then< 2%ast or future3.
There are t$o ty%es of infection in the con.ugation of the Engish verb
D the ,ea) and the strong. The $eak cass co#%rises a the verbs in the
anguage e+ce%t about one hundred. This is the ony iving ty%e 1loveD
lovedDloved4 ,or)D,or)edD,or)ed2. A ne$ verbs are kno$n to be
infected $eak. Many verbs& once strong& have beco#e $hoy or %artiay
$eak. The $eak ty%e of infection is #uch si#%er no$ than it once $as&
but oder reguarities have eft traces behind& so that there are sti a
nu#ber of non,standard verb for#s in Modern Engish.
'n oder Engish& the vo$e of the tense and %artici%ia suffi+ $as
so#eti#es su%%ressed& $hich ed to the shortening of a ong root vo$e@
s,eep$ s,ept4 leave$ left4 etc.
'n a nu#ber of verbs ending in 'd the 'ded of the %ast tense and
%artici%e is contracted to 't/ *end$ *ent4 *uild$ *uilt4 etc.
'n so#e verbs ending in 'd and 't the suffi+ is dro%%ed& eaving the
%resent and the %ast tense and %ast %artici%e aike@ cut 2%resent3& cut
2%ast3& cut 2%ast %artici%e3. There are a arge nu#ber of such verbs@
7>7
*id 2#ake an offer3& *urst$ cast$ cost$ cut$ hit$ hurt$ let$ put$ rid$ set$ shed$
shut$ slit$ split$ spread$ thrust. So#e of these verbs@ *id$ *urst$ let$ slit$ are
strong verbs $hich have been dra$n into this cass under the infuence of
their fina 'd or 't. Aongside of the iterary for#s *urst$ *urst$ *urst are
the coo0uia and %o%uar for#s *ust$ *usted$ *usted$ $hich have beco#e
es%eciay co##on in the #eaning to *rea). 'n a fe$ cases $e use either
the fu or the contracted for#@ *et$ *et or *etted$ *et or *etted4 )nit$
)nitted or )nit4 ;uit$ ;uit or ;uitted$ ;uit or ;uitted4 shred$ shredded or
shred$ shredded or shred4 s,eat$ s,eat or s,eated$ s,eat or s,eated4 ,ed$
,edded or ,ed$ ,edded or ,ed4 ,et$ ,et or ,etted$ ,et or ,etted. The
co#%ound *roadcast is so#eti#es reguar@ *roadcast$ *roadcasted$
*roadcasted. 'n A#erican Engish $e say spit$ spit$ spit$ but in Engand
the %arts are spit$ spat$ spat. 'n the iterary anguage the British for#s are
no$ often used aso in A#erica. 'n oder Engish& the ist of the short $eak
for#s $as onger& as attested by their surviva in certain ad.ective
%artici%es@ <a dread foe$< but <The 3oe ,as dreaded<$ <roast #eat$< *ut
<The #eat ,as roasted.< The e+tensive use of these short for#s is in %art
e+%ained by the fact that in the third %erson singuar the 's of the %resent
tense distinguishes the t$o tenses@ he hits 2%resent3 hard4 he hit 2%ast3
hard. Ese$here $e gather the #eaning fro# the situation. As the %ast
tense is the tense of descri%tion& there is here usuay so#ething in the
situation that #akes the thought cear. As this si#%e ty%e of infection is
usuay not uncear& it is s%reading to the strong %ast& $hich in oose
coo0uia or %o%uar s%eech no$ often has the sa#e vo$e as the %resent
tense@ -e give 2instead of gave2 it to #e (esterda(.
'n a nu#ber of $ords ending in 'l or 'n the ending is either 'ed or 't&
the atter es%eciay in Engand@ spell$ spelled or spelt4 learn$ learned or
learnt4 etc.
-ad and #ade are contracted fro# haved and #a)ed.
'n a arge nu#ber of $ords the difference of vo$e bet$een the
%resent and the %ast gives the# the a%%earance of strong verbs& but the
%ast tense ending 't or 'd #arks the# as $eak@ *ring$ *rought4 tell$ told4
etc.
The %rocess of reguarising strong verbs& $hich has ike$ise been
going on for centuries& continues to re%ace 4irreguar4 for#s by #ore
4nor#a4 ones.
Thus& for instance& on consuting the Concise :0ford &ictionar( in its
7=6: edition $e find the %ast tense of the verb thrive given as@
<throve rarel( thrived< and the %ast %artici%e as <thriven$ rarel(
thrived.< This is in fact outdated& and the o%%osite is aready the case
$hether in the s%oken or $ritten anguage.
The verb to *et is aso often reguarised ,ith< *etted< #ore and #ore
used for the %ast tense and %ast %artici%e& $hereas in earier decades the
nor#a for# $as <*et< in each case.
't $i be interesting to consut three different dictionaries for the
for#s of this verb@
273 The Concise :0ford &ictionar( 27=<> edition3 gives ony <*et< as
%ast tense and %ast %artici%e.
2;3 The Shorter :0ford !nglish &ictionar( 27=<?3 gives <*et<$ aso
<*etted<.
7>;
283 The Concise :0ford !nglish &ictionar( 27=6: edition3 gives ony
<*et$ *etted< for the t$o for#s res%ectivey
7
.
The co##on devices for verb,#aking in Modern Engish are@ 73
affi+ation& ;3 conversion& 83 verb,adverb co#bination& :3 backfor#ation&
<3 co#%osition.
A s%ecia interest attaches to such singe inguistic units as@ *ring up$
*rea) up$ co#e in$ go do,n$ get over$ get up$ get out$ #a)e out$ #a)e up$
etc. 'n actua s%eech they #ay a%%ear $ith their t$o %arts foo$ing each
other or se%arated by one or #ore other ee#ents of the structure of $hich
they are a %art.
1or#ations of this kind are not recognised as singe gra##atica units
by a gra##ariansG so#e ca the# 4verb,adverb co#binations4
;
. They
have aso been caed 4se%arabe verbs4
8
& 4#erged verbs4
:
& 4se%arabe
co#%ounds4
<
& 4co#%ound verbs4
6
and 4%oy,$ord verbs4
9
.
There see#s no s#a .ustification for ado%ting -. N. 1rancis! ter#
4se%arabe verbs4 $hich is #eant to bring out both gra##atica 0uaities
of these verbs@ a3 that they function as singe %arts of s%eech& and b3 that
their t$o %arts #ay be se%arated fro# each other by intervening ee#ents.
Such verbs& though often coo0uia& add an idio#atic %o$er to the
anguage and enabe it to e+%ress various subte distinctions of thought
and #eaning.
A great #any #odern verbs have been coined after this %attern@ to *oil
do,n$ to go under$ to hang on$ to *ac) do,n$ to o,n up$ to ta)e over$ to
run across$ to ta)e up$ etc. 't is to be noted that figurative co#binations of
this ty%e e+%ress a verba idea #ore forciby and #ore %ictures0uey than
the itera $ord,co#bination.
Cf. drive a,a( D *anish
co#e a*out Dhappen
co#e *( D ac;uire
fall out D disagree
give in ` (ield
)eep on ` continue
loo) after D tend
pass out ` faint
pull out ] depart
put up ` tolerate
;uiet do,n D di#inish
ta)e off D re#ove
7
See/ B. 1 J s t e r. The "hanging Engish (anguage. )reat Britain& 7=97.
;
See@ R. -. Fandvoort. A Aandbook of Engish )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=68& %. ;9<G
8
-. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& % ;6<G
:
C. R. b V k S n. A Ne$ /an of Engish )ra##ar& 7=88& cited in M. Bryant. A
1unctiona Engish )ra##ar. Boston& 7=:9& %. ;>?G
<
). 5. "ur#e. /rinci%es and /ractice of Engish )ra##ar. Ne$ York& 7=:9& %. ;:G
6
C.)rattan and /. )urrey. 5ur (iving (anguage. (ondon,Ne$ York& 7=<8& %. ?>G
9
E. -. Stevick. The *ifferent /re%osition. A#erican S%eech& 7=<>& %. ;7:.
7>8
ta)e in ` deceive
turn in D go to *ed
turn u
p
Dhappen
The unity of the t$o %arts of se%arabe verbs #ay be $e iustrated by
nu#erous e+a#%es. (et us take the foo$ing sentence@ -e dran) up the
#il). 'n a conventiona sense& up #ight be an adverb signifying direction&
or it #ight be a %re%osition introducing the %hrase up the #il)$ but this
#akes no sense at a. The ony ans$er is that to drin) up is a singe
inguistic unit. Up in this construction serves to intensify the action& and
co#es to be synony#ous $ith the adverb co#%etey. 'n usage& these
verbs function as nor#a singe,ones e+ce%t that they are se%arabe.
E+a#%es ike this #ay easiy be #uti%ied.
To distinguish bet$een the %re%ositiona ee#ent and the ordinary
adverbia ad.unct co#%are aso the foo$ing@
1a2 -e ran up a hill.
1*2 -e ran up a *ill.
-e cannot fai to see that up in 2a3 and 2b3 has 0uite distinct functions.
The difference $i be observed in the se0uence of the ee#ents. -e
can say -e ran a *ill up$ but $e can hardy say -e ran a hill up. 'f $e
substitute a hill and a *ill by a %ronoun& the se0uence of the %ronoun and
the %ost%ositiona ee#ent is fi+ed and contrastive. -e #ay say ony@
1a2 -e ran up it. 1a hill2
1*2 -e ran it up. 1a *ill2
. The contrasting %atterns that a%%ear $hen it is substituted can be best
iustrated as ans$ers to 0uestions@
1a2 5here did the *ill co#e fro#? -e ran it up.
1*2 -o, did he cli#* that hill? -e ran up it.
A#biguity #ay arise& at east in $ritten anguage& $hen the %osition of
up is fina but this a#biguity is generay resoved by intonation. There is
usuay a difference of stress as& for instance& in a reative cause& $here
de%ending on the conte+t $e #ay contrast@
1a2 The hill he 'ran up.
1*2 The *ill he ran 'up.
'n the first there is nucear stress on run$ in the second on up.
Si#iar contrasts $i be seen in such e+a#%es as@
1a2 The passenger fle, in the plane.
1*2 The pilot fle, in the plane.
or@ The pilot fle, the plane in$ but not@ The passenger fle, the plane in.
Cf. 2a3 The passenger fle, in it.
2b3 The pilot fle, it in.
5bservations of the idio#atic character of se%arabe verbs and their
styistic vaue give every reason to say that they %ossess& as A. ). e n ,
104
n e d y has it
7
& 4a certain a#ount of $ar#th and coour and fire $hich the
coder& #ore i#%ersona& #ore highy s%eciaised si#%e verb acks4. As
such they are co##oner in coo0uia than in other varieties of Engish.
4The student #ay earn gra##ar and& $ith ti#e& ac0uire an ade0uate
vocabuary& but $ithout a $orking kno$edge of such idio#s as to get up$
to loo) up$ to loo) through$ to loo) over$ to call on$ to call for$ to get on$ to
get along$ to #a)e up$ to #a)e for$ etc.& his s%eech re#ains a$k$ard and
stited4
;
.
'n Engish gra##ars of conventiona ty%e the adverbia for#ative
ee#ent in such co#%ound verbs is often caed 4a %re%osition,ike
adverb4. But there see#s no s#a .ustification for ado%ting the ter#
4%ost%osition4 to su%ersede the for#er
8
. A#ong %ost%ositions the
foo$ing are #ost %roductive@ a*out$ a,a($ do,n$ forth$ in$ off$ over$ out
and up.
There are i#%ortant treat#ents of the 0uestion #ade by Y. Fhuktenko
:
$here these se%arabe ee#ents are referred to as %ost%ositiona
#or%he#es@
a3 verbs $ith %ost%ositiona #or%he#es retaining their %ri#ary oca
#eaning@ co#e in$ go out$ go do,n$ fl( off$ s,eep a,a($ etc.G
b3 verbs $ith %ost%ositiona #or%he#es having a figurative #eaning@
*oil do,n 2P_JRIXWZ3& ta)e off 2lYLRIXWZ VUP3& ta)e up 2lLmJRUnRLWZ
TJYJn3& get along 2MJTXpLWZ PTmVcP3& spea) a,a( 2lLpJRJOZWZTN3& etc.G
c3 verbs $ith %ost%ositiona #or%he#es intensifying the verb or
i#%arting the %erfective sense to its #eaning& e. g.@ eat up$ rise up$ s,allo,
up$ etc.G
d3 verbs $hose #eaning can hardy be derived fro# their se%arabe
co#%onent %arts& e. g.@ *ear out 2mVMWRSOMPRLWZTN3& give in 2PTWPmLWZ3&
give up 2mJQZMLWZ3& HEFJ a*out 2WOLmIXWZTN3& turn up 2WOLmIXWZTN3.
't is interesting to note that Engish verbs $ith ho#ony#ic %refi+es
and %ost%ositions $i a$ays differ in their #eaning.
"o#%are the foo$ing@ upset DmSOSRSOUPWZ& mSOSQZUPWZG set up D
JOpLUVlPRLWZ& RTWLUJRZWZG uphold DmVMWOZ_LWZG hold up DWOZ_LWZ
MJpJOZ& lLWOZ_PRLWZ.
THE STR&CT&RAL F&NCTIONS OF THE ENGLISH 'ERB
'n the #uti%icity of $ays in $hich verbs can be co#bined in actua
usage distinction #ust reasonaby be #ade bet$een notiona or fuy
4e+ica4 verbs and function,verbs.
+otional verbs are used inde%endenty as 4fu4 $ords of the
vocabuary. Such are a Engish verbs besides #oda verbs and a fe$
others.
Used as function',ords verbs are vita signas indicating the connection
that is to be understood bet$een 4e+ica4 $ords. 't is not that they
7
b. e n n e d y. The Modern Engish Verb,Adverb "o#bination. Stanford Univ.
/ress& "aifornia. 7=;>.
;
R. *i+on. Essentia 'dio# in Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<7.
8
See/ [. z. Z p L M I J & . . R L U J R L& |. |. JZQ. \JROS_SUUhs
LUpIZsTQZs XlhQ. f.& 7=<6& 6?.
7
. b. I P Q W S U Q J . a WLQ ULlhRLS_hc qTIJUhc pILpJILcr WZmL stand up R
TJROS_SUUJ_ LUpIZsTQJ_ XlhQS. q[JmOJTh XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=<:& No <& O. 7><.
7><
have !no #eaning& but that they have a s%ecia kind of #eaning& so#eti#es
caed 4structura4 #eaning. They serve %ri#ariy to sho$ gra##atica
functions rather than to bear e+ica #eanings and #ay be used as@
a3 au+iiaries and haf,au+iiariesG
b3 co%uas& or ink,verbsG
c3 substitute verbsG
d3 re%resenting verbsG
e3 verb,intensifiers.
The verbs *e$ have$ do$ let$ shall8should #ay function as au+iiary
verbs #aking u% anaytica for#s in the con.ugation of the Engish verb.
Lin)'ver*s are verbs of inco#%ete %redication in so,caed no#ina
%redicates& denoting a certain state or 0uaity of the sub.ect. The ink,verb
has no inde%endent #eaning& its function is to connect the sub.ect $ith the
%redicative and to e+%ress a the gra##atica categories of the finite verb@
%erson& nu#ber& #ood& as%ect& tense and voice.
Besides the verb to do functioning as an e#%hatic au+iiary& there are
gra##atica idio#s $ith the verb,intensifier to go foo$ed4 by the finite
verb,for#s& e. g.@
Pr.,.nt T.n,.
Non,e#%hatic E#%hatic
5h( do (ou sa( such
things?
5h( do (ou go and sa( such
things?
Pa,t Ind.:init.
-e did it. -e ,ent and did it.
Pr.,.nt P.r:.ct
-e has caught it. -e has gone and caught it.
Pa,t P.r:.ct
-e had caught it. -e had gone and caught it.
'n various conte+ts of their use such gra##atica idio#s can i#%y
irreevance or une+%ectedness of the action associated $ith sur%rise&
%er%e+ity& dis%easure or indignation& de%ending on the consituation.
-is gre( e(es ,ould *rood over the gre( ,ater under the gre( s)(4 and in
his #ind the #ar) ,ould fall. It fell ,ith a *u#p on the eleventh of
9anuar( ,hen the French went and occupied t!e 9u!r. 2)as$orthy3
1,ent and occupied D occupied...2
<If (ou're Master Murdstone<$ said the lad($ 4$hy do you go and give
another na#e$ first?< 2*ickens3
1,h( do (ou go and give... D,h( do (ou give...2
-e #ustn't catch cold D the doctor had declared$ and he !ad gone
and caught it. 2)as$orthy3
1she had gone and caught it ` he had caught it2
"o#%are the gra##atica idio#s $ith the verbs qT_JWOSWNr and
qRlXWNr in Russian& qMZRZWZTNr and qRlXWZr in Ukrainian@
Russian@ wPEFQI$ US mOJpJRJOZTNw
)O6
wPEFQI$ US OLlYSsw
7
b JU MESLPJF Z OLTTQLSW.
xESLPI Z OLTTQLZ.
Ukrainian@ xSRM V lOJYZRG MSRM V OJlQLlLR.
A s%ecia kind of affective gra##atica idio# $i be found in %atterns
$ith the ing'for# foo$ing the verb to go $hen the atter does not signify
#otion either but is used idio#aticay to intensify the #eaning of the
notiona verb& e. g.@
-e goes frightening people ,ith his stories.
<I shall see (ou again *efore long$ #( *o(7< he said. /on't you go
paying an( attention to ,hat I've *een sa(ing a*out (oung Cosinne( ] I
don't *elieve a ,ord of it7< 2)as$orthy3
9a#es ,as alar#ed. <:h' !& he said$ don't go saying I said it ,as to
co#e do,n7 I )no, nothing a*out it. 2)as$orthy3
You'll go burning (our fingers Dinvesting (our #one( in li#e$ and
things (ou )no, nothing a*out. 2)as$orthy3
/on't go putting on an( airs ,ith #e. 2Mitche3
There is a natura tendency in any anguage to deveo% its e#otiona
and affective #eans of e+%ression.
There are not ony %oints of coincidence here but s%ecific features
characteristic of any given anguage $ith its o$n %atterns of for#ations
and its o$n ty%e of structura units.
M55*
't is a $e,kno$n fact that the %robe# of the category of #ood& i. e.
the distinction bet$een the rea and the unrea e+%ressed by the
corres%onding for#s of the verb& is one of the #ost controversia %robe#s
of Engish theoretica gra##ar. The #ain theoretica difficuty is due 273
to the coe+istence in Modern Engish of both synthetica and anaytica
for#s of the verb $ith the sa#e gra##atica #eaning of irreaity and 2;3
to the fact that there are verba for#s ho#ony#ous $ith the /ast
'ndefinite and /ast /erfect of the 'ndicative Mood $hich are e#%oyed to
e+%ress irreaity. Another difficuty consists in distinguishing the anaytica
for#s of the Sub.unctive $ith the au+iiaries should$ ,ould$ #a( 1#ight2$
$hich are devoid of any e+ica #eaning& fro# the ho#ony#ous verb
grou%s in $hich these verbs have %reserved their e+ica #eaning.
The nu#ber of #oods in Engish is aso one of the sti unsetted
%robe#s. 5der %rescri%tive gra##ar& besides the three co##ony kno$n
#oods& recognised a fourth Dthe 'nfinitive Mood. Many authors of
Engish scientific gra##ars divide the Sub.unctive Mood into severa
#oods& such as the Sub.unctive %ro%er 2e+%ressed by the synthetic for#s3&
the "onditiona Mood 2e+%ressed by the co#binations of should and
,ould %us infinitive in the %rinci%a cause3& the /er#issive and
"o#%usive Moods 2e+%ressed by the co#binations of the infinitive $ith
other #oda verbs@ see the seections fro# S$eet!s gra##ar3. The notion
of the
7
See/ b. b. L c _ L W J R . \ZUWLQTZT OPTTQJpJ XlhQL. |.& 7=:7& %%. ;88D;8:.
107
"onditiona Mood has beco#e 0uite %o%uar $ith so#e Soviet
gra##arians $ho so#eti#es add t$o #ore 45bi0ue4 Moods& the
Su%%ositiona and Sub.unctive ''& the %rinci%e of division being based on
the tendency to ascribe to each of the for#s of the sub.unctive a s%ecific
gra##atica #eaning.
Mood& cosey reated to the %robe# of #odaity& is generay defined
as a gra##atica category e+%ressing the reation of the action to reaity as
stated by the s%eaker. The distinction bet$een the rea and the unrea&
e+%ressed by the corres%onding for#s of the verb& is one of the dis%utabe
%robe#s of Engish gra##ar.
The anaysis of the category #ade by so#e gra##arians is based
argey on the historica and co#%arative considerations and often $orked
out aong notiona ines.
Thus& for instance& M. *eutschbein in his S(ste# der neuenglischen
S(nta0 distinguishes : #ain #oods@ der Rogitativus& der a%tatVvus& der
Vountativus& der E+%ectativus. As sub#oods he #entions@ der 'ndikativus&
der 'rreaVs& der /JtentVaVs& der KonEessivus& der NeEessarius& der
/er#issivus& der *ubitativus& etc.
-e coud %robaby tabuate even a #ore detaied& if not e+haustive&
sche#e of a the varieties of sub.ective #odaity in Engish. Such a
sche#e $oud be based on the attitudes of the s%eaker!s #ind& i. e. on the
fact that the contents of the co##unication can be reated #oday to the
sub.ect as& for instance& asserted 2'ndicative Mood3G as intensifying the
assertion 2E#%hatic Mood3G as co#%eed 2"o#%usive Mood3G as
%er#itted 2/er#issive Mood3G as desired 25%tative Mood3& as abiity
2/otentia Mood3& etc.& etc. But such a tabuated survey $oud& indeed&
beco#e too co#%icated.
)ra##arians are not agreed as to the for#s of the Sub.unctive Mood.
So#e of the# recognise ony synthetic for#s 25. Ces%ersen& for instance3&
others incude here aso verb,%hrases of anaytica structure $ith a #oda
verbs.
5. Ces%ersen criticises M. *eutschbein %ointing out that it $oud be
%ossibe to subdivide the given sche#e further into t$o grou%s@ the first
$ith 77 #oods& containing an ee#ent of ,ill$ the second $ith = #oods&
containing no ee#ent of ,ill. There are indeed #any 4#oods4 if one
eaves the safe ground of verba for#s actuay found in a anguage.
The #ost co##on vie$ is that in Modern Engish there are three
#oods& 'ndicative& Sub.unctive and '#%erative $hich kee% distinct in
Engish in the sa#e cear $ay as in #any other anguages.
The for#s co#%rised in the 'ndicative Mood are used to %resent
%redication as reaity& as a fact. The %redication need not necessariy be
true but the s%eaker %resents it as being so. 't is not reevant for the
%ur%ose of our gra##atica anaysis to account for the uti#ate truth or
untruth of a state#ent $ith its %redicate e+%ressed by a verb. This cannot
affect the #eaning of the gra##atica for# as such. 'n ter#s of gra##ar&
it is i#%ortant to identify the function of the category in the given
utterance.
108
The '#%erative& ike the 'ndicative& has the sa#e for# as the base of
the verbG the sa#e is true of the /resent 'ndicative 2e+ce%t the third %erson
singuar3 and of the $hoe of the /resent Sub.unctive. These for#s $i
e+e#%ify %aradig#atic ho#ony#y in Engish #or%hoogy.
The '#%erative Mood serves to e+%ress re0uests $hich in different
conte+ts #ay range fro# categorica order or co##and to entreaties. The
necessary #eaning is generay signaed by the conte+t and intonation.
The '#%erative Mood %ro%er is used ony in the second %ersons singuar
and %ura. This for# is used in address to one or #ore %ersons& ordering or
instructing the# to carry out the 4action4 of the verb.
The gra##atica sub.ect of the '#%erative Mood is not for#ay
indicated but& $hen occasion de#ands& this is generay done by using the
%ronoun before or after the verb. Verb,%atterns $ith %ronouns have s%ecia
affective connotation $ith fine shades of e#otiona distinctions& such as@
intensity or e#%hasis& anger& annoyance& i#%atience or scorn& etc.@ 273 She
has *een ;uite a success$ and don't (ou forget it7 2;3 \ou sit still over
there7 283 Co#e along ever(*od(. 2:3 &on't (ou go telling Mother a*out it7
2<3 %nd don't (ou *e forgetting a*out it.
/atterns $ith the a%%ended ,ill (ou e+%ress a ess categorica
co##and& so#eti#es a re0uest. A re0uest or invitation #ay be for#uated
$ith ,on't (ou.
E#%hasis #ay be %roduced by %utting the intensifying do. 't is a
coourfu e#%hatic for#& encouraging if the intonation %attern is a dro%
bet$een eve tones& e+as%erated if there is tone #ove#ent on the ast
syabe. The for#s $ith let differ in their functions according to %erson&
bet$een a#ost %urey hortatory in the first %erson %ura 1Let's *egin no,2
and various shades of the %er#issive and o%tative in other %ersons& as in@
Let her help (ou7 Let hi# stud( regularl(7 Let the# repeat the e0peri#ent7
'n %atterning the verb let see#s to be rather on the borders of gra##ar
and e+isG #argina as an o%erator& it can be foo$ed by the infinitive& but
negates by the use of don't and is foo$ed by an ob.ect %aced bet$een it
and the e+ica verb& e. g.@
:h$ don't let's have it again7 2)as$orthy3
The use of the au+iiary do in negative for#s $ith the au+iiary verb let
in coo0uia Engish is not infre0uent.
"onsidered in function& 4#ood4 #ay cover various se#antic s%heres.
1or# and function& ho$ever& are not a$ays ceary distinct. As $e sha
further see& the 'ndicative Mood #ay be trans%osed into the s%here of the
'#%erative& as in@ \ou ,ill leave this house at once... \ou ,ill ,ait here$
and (ou'll *e careful7
The '#%erative Mood #ay take over the function of the Sub.unctive
Mood& e. g.@
Sa( ,hat (ou ,ill$ I shall have #( o,n ,a(. Sa(
,hat (ou ,ould$ I should have #( o,n ,a(. Cf.
yTUI zE dEWJ{$ R FEnN GJ eEMNQV.
7>=
The for#a #ark of the Sub.unctive is the absence of infection for the
third %erson singuar e+ce%t in the verb to *e$ $here it has fu
con.ugation. 'n %oint of fact& in Modern Engish the Sub.unctive is a#ost
out of use. The ony reguar surviva of the 4non,%ast4 Sub.unctive $i be
found in eevated %rose& in sogans& in a nu#ber of standardised %hrases&
#osty of a for#ua character $hich function as sense,units and
%racticay do not serve as substitution fra#es in the ordinary $ay of
gra##atica for#s& e. g.@ So *e it. Long live peace and friendship a#ong
nations7 Co#e ,hat #a(7 Ce ,hat #a(7 Suffice it to sa(. 'n other
sentence,%atterns the non,%ast Sub.unctive is o%tiona and can aternate
$ith the 'ndicative. This aternation ho$ever is not indifferent to stye& the
Sub.unctive being decidedy #ore referentia and #ore for#a than the
'ndicative verb.
'n the non,%ast Sub.unctive is very sedo# used& the /ast Sub.unctive
is so #uch #ore restricted that in %resent,day Engish beongs ony to the
verb to *e. The ony /ast Sub.unctive for# is ,ere and even this is
distinctive ony in the first and third %ersons singuar. -e generay find it
in %atterns $ith subordinate causes denoting either re.ected hy%othesis or
unfufied $ishes& e. g./ I ,ish I ,ere a child. If I ,ere (ou... %s if he ,ere
,ith us.
5ere can aternate $ith the 'ndicative verb,for#. There is a gro$ing
tendency in Modern Engish to re%ace it by ,as$ es%eciay in non,for#a
stye and in conversation. "o#%are@
For#al st(le +on'for#al st(le
M( father suggested that M( father suggested that
#( cousin sta( ,ith us. #( cousin #ight sta( ,ith
If I ,ere healthier$ I us.
,ould travel #ore fre' If I ,as healthier$ I
;uentl(. ,ould...
't is interesting to note that $ith the use of inversion for hy%othesis the
Sub.unctive is obigatory. This is fairy co##on in for#a referentia
Engish& e. g.& 5ere he to co#e to'#orro, ,e should invite hi# to the
conference.
Mention shoud be #ade about a sur%rising reversion $hich has taken
%ace during the ast t$enty years in the %artia reviva of s%ecificay
sub.unctive for#s of verbs. The Sub.unctive Mood $as used e+tensivey
in 5d Engish& as in cassica (atin and Modern )er#an. As is kno$n&
since the Midde Engish %eriod& ho$ever& it has been so$y dying out& its
%ace being taken by co#%ound verb,for#s $ith au+iiaries 1should$
#ight$ etc.3. The ony reay fir#y estabished sub.unctive for# surviving
in Engish in the nineteen,thirties $as ,ere4 it $as 2and sti is nor#a for
standard Engish to use ,ere and not ,as in a 4cosed conditiona cause4&
as in If he ,ere here$ ,e should certainl( *e a*le to see hi# 1he is not
here2. There $ere other sub.unctive survivas in s%oradic use 2as in if it *e
so2$ but these a sounded a trife iterary and affected. *uring and after the
$ar& ho$ever& as "h. Barber
7
%oints out& sub.unctive for#s increased in
fre0uency& es%eciay in the $ritten anguageG this see#s to have begun in
the anguage of ad#inistration& and s%read
7
See/ "h. Barber. (inguistic "hange in /resent,*ay Engish. 7=6:& %. 788.
77>
fro# there to the iterary anguage. The for#s used are third,%erson
singuar ones $ithout infe+ion& as in I insist that he do it4 it ,as essential
that he #a)e a choice 2$here do is used instead of does or shall do$ and
#a)e instead of should #a)e2. Sentences of this ty%e 2es%eciay the first3
are aso so#eti#es heard in s%eech. 't is e+tre#ey unikey& ho$ever& that
there is going to be any serious ong,ter# reviva of the sub.unctive
for#sG the %resent deveo%#ent is %robaby ony a %assing tendency. 'f it
has any ong,ter# significance& this is ikey to be not a reviva of the
sub.unctive& but an eroding a$ay of the third,singuar infe+ionG by
accusto#ing %eo%e to for#s ike he do and he #a)e these usages #ay
%re%are the $ay for the uti#ate disa%%earance of he does and he
#a)es. This& after a & $oud be the natura continuation of the historica
%rocessG in the %resent si#%e a infe+ions& e+ce%t the third singuar 's$
have been ost and it $oud be 0uite natura to e+%ect the %rocess to
continue& to have ony one for# a through the tense 29 ,al)$ (ou ,al)$
he ,al)$ ,e ,al)$ the( ,al)2.
MODAL 'ERBS
There are nine #oda verbs in Modern Engish@ #ust$ can8could$
#a(8#ight$ shall8should$ ,ill8,ould$ dare$ need$ ought and let. A arge
variety of their use is one of the #ost striking as%ects of the %resent,day
Engish gra##ar.
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich #oda verbs #ay be co#bined in
actua usage %er#its a very arge nu#ber of %atterns to be buit in
%resent,day Engish. 1ro# a historica %oint of vie$ it is interesting to
note that #any of the# are of 0uite recent deveo%#ent.
Modaity and tense are so intervened that in Engish it is hardy
%ossibe to co#bine the# as a singe variabe. So#e verbs function
both as tense,au+iiaries and as #odas. 't is therefore of %ri#ary
i#%ortance to see the# in contrast $ith each other as used in different
gra##atica fra#es.
5n different inguistic occasions a #oda verb #ay %erfor# three
different functions@ a3 it #ay be used in its origina sense& b3 it #ay
do the duty of a %urey au+iiary in anaytica verba for#s correated
$ith the corres%onding si#%e ones $ithin the i#its of the given
gra##atica category 2the 1uture Tense and the Sub.unctive Mood3& c3 it
#ay $eaken its e+ica #eaning $hen used in #oda %hrases e+%ressing
su%%osition& certainty or uncertainty as to the action e+%ressed by the
notiona verb.
The anaysis of #oda verbs is #ade rather difficut by other factors.
The %oint is that their %ast tense,for#s do not often refer to %ast ti#e
at a . Such are the verbs can and #a($ shall and ,ill$ for instance& $hich
are not easiy defined in for#a ter#s of gra##ar earning.
Mor%hoogicay they have the %resent and the %ast tense,for#s& but in
#oda %hrases they are not reguary used to #ark ti#e reations.
Moreover& to indicate %ast ti#e does not see# to be their #ain function.
-e naturay distinguish different ti#e reations in@ 112 -e can spea)
!nglish fluentl(
)))
@@ 2;3 -e could spea) !nglish fluentl( ,hen he ,as a *o(. But there is no
ti0. difference in #any cases ike the foo$ing@
+)/ He may go B He mig!t go.
+6/ &ar) as the night s!all *e... k &ar) as the night s!ould *e...
't see#s reasonabe to characterise the dua nature of the #odas used
in co#%e+ verba %redicates as foo$s.
Moda verbs #ay function as a3 4fuy e+ica4 verbs e+%ressing abiity&
%ossibiity& %er#ission& %o$er& ad#onition& duty& obigation& need& $i or
readiness to do so#ething associated $ith the activity of t. sub.ect& e. g.@
:ne must do one's dut(. 0an she spea) !nglish? (ay I co#e in? b3 #oda
au+iiaries of $eakened %redication@ ,ill8,ould$ can8could$ #a(8#ight$
#ust and ought 'n this atter case they $eaken their origina #eaning and
co#e to e+%ress su%%osition& ogica inference& certainty or uncertainty
$ith regard to the action e+%ressed by the notiona verb.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
1a2 :) If I do
the thing$ I ,ill do it
thoroughl($ *ut 1 must have a
free hand. 2)as$orthy3
1*2 73 The( tell #e 9ol(on's
*ought another house... he
must have a lot of #one( D
he must have #ore #one(
than he )no,s ,hat to do
,ith7 2)as$orthy3
;2<I can't tell", he ,ould
sa(/ <It ,orries #e out of #(
life<. 2)as$orthy3
;3 It #ust *e a #ista)e. She
can't *e there alone. h2 <Land
oug!t to *e ver(
P) I oug!t to go there. dear a*out there<$ he said.
2)as$orthy3
Q/ (ay I co#e in? :2 I shall *e guarded. -e may
thro, so#e light.
2)as$orthy3
-e cannot fai to see that %atterns of 2a3,ty%e denote #oda reations
bet$een the doer of the action and the action e+%ressed by the infinitiveG
%atterns of 2*3,ty%e e+%ress #oda #eanings as referred to the $hoe
utterance.
The #utifarious use of #oda verbs in their secondary function has
beco#e an effective #eans to e+%ress subte shades of su%%ositiona
#odaity. "onstructiona ho#ony#y and synony#ity in this %art of
Engish gra##ar deserve our %articuar attention.
#ust A Infinitive
'n its %ri#ary function #ust is used to e+%ress duty or obigation in
various degrees. 'n this #eaning it #ay refer to the future. The idea of %ast
ti#e is kno$n to be e+%ressed %eri%hrasticay by had to or ,as to$ and
negation by needn't.
77;
'n its secondary function #ust is never used to e+%ress su%%osition
$ith reference to an action in the future& it is not used in negative
sentences either. -hen used to denote su%%osition #ust #ay be foo$ed
by both 'nfinitive ' and 'nfinitive ''. 'n %atterns $ith the 'nfinitive ' the
given action and the su%%osition e+%ressed about it coincide in ti#e& e. g. @
-e must be so#e,here here.
Must foo$ed by the 'nfinitive '' $i denote@
a3 su%%osition at %resent $ith regard to an action %erfor#ed in the
%ast& e g.@
% rough esti#ate of the rate of cooling and gro,th of the solid crust of
our glo*e indicates that the cooling process must !ae be gun several
*illion (ears ago.
b3 su%%osition in the %ast $ith reference to a %rior %ast action& e. g.@
-e *est grasped$ on that first reading$ the pain his father must have
had in ,riting such a letter. 2)as$orthy3
:ne night he had *een thin)ing of his #other$ and her picture in the
dra,ing'roo# do,nstairs$ and thought she must have loed s,eet
Florence *etter than his father did$ to have held her in her ar#s ,hen she
felt that she ,as d(ing D for even he$ her *rother$ ,ho had such dear love
for her$ could have no greater ,ish than that. 2*ickens3
't is to be observed that #ust used in its secondary function $ith
'nfinitive '' often denotes such a strong certainty $ith regard to the action
%erfor#ed in the %ast that see#s to a%%roach the corres%onding verba
for# of the 'ndicative Mood as its styistic synony# denoting a rea action
in the %ast $ith s%ecia e#%hasis aid u%on its reaisation. The conte+t $i
a$ays be e+%icit enough to #ake the #eaning cear.
A corres%onding negative #eaning is generay e+%ressed by can't j j
'nfinitive ''. Cf./ 273 There must !ae been a hundred people in the hall.
2;3 There can't !ae been a hundred people in the hall.
#a(8#ight A Infinitive
'n its %ri#ary function #a( is kno$n to e+%ress %er#ission or
%ossibiity $ith reference to both %resent and future ti#e. -hen it refers to
the %resent& it is often re%aced by can. A s%ecia idio#atic use $i be
found in 5hat #a( that #ean? This is used to ask 2often sarcasticay3
about the intended #eaning of the %revious s%eaker and is synony#ous
$ith 5hat do (ou #ean *( that?
'n its secondary function #a( j Infinitive I $i denote su%%osition at
%resent $ith regard to a %resent or future action& e. g.@ -e #a( *e ;uite at
a loss no,. \ou should help hi#.
Might j Infinitive I used according to the se0uence of tenses #ay
i#%y the sa#e #eaning& as& for instance& in %atterns $ith free re%orted
s%eech@ %nd no, that Cicel( had #arried$ she mig!t be !aing children
too. 2)as$orthy3
778
Ma( :, Infinitive II i#%ies su%%osition at %resent about the %ossibiity
of an action in the %ast& e. g.@ Several ver( stri)ing love poe#s may !ae
been written *( &ante in the earl( da(s of his e0ile.
Might j Infinitive II in its secondary function $i generay denote a
su%%osition $hich is contrary to a rea state of things. Reference to the
%resent $i be #ade by %atterns $ith 'nfinitive '& reference to the %ast D
by 'nfinitive ''.
An interesting deveo%#ent of recent years is the occasiona use of
#a( have 2as $e as #ight have2 as e0uivaent of could have $hen it is
kno$n that the envisaged outco#e did not occur& e. g.@ -ad a clai# *een
#ade ,hen the accident occurred$ (ou may ,ell !ae recoered
su*stantial da#ages
7
.
can8could A Infinitive
Can j Infinitive I is not so i#ited in its use as the verb #a(. Used in
its %ri#ary function can #ay denote@
a3 abiity@ -e can spea) French. Si#iary $ith reference to the %ast@
She could spea) French. She could *e ver( )ind at ti#es. 'n this sense
futurity is generay indicated by ,ill *e a*le to.
b3 characteristic s%oradic features or behaviour& often in a dis%araging
or derogatory sense. 'n ter#s of synony#y& this use of can #ay be
co#%ared $ith ,ill j Infinitive indicating reguar characteristic behaviour.
Aere aso beong %atterns $ith inani#ate sub.ects& e. g.@ Inattention
can result in regretta*le #ista)es. .ractice can do a lot of good.
c3 %er#ission to do so#ething. 'n this sense it is re%aceabe by its
styistic synony# #a( $hich is #ore referentia& #ore for#a& e. g.@
\ou can do as (ou choose.
\ou can leave no,.
Cf. \ou may leave no,.
"are shoud be taken to distinguish bet$een such negative for#s as can't
1cannot2 and can not. \ou can't co#e differs fro# \ou can not co#e. The
first says that it is not %ossibe for you to co#e& the second that it is
%ossibe for you not to co#e.
d3 sensation& e. g./ 0an (ou see an(thing in the dar)? )ra##ar books
often characterise the use of the verb can $ith verbs of %erce%tion as
e+%ressing the abiity to have e+%erience. This& ho$ever& #ust be taken
$ith so#e reservation. -hen& for instance& $e say I can see or I could see
$e are generay not referring to our abiity to see but to the actua fact that
$e have at this #o#ent the sensation. E+a#%es ike these $i be found in
nu#bers. Aere is one of the#@ -er perfor#ance$ she felt$ ,as interesting
to the 3udge$ the 3ur($ and all those people there$ ,ho# she could di#l(
see. 2)as$orthy3
The use of the verb can in its secondary function is #ost fre0uent
7
See/ B. Strang. Modern Engish Structure. (ondon& 7=6:& %. 7<>.
77:
in interrogative and negative sentences denoting incredibiity $ith regard
to the action e+%ressed by the infinitive.
Can A Infinitive I denotes incredibiity $ith reference to the %resent or
future& e. g.@ There's so#ething a#iss here. The( can't be waiting there.
Can j Infinitive II $i i#%y incredibiity at %resent $ith regard to
so#e action %erfor#ed in the %ast& e. g./ <5ell$ ,ill (ou tell #e then that's
the state of #ind in (our circle4 and (ou said$ (ou )no,$ that (our circle is
less free and eas( than the plaintiffs D ho, it is possi*le that such ,ords
as 'she hasn't a #oral a*out her' can !ae done the plaintiff an( har#?<!
2)as$orthy3
The use of the verb could in its secondary function $i %resent t$o
ho#ony#ie %atterns@
a3 could j Infinitive I or II e#%oyed instead of can j Infinitive I or II
because of the se0uence of the tenses and b3 could j Infinitive I e+%ressing
su%%osition $ith reference to a future action& e. g.@ :h$ no$ she could not
*etra( hi#. That ,ould *e a,ful. Cf. syn.@ :h$ no$ she cannot *etra( hi#.
That ,ould *e a,ful. 1cannot j Infinitive intensifies su%%osition and is
decidedy #ore e#%hatic3.
Could j Infinitive II is a co##on device to e+%ress su%%osition or
doubt $ith regard to so#e occurrence in the %ast& e. g.@ She could not !ae
been #ore than t,ent( at that ti#e. 2zLROXM iZ s YPIJ YVINKS MRLMXWZ
OJQVR3. There ,as dust ever(,here$ the roo# could not have *een cleaned
for ,ee)s. 2)as$orthy3 2\QOVlN YPR mZI& R QV_ULWV& _JIZRJ& US
mOZYZOLIZ QVINQL WZUVR3. "o#%are the use of ho#ony#ic %atterns $ith
could j Infinitive II in its %ri#ary function.
'n s%ecia conte+ts of their use such #oda %hrases #ay have s%ecia
affective connotation. This is sho$n by intonation %atterns in s%eech and
gra%hic #arks of %unctuation in $riting& e. g.@
5hat could she !ae seen in that fello, Cosinne( to send her #ad?
2J RJUL lULsKIL R NJ_P eJTZUV& oJ RVU lRVR l OJlP_Pv3
2)as$orthy3
<:h7< cried Fleur$ <5hat did (ou D ,hat could (ou !ae done in
those old da(s?< 2J WZ lOJYZR& oJ _Vp WZ lOJYZWZ R WV MLISQV MUVv3
2)as$orthy3
Fleur tore herself fro# his grasp.
<\ou didn't D (ou couldn't !ae tried.
\ou D(ou *etra(ed #e$ Father<. 2)as$orthy3
Co#e$ darling$ *etter go to *ed. I'll #a)e it up to (ou$ so#eho,. -o,
fatuous7 Cui ,hat could he have said? 2...zVTSUVWUV TIJRL. bIS oJ RVU _Vp
s TQLlLWZv3 2)as$orthy3
"onstructiona ho#ony#y in %atterns $ith #oda verbs #ust not
esca%e the notice of the student.
"o#%are aso the foo$ing@
a3 -ad he )no,n a*out b3 M( #other once #ar'
it he could !ae !elped (ou ried ,ithout love. -o, could
(esterda( 1could have she have7 2)as$orthy3
helped D a non,fact3. 1could have #arried D a rea
action in the %ast3
77<
should A Infinitive
Should in its %ri#ary #eaning& es%eciay $hen stressed& denotes
obigation& duty or %ro%riety& e. g./ I thin) (ou should help hi#. \ou should
*e #ore attentive.
Besides its use as a #oda au+iiary in the Sub.unctive Mood& should is
$idey current in its secondary functions $here its distributiona #eaning
%resents s%ecia difficuties of gra##atica anaysis.
The first to be #entioned here are such %atterns i#%ying ogica
inference as@ -e should *e a good pilot as he has had plent( of fl(ing
e0perience. The t,o should have so #uch in co##on. 'n both the
sentences the i#%ication is that so#ething shoud or ought to be the case
according to a%%earances or ogic.
The range of should is $ider in that'clauses than in inde%endent
sentences. -ith a governing e+%ression resoving the a#biguity& its use
has naturay e+tended to that'clauses i#%ying deter#ination& desire&
co##and& etc. $hether in the affir#ative or in the negative& $hether fro#
the %oint of vie$ of the s%eaker or $riter or fro# that of so#e %erson
s%oken about.
The use of should of dut( and propriet( stands in shar% contrast to the
use of should in that'clauses $ith e+%ressions of e#otion& e. g.@ <I a#
surprised ] I #ight sa($ shoc)ed D, that (ou should have #entioned this<
$here should see#s to suggest so#ething that is the very o%%osite to duty
or %ro%riety.
There is a si#iar contrast bet$een should of ogica inference and
should $ith e+%ressions of e#otion& $hich a%%ears fro# the fact that a
sentence $ith should takes on an atogether different #eaning if it is
connected $ith an e+%ression of e#otion& as& for e+a#%e& \ou t,o should
have so #uch in co##on$ co#%ared $ith I a# surprised that (ou t,o
should have so #uch in co##on. 'n a conte+t in $hich the for#er sentence
is vaid& the atter $oud #ake no sense. The sa#e considerations a%%y& #
the #ain& to e+%ressions of disbeief& as& for e+a#%e& ...it is i#possi*le
that he should fail $here should suggests ogica inference but in a
negative $ay.
't is i#%ortant to observe the differentiation of #eaning in %atterns ike
the foo$ing@ \ou should ,or) harder B \ou shall ,or) harder. The
for#er is not a straightfor$ard co##and. 't is #ore i#%ersona than ''\ou
shall ,or) harder< in so far as it refers to a co##on standard of %ro%riety
and not to the $i of the s%eaker& but it is #ore %ersona than this %hrase
because it suggests a thoughtfu& not to say sy#%athetic& state of #ind. 'n
%oint of fact& 4\ou s!ould< is $eaker and generay #ore courteous than
the brus0ue and dictatoria <\ou s!all<. 't does not force the s%eaker!s $i
u%on the hearer in the sa#e $ay as <\ou shall< does. 'f $e say <\ou
should ,or) harder<$ $e %robaby $ish you to %ut so#e #ore energy into
your $ork& but $e do not find it necessary to te you so straight out. -e
are suggesting& consideratey& the %resence of necessity& duty& or obigation&
but $e are concerned not to give you the i#%ression that $e are i#%osing
it u%on you. 'f the thing is to be done& it is not because $e $ish it but
because it is re0uired by a genera standard of %ro%riety or obigation& a
standard that #ay a%%y to everybody.
776
The verb should in a %ersons has its #ost characteristic use in
%atterns $here the #oda %hrase e+%resses a rea action $ith e#%hasis
aid on the fact that it does or did take %ace. Variant subte shades of
sub.ective #oda force in giving one!s o%inion of an actua fact are
generay signaed by the conte+t.
The ;uestion of the present state and further prospects of international
trade is one of great #o#ents to all countries and it ,as therefore onl(
logical that it s!ould !ae receied suc! close attention at the Council
#eeting.
1should have received D has received2
That science in the USSR s!ould !ae attained so !ig! a leel of
deelopment is *ut natural.
1should have attained ` has attained2
The use of should V
inf
is fairy co##on in %assing a .udge#ent of an
e#%hatic e#otiona character 2sub.ective evauation& a%%rova or
disa%%rova& sur%rise or indignation3 on so#e occurrence.
Thus& it is strange that he e0ercised 2or has e0ercised2 so great
influence #erey states the fact& $hereas@ It is strange that he should
e0ercise 2or s!ould !ae e5ercised) so great influence ays #ore stress on
the strangeness of the action. Si#iary@ <It is strange that !e s!ould
be!ae li#e t!at" is synony#ous $ith <It is strange that he *ehaves li)e
that.<
't see#s %ractica to distinguish the foo$ing uses@
a3should V
inf
in co#%e+ sentences& e. g.@
:dd that one ,hose life ,as spent in *ringing to the pu*lic e(e all the
private coils of propert($ the do#estic disagree#ents of others$ s!ould
dread so utterl( the pu*lic e(e turned on his o,n4 and (et not odd$ for
,ho should )no, so ,ell as he the ,hole unfeeling process of legal
regulation. 2)as$orthy3
1odd that one should dread ` odd that one dreads2 It ,as a
#onstrous$ scandalous thing$ that the police s!ould ta#e such idle$
#alicious gossip seriousl(. 2Coyce3
1should ta)e ] too)2
It did #atter that so#e person or so#e principle outside oneself
s!ould be more precious than oneself. 2)as$orthy3
1should *e #ore precious ` is #ore precious2
...The idea that "eorge s!ould have taste al#ost appalled hi#.
2)as$orthy3
1should have taste ` has taste2
It is *ut right that she s!ould see the doctor once in a ,hile. 2"ronin3
1should see ` sees2
b3should V
inf
in sentences $ith ,h( and ho,$ e. g.@
<:h$ da#n it7< he e0clai#ed$ half angril($ half selfco##iseratingl($ in
co#*ined rage and sha#e. "%!y s!ould I cry' 5hat the devil's the
#atter ,ith #e$ an(ho,?< 2*reiser3
Cut if nothing #attered$ w!y s!ould !e feel li#e that? 2)as$orthy3
779
c3 should V
inf
in infinitiva sentences& e. g.@
...To thin) that !er fine, wonderful .ran# s!ould be compelled to
come to t!is D to cr(7
,ill A Infinitive
/atterns $ith the verb ,ill in its secondary function #ay be co#%ared
$ith the anaogous use of the verb #ust. 'n its #oda content ,ill see#s to
be #ore sub.ective and i#%ies a su%%osition based not u%on so#e facts
but rather u%on the s%eaker!s o$n considerations& e. g.@ <It's not li)e 9ol(on
to *e late7< he said to Irene$ ,ith uncontrolla*le ve0ation. <I suppose it'll
*e 9une )eeping hi#7< 2)as$orthy3
The verb ,ill in such cases #ust naturay foo$ the rue of the
se0uence of tenses& $hich is the case& for instance& in conte+ts $ith the
free re%orted s%eech& e. g.@ 9on would *e in London *( no, in .ar)$
perhaps$ crossing the Serpentine. 2)as$orthy3
/atterns $ith ,ill j Infinitive II$ rather co##on in coo0uia use&
i#%y su%%osition $ith reference to a %ast action ogicay connected $ith
the %resent. 'n its gra##atica content ,ill j Infinitive II goes %arae $ith
the anaogous #eaning e+%ressed by #a( j Infinitive II$ e. g.@ The( have
*een here so#e ti#e. Mar( will !ae ta#en the children to the cine#a. 1Cf.
s(n. 5ill have ta)en ` #a( have ta)en ` has pro*a*l( ta)en2.
Ne+t co#e %atterns $ith ,ould A Infinitive I or II $hich i#%y
su%%osition #ade at %resent $ith regard to so#e action in the %ast& e. g.@
There ,ere &ornifords ,hen I ,as a girl. 5here ,as that? :h7 %lgeciras7
-e ,as a colonel at "i*raltar. <That would be his father$ I e0pect<.
2)as$orthy3 'n ter#s of #eaning& such %atterns go %arae $ith the u,.
of the /ast Tense 1,ould *e his father D ,as his father$ I suppose2.
"oo0uia use has co#%arativey recenty ado%ted the use of I
wouldn't #now for I don't #now, he would #now for he$ certainl($ #nows,
e.g.@ "If "eorge is there<$ said 5inifred$ <he would #now". 2)as$orthy3
'OICE
*ctie / / ;assie
in t!e $nglis! <oice System
(anguages differ greaty in their idiosyncrasies& i. e. in the for#s $hich
they have ado%ted& in the %ecuiarities of their usages in the co#binative
%o$er of $ords and idio#atic for#s of gra##ar %ecuiar to that anguage
and not generay found in other anguages.
1ro# this %oint of vie$ the category of voice %resents a s%ecia
inguistic interest. /assive constructions %ay an i#%ortant %art in the
Engish verb,syste#. Modern Engish& es%eciay in its ater %eriods& has
deveo%ed the use of %assive for#ations to a very great e+tent.
As a gra##atica category voice is the for# of the verb $hich sho$s
the reation bet$een the action and its sub.ect indicating $hether the
action is %erfor#ed by the sub.ect or %asses on to it. Accordingy there are
t$o voices in Engish@ the active and the %assive. The active voice sho$s
that the action is %erfor#ed by its sub.ect& that the sub.ect is the
77?
doer of the action. The passive voice sho$s that the sub.ect is acted u%on&
that it is the reci%ient of the action& e.g.@
I ,rote a letter. % letter ,as ,ritten *( #e.
Transfor#ationa reations for voice #ay be sy#boised as foo$s@ N
7

j V
act
j N
;
N
;
j V
%ass
j by j N
7
The choice of the %assive construction is often due to the fact that the
agent is unkno$n or the s%eaker %refers not to s%eak of hi#.
So#eti#es the agent is dro%%ed atogether $hen it is unkno$n& $e
kno$s or uni#%ortant. 5ny the %assive #akes this econo#y %ossibe.
The %assive voice is kno$n to be e+%ressed by anaytic co#binations
of the au+iiary verb *e $ith the %ast %artici%e of the notiona verb.
Another %assive& for#ed $ith get as au+iiary and the %ast %artici%e&
see#s to be increasing in fre0uency& though gra##arians are at %resent
not agreed as to its status.
The verb get can function in a #anner very si#iar $ith *e$ e. g.@ M(
dress got caught on a nail. -e got struc) *( a stone.
To get see#s coser to the true %assive au+iiary to *e in %atterns ike
the foo$ing@ She got *la#ed for ever(thing. She gets teased *( the other
children. -e gets punished regularl(. But $ith a the si#iarity of the t$o
verbs used in such %atterns get is unike *e in the %ri#ary %aradig#. -e
can say& for instance& -e gets punished regularl($ but $e sha hardy attest
"ets he punished regularl(?
't shoud be noted that to get is often used in %reference to the verb to
*e because the true %assive $oud not be ceary distinguishabe fro#
co#binations of the fu %redicator *e and %artici%ia ad.ective
co#%e#ents.
"o#%are to be #arried and to get #arried. As is kno$n& to *e #arried
can have t$o #eanings@ qJMOPZWZTXr and qYPWZ JMOPSUZ_r $hie to
get #arried is una#biguous@ it can #ean ony <to arrive at the #arried
state<.
The grou% to *eco#e j %ast %artici%e e+%resses %ri#ariy state& e. g.@
73 The u#*rella is not a possession lightl( to *e lost. \et lost it *eco#es
although it should not. ;2 I have *eco#e ver( sun*urnt.
*escribing the 4voice4 syste# in Engish structura gra##arians often
ay e#%hasis on the fact that voice& $hich theoreticay indicates $hether
the sub.ect acts 2active voice3& is acted on 2%assive voice3& %erfor#s the
action for itsef 2dyna#ic voice3& or acts on itsef 2refe+ive voice3& is
reativey uni#%ortant in Engish. The %assive voice is accordingy
regarded as a $ord,order device for giving e#%hasis to $hat $oud
nor#ay be inner or outer co#%e#ents. A. -hiteha& for instance& #akes
reference to $ords for#ing the inner and outer co#%e#ents of the
standard sentence by the use of %assive constructions.
The $ords to be e#%hasised are #oved to %osition 7& the verb is
transfor#ed into a $ord,grou% 1*e$ *eco#e or get j V
en
3 and the origina
sub.ect 2%osition 73 is hooked onto the end of the sentence by #eans of the
%re%osition *( 2occasionay through2/
1
1
See/ A. -hiteha. Structura Essentias of Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<6.
77=
7 ; 8 :
T!e reporter gave hi# *oo)s
7 ; 8
-e ,as given *oo)s *( the reporter
7 ; 8
Coo)s were gien hi# *( the reporter
As a #atter of fact& the co##unication is e+acty the sa#e in the t$o
sentences given above. They re%resent #erey t$o vie$s of the facts& one
fro# the side of the doer& the other fro# the side of the thing done. E+ce%t
for the $ord order& the for# of the verb& and the %re%osition *( they are
the sa#e.
't see#s %ractica to #ake distinction bet$een a3 direct or pri#ar(
passive$ b3 indirect or secondar( passive and c3 tertiar( or prepositional
passive
7
.
The direct 1pri#ar(2 passive is for#ed in #ost cases fro# transitive
verbs. The sub.ect of the %assive construction generay corres%onds to the
direct ob.ect of the verb.
I ,rote a letter. % letter ,as ,ritten *( #e.
1urther e+a#%es of such for#ations $i be found in %atterns kno$n
in traditiona gra##ar as the No#inative $ith the 'nfinitive& e. g.@
The( ,ere not allo,ed to sta( here.
-e is said to *e #ost diligent.
The direct %assive is fairy co##on in sentence,%atterns $ith the
antici%atory it$ e. g.@
It ,as agreed that ,e should #a)e such e0peri#ents in the open air.
It ,as arranged that the e0pedition should start ,ithout dela(.
Syntactic structures $ith the direct %assive have a high fre0uency
vaue but there are certain restrictions in their use conditioned by the
gra##atica organisation of the sentence@
a3 the %assive construction is i#%ossibe& for instance& $hen the direct
ob.ect is e+%ressed& a refe+ive %ronoun or a noun $ith a %ossessive
%ronoun referring to the sa#e %erson as the sub.ect of the sentence& as in@
-e hurt hi#self. .eter hurt his ar#.
b3 there are no %assive for#s in such %hrasa verbs as& for instance& to
ta)e part$ to ta)e courage$ to ta)e flight$ to ta)e alar#$ to lose heart$ to
ta)e heart and sti others.
"ertain %hrases of this sort& ho$ever& ad#it of a %assive construction&
e. g.@ to lose sight of$ to ta)e care$ to ta)e responsi*ilit($ to pa( attention
and so#e others& e. g@
+o responsi*ilit( is ta)en for the loss of personal propert( 2hote
notice3.
%ttention #ust *e paid to the results of the first e0peri#ent.
Such things should not *e lost sight of.
5n account of the infinite variety of e+ica #eanings inherent in verbs
the structura reations bet$een verbs and their ob.ects are so fe+ibe that
to dra$ a rigid ine of de#arcation bet$een the different ty%es of ob.ects
is& indeed& not an easy thing to d%.
7
See/ E. Kruisinga. A Aandbook of /resent,*ay Engish. V. ;& %. ;& %. 7G Martin Coos.
The Engish Verb. The University of -isconsin /ress& 7=6:& %%. =:D=<.
7;>
Reations bet$een verbs and their ob.ects vary according to the variant
#eanings of the verbs the#seves as seen in the foo$ing instances given
by A. S$eet@ )ill the calf$ )ill the ti#e$ run a ris)$ run a *usiness$ ans,er
a letter$ a ;uestion$ a person$ pa( the *ill$ pa( si0 shillings$ pa( the
ca*#an$ fill a pipe$ fill an office$ etc.& etc.
A %ecuiarity of constitution hardy to be %araeed in other Euro%ean
anguages $i be found in sentence %atterns $ith different kind of the
indirect or secondary %assive.
There are a nu#ber of verbs $hich take t$o ob.ects D a direct and an
indirect ob.ect. The foo$ing are #ost fre0uent a#ong the#@ to allo,$ to
as)$ to a,ard$ to give$ to grant$ to leave$ to offer$ to pro#ise$ to send$ to
sho,$ to teach$ to tell.
These verbs ad#it of t$o %assive constructions@
a3 % *oo) ,as given to hi# 2the direct %ri#ary %assive3
b3 -e ,as given a *oo) 2the indirect secondary %assive3
The indirect 2secondary3 %assive is not infre0uent in verb,%hrases $ith
the verb to give$ such as@ to give credit$ to give co##and$ to give a
chance$ to give a choice$ to give an e0planation$ to give an opportunit($ to
give orders$ to give shelter$ and the ike.
-e ,as given a good to chance to argue.
She is given an opportunit( to go to the south in su##er.
Suppose$ (ou are given a choice. 5hat ,ould (ou prefer?
There are #any verbs in Engish $hich take a direct and an indirect
ob.ect in the active construction& but they ad#it ony one %assive
construction D the direct %assive& e. g.@ to *ring$ to do$ to pla($ to
telegraph and #any others. The ist coud be e+tended. 5ther verbs are not
reversed in %articuar turns of #eaning. Thus& have has no %assive $hen it
is stata& as in@ She has gold hair.
Ne+t co#e constructions $ith the so,caed %re%ositiona or tertiary,
%assive. -hat in the active is the ob.ect of a %re%osition connected $ith a
verb or $ith a verb and its ob.ect #ay be #ade the sub.ect of a %assive
construction. The sub.ect of the %assive construction corres%onds to the
%re%ositiona ob.ect. This 4detached4 %re%osition retains its %ace after the
verb. 1a#iiar e+a#%es are@
-e ,as sent for and ta)en care of.
She could not *ear *eing read to an( longer.
-e is not to *e relied upon.
The %re%ositiona %assive is not used $ith verbs $hich take t$o
ob.ects& direct and %re%ositiona@ to e0plain so#ething to so#e*od($ to
point out$ to announce$ to dedicate$ to devote$ to sa($ to suggest$ to
propose$ etc. They can have ony a direct construction& e. g.@ The difficult(
,as e0plained to the#. The #ista)e to the rule ,as pointed out to the #an.
% ne,'plan ,as suggested to us.
The %re%ositiona %assive is not very fre0uent in occurrence. 'ts use is
co##on $ith rather a i#ited nu#ber of verbs& such as@
73 verbs of saying@ to spea) a*out 1of$ to2$ to tal) a*out 1of2$ to
co##ent on$ etc.& e. g.@
The ne, pla( ,as #uch spo)en of.
7;7
;3 verbs e+%ressing scorn or conte#%t@ to fro,n at$ to laugh at$ to
#oc) at$ to 3eer at$ to sneer at$ etc.& e. g.@
This idea ,as first 3eered at.
-e could not understand ,h( his ,ords ,ere laughed at.
83 a #isceaneous grou% of verbs& such as@ to loo) at$ to loo) upon
1on2$ to loo) after$ to loo) for$ to approve 1disapprove2 of$ to account for$ to
send for$ to rel( on$ to thin) of$ e. g.@
-e ,as sent for and ta)en care of.
-ere is Irene to *e thought of.
5bserve& ho$ever& that the %assive construction $ith the 4retained4
ob.ect 2or 4re#aining accusative43 has i#its and is i#%ossibe $ith
%articuar verbs or %articuar ob.ects& e. g.@ $e can say <so#ething ,as
fetched #e<$ but scarcey 4I ,as fetched so#ething<. 5n the other hand&
<The trou*le ,as spared #e< is not so natura as < I ,as spared the
trou*le<. /ossibiities are so#eti#es ever #ore i#itedG e. g.@ $e cannot
say either 4' ,as cost nothing< or <+othing ,as cost #e.<
"ertain verbs of re#ova and e+cusion 2such as@ *anish$ e0pel$
dischange$ e3ect$ e0clude$ e0ile$ for*id2 governing t$o ob.ects are used
chiefy in the %assive& e. g.@
-e ,as *anished the real#. -e ,as dis#issed the service.
The( have *een e0pelled fro# the school.
The infinitive as a second ob.ect is found $ith a nu#ber of verbs& such
as@ allo,$ as)$ *eg$ *eseech$ *id$ co##and$ co#pel$ declare$ entreat$ feel$
force$ encourage$ incline$ induce$ )no,$ lead$ #a)e$ order$ o*serve$
persuade$ pra($ prefer$ perceive$ presu#e$ pronounce$ see$ teach$
understand$ ,ish$ etc.
'n ter#s of gra##atica as%ects of stye& the usefuness of the %assive
#erits s%ecia consideration.
The #ore for#a referentia character of %assive verba for#s as
co#%ared to the active voice #akes it %ossibe to use the# for styistic
%ur%oses& as& for instance& C. )as$orthy #astery does in transferring to
his %ages the at#os%here of stiffness and cod restraint fet at Cune!s treat
dinner@
&inner *egan in silence4 the ,o#en facing one another$ and the #en.
In silence the soup ,as finished D e0cellent$ if a little thic)4 and fish ,as
*rought. In silence it ,as handed...
Cosinne( ventured/ <It's the first spring da(<.
Irene echoed softl(/ <\es D the first spring da(<.
<Spring7< said 9une/ <there isn't a *reath of air7< +o one replied.
The fish ,as ta)en a,a($ a fine fresh sole fro# &over. %nd Cilson
*rought cha#pagne$ a *ottle s,athed around the nec) ,ith ,hite.
Soa#es said/ <\ou'll find it dr(<.
Cutlets ,ere handed$ each pin) frilled a*out the legs. The( ,ere
refused *u 9une$ and silence fell.
Soa#es said/ <\ou'd *etter ta)e a cutlet$ 9une4 there's nothing
co#ing<.
Cut 9une again refused$ so the( ,ere *orne a,a(. %nd then Irene
as)ed/ <.hil$ have (ou heard #( *lac)*ird?<.
Cosinne( ans,ered/ <Rather D he's got a hunting'song. %s I ca#e
round I heard hi# in the s;uare<.
7;;
<-e's such a darling7<
<Salad$ sir?< Spring chic)en ,as re#oved. Cut Soa#es ,as spea)ing/
<The asparagus is ver( poor. Cosinne($ glass of Sherr( ,ith (our s,eet?
9une$ (ou're drin)ing nothing7<
/assive,voice for#s are bukier than co##on,voice for#s and $here
there is no rea reason to use %assives active verb,for#s are generay
%referabe. But %assive for#s are often 0uite effective. So#eti#es $hat
$oud be the sub.ect of an active for# see#s uni#%ortant or is ony
vaguey identifiabe.
The old house has *een torn do,n.
5e've *een loc)ed out again.
So#eti#es $hat $oud be the sub.ect of an active for# is i#%ortant&
and is incuded in the cause& but for vaid rhetorica reasons see#s better
as co#%e#ent of agency than as sub.ect.
The college ,as founded *( the local co##ittee.
-e'll al,a(s *e do#inated *( his ,ife.
-hen the %assive is an infinitive or gerund its use so#eti#es ei#inates
a$k$ard sub.ect constructions.
!ver(one li)es to *e li)ed.
5e resented *eing treated li)e that.
'n i#%ersona $ritten styes& the %assive often serves as a $ay of
kee%ing the $riter out of sight. E+a#%es are nu#erous. Aere are so#e of
the#.
2a3 The na#es of such #usicians have *een #entioned else,here.
2b3 The i#portance of o*servations in this field has al,a(s *een
e#phasised.
/assive constructions are often referred to as stited& indirect and cod&
i#%ersona and evasive. To give its critics their due& the %assive& $hen in
arge doses& can indeed be %onderous stuffy and bukier than the active.
-ith a this it is used over and over by best styists in %rose o%en to none
of the %receding ob.ections. This is because it can be #ost i#%ortant and
usefu to shift the centre of co##unication creating& according to
circu#stances& varied and effective sentences.
Students $i find it he%fu to re#e#ber that fro# the %oint of vie$ of
ade0uate transation into Ukrainian the Engish %assive for#s #ay be
subdivided into three grou%s@
a3 those transated by #eans of active verba for#s $ith indefinite
%ersona or i#%ersona sentences& e. g.@
7. \ou are ,anted on the
phone.
7. [LT mOJTXWN MJ WSISJUP.
@. 5ere (ou told to ,ait for
hi#?
;. [L_ TQLlLIZ mJiSQLWZ UL
UNJpJv
h. She is regarded as the
*est student|.
8. RRLLnWN
ULsQOLoJn TWPMSUWQJn.
i. 5e are not allo,ed to use a
dictionar(.
:. zL_ US MJlRJIXnWN
QJOZTWPRLWZTX TIJRUZQJ_.
7;8
<. }J is not to *e distur*ed on
an( account.
<. Ae WOSYL sJpJ QJUZs OLl
WPOYPRLWZ.
6. I ,as sure the students
,ould *e called in.
6. YPR mSRUZs& oJ
TWPMSUWVR lLmOJTXWN.
9. 5hose fault that ,as ,ill
never *e )no,n.
9. zVQJIZ US YPMS RVMJ_J&
iZX S YPIL mJ_ZIQL.
?. -e is said to have helped
(ou ver( #uch.
?. LPWN& oJ RVU RL_ MPS
MJmJ_Vp.
7. \ou are ,anted on the
phone.
@. 5ere (ou told to ,ait for
hi#?
7. :n vous de#ande au
tglgphone.
;. Vous a't'on dit de
l'attendre?
8. 5e are not allo,ed to use
a dictionar(.
8. :n ne nous per#et pas de
nous servir d'un dictionaire.
:. -e is not to *e distur*ed
on an( account.
i. Il ne faut le dgranger sous
aucun prgte0te.
<. I ,as sure the students
,ould *e called in.
< 9'gtais s~r ;u'on ferait venir
les gtudiants.
6. -o, far he ,as
responsi*le ,ill never *e
)no,n.
6. :n ne saura 3a#ais ;uelle
fut la part de sa
responsa*ilitg.
b3 those transated by using the verb,for#s of the #idde voice& e. g.@
7. This letter can *e pronounced
in t,o ,a(s.
7. X YPQRL RZ_JRIXtWNTX
MRJXQJ.
Cf. 1rench@ Cette lettre se prononce de deu0 faons.
@. This ;ualit( is not often #et
,ith.
;. yLQS US iLTWJ lPTWOViLtWNTX.
Cf. 1rench@ Cette ;ualitg se rencontre rare#ent.
c3 those transated by the corres%onding %assive for# of the verb& e.
g.@
+othing ,as said. zViJpJ US YPIJ TQLlLUJ.
d3 %atterns $ith the %assive verb,for#s $hich can be transated ony
by the corres%onding active ones because of the e+ica character of the
verb and restrictions in the use of the %ast %artici%e of so#e verbs in our
#other tongue& e. g.@
\oung 9ol(on sa, that he had
*een recognised$ even *(
5inifred$ ,ho could not have
*een #ore than fifteen
fJIJMZs JIVJU
lOJlP_VR& oJ sJpJ
RmVlULIL ULRVWN VUVOSMG
L s YPIJ US YVINKS
m!XWULMXWZ OJ,
7;:
,hen he had forfeited the QVR& QJIZ RVU RWOLWZR mOLRJ right to
*e considered a For' ULlZRLWZTN JOTLsWJ_. s(te.
2)as$orthy3
To su# u% in brief& the fre0uency vaue of %assive constructions in
Engish is due to a nu#ber of reasons. E#%hasis $i be aid on the
foo$ing@
a3 There are& in fact& no #eans in Engish to avoid the indication of the
doer of the action in active constructions.
'n other anguages there are s%ecia uses of the active $ithout
indicating the agent. Such are& for instance& indefinite,%ersona sentences
in Russian and Ukrainian $ith the %redicate,verb in the 8rd %erson %ura
but $ithout e+act reevance to the doer of the action.
The indefinite %ronoun one and occasionay the %ersona %ronouns ,e$
(ou and the($ as $e as the noun people$ #ay be used in this #eaning. But
for so#e reason or other the use of such sentence,%atterns see#s to be
restricted& and Engish instead often sho$s here a #arked %reference of
%assive constructions.
b3 Variation in the use of different ty%es of %assive turns e+isting in
Engish ends variety to s%eech. Athough so#e of the# are so#e$hat
restricted in use& they sti contribute to the fre0uency vaue of the %assive
in genera.
Substitutes for ;assie
As in other anguages %assive #eaning can find its e+%ression not ony
in the %aradig#atic for#s of the verb. There are other techni0ues in
Engish $hich can serve this %ur%ose. There is a$ays a seective $ay in
the distribution of various #eans ada%ted to this %ur%ose in each case. The
%eri%hera ee#ents of the %assive fied in Modern Engish are@
73 4get,%assive4.
73 verb,%hrases $ith the se#i,co%uative verbs *eco#e$ stand$ rest$ and
go$ e. g.@
I have *eco#e sun*urnt.
-e stands prepared to dispute it.
5e rest assured.
The( go ar#ed.
83 active verb,for#s $ith refe+ive %ronouns& e. g.@
it sees itself4 it #anifests itself$ it displa(s itself$ etc.
7
:3
syntactic %atterns of causative #eaning& e. g.@ -e had his
photo ta)en. I ,ent it done. See the letters delivered.
<3 infinitiva %hrases@ a thing to do D a thing to *e done4
the house to let$ a *oo) to read$ etc.
63 gerundia %hrases@
The house needs repairing.
7
/rono#ina %atterns of this ty%e are so#eti#es referred to as 4se#antic4 or 4syntactic
%assive4. Cf. 1rench@ Cela se voit4 cet air se chante partout4 cette gtoffe se lave *ien.
7;<
M( shoes ,ant #ending.
93 %hrasa verbs of anaytica structure.
?3 %re%ositiona noun,%hrases.
/hrasa,verbs of anaytica structure ty%e VN function $ith rather a
high fre0uency vaue as styistic aternatives of *J,%assive and get'
passive. A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are given beo$. 5thers $i readiy occur
to the student.
to find e0pression to *e e0pressed
to find favour to *e favoured
to find reflection to *e reflected
to find support to *e supported
to find solution to *e solved
to ,in recognition to *e recognised
to gain respect to *e respected
to get pu*licit( to *e pu*lished
to receive a stud( to *e studied
to receive criticis# to *e criticised
to receive recognition to *e recognised
to receive punish#ent to get punished
'n infinite cases such for#ations verge on the 40uasi,gra##atica4 and
serve& in fact& rather gra##atica than e+ica %ur%oses. They carry
gra##atica infor#ation of voice distinction& #oreover& this is often the
do#inant feature of their inguistic status reveaed $ith sufficient evidence
in reguar 5%%ositiona reations bet$een si#%e and %hrasa verbs and
bet$een %hrasa verbs the#seves. The reevance of #any %hrasa verbs to
the voice,fied is #ost obvious. "o#%are@
%ctive .assive
to attend to pa( attention to receive attention
to help to give help to find help
to support to lend support to find support
to offend to give offence to suffer offence
to credit to give credence to find credence
to defeat to inflict a defeat to suffer a defeat
to pu*lish to give pu*licit( to get pu*licit(
/hrasa verbs a%%roach anaytica for#s@ one of the co#%onents has
e+ica #eaning& the second& a function verb& is se#anticay de%eted and
co#es to function as a se#i,co%uative verb. 'n their inguistic status
%hrasa verbs re#ain& in fact& on the borderine bet$een synta+ and
#or%hoogy. The %rocess of converting notiona $ords into e+ico,
gra##atica #or%he#es is #ost active in this area.
Verbs $hich are %art of such anaytica structures differ se#anticay.
So#e of the# are synony#icay reated in the Engish vocabuary
irres%ective of the conte+t. 5thers are synony#ous ony in co#bination
$ith certain nouna co#%onents.
to gain attention D to get attention D to receive attention4 to ,in
recognition D to get recognition D to receive recognition
D to gain recognition.
7;6
Most fre0uent are such verbs as@ get$ o*tain$ receive$ find$ gain$ ,in$
undergo.
-e aso find here such verbs as@ achieve$ attain$ earn$ escape$
de#and$ clai#$ re;uire$ suffer$ endure$ deserve$ #erit.
5vera%%ing of 5%%ositiona reations of voice and as%ect is not
infre0uent. "onsider the foo$ing for iustration@
%ctive .assive
"o##on As%ect 'nchoative As%ect
to suspect to fall under suspicion
to despise to fall into conte#pt
to o*serve to fall under o*servation
Actions of Singe 5ccurrence
%ctive %ctive .assive
to laugh to give a laugh to receive a laugh to e(e to
give the e(e to get the e(e
to hug to give a hug to receive a hug
'n such e+ico,gra##atica o%%ositions one #e#ber 2the 4#arked4
#e#ber3 signas the %resence of the as%ectua #eaning& $hie the
4un#arked4 #e#ber #ay either signa 4absence of #arked #eaning4 or
ese be nonco##itta as to its absence or %resence.
These t,o volu#es co#prised all the short stories he had ,ritten$ and
,hich had received or ,ere receiving serial pu*lication. 2(ondon3
+ot *eing as attractive as &o(le$ it ,as not so eas( for hi# to ,in the
attention of girls. 2*reiser3
She ,as a cold$ self'centred ,o#an$ ,ith #an( a thought of her o,n
,hich never found e0pression$ not even *( so #uch as the glint of an e(e.
2*reiser3
There is a cose %arae to this deveo%#ent in other anguages. Such
structura ee#ents in the Engish verba syste# #erit consideration not
ony in ter#s of their synony#ic correation $ith a si#%e verb of si#iar
#eaning. 1or#ations of this kind are #ost evidenty reevant to the
%robe# of covert gra##ar& i#%icit %redication& in %articuar.
Synony#ic correation of si#%e and %hrasa verbs of kindred #eaning
#erits attention in different s%heres of usage. Such inguistic units are
organicay reated and constanty aiding to and su%%orting each other in
co##unication. And this is fairy universa. The choice bet$een si#%e
and %hrasa verbs %redeter#ines to a great e+tent the structura %attern of
the sentence
1
. "onsituation and considerations of stye in the no#ina,
verba contrast $i generay deter#ine the seection of gra##atica
for#s in the organisation of the #essage.
E+a#ine the gra##atica organisation of the te+t in the foo$ing
sentences $ith no#inaity ada%ted to its %ur%ose in each case@
7
See/ b. . b m O S T X U . QTmSOZ_SUWLINUJS ZTTISMJRLUZS TS_LUWZQZ
OPTTQJpJ pILpJIL. f.& 7=69.
7;9
!ver(one ,as out in their Sla* S;uare$ pera#*ulating to eit!er get or
gie t!e eye, perhaps in an odd #o#ent stopping to hear a fe, ,ords of
ad#onition fro# Sall('s %r#(... 2Siitoe3
Haing gien and receied anot!er !ug, he #ounted the ,indo,
seat$ and tuc)ing his legs under hi# ,atched her unpac). 2)as$orthy3
This last ,as t!e s!oc# =on receied co#ing thus on his #other.
2)as$orthy3
The speed ,ith ,hich 9oe ,or)ed won (artin's admiration. 2(ondon3
The %assive fied incudes aso %atterns $ith %re%ositiona noun,
%hrases functioning as substitutes for ordinary %assive for#s of the verb.
1or#ations of this kind contribute significanty to the deveo%#ent of
gra##atica synony#y in sentence structure. 'n such syntactic %atterns $e
find& for instance& no#ina %hrases $ith the %re%ositions a*ove$ at$
*e(ond$ in$ on$ out of$ past$ under$ ,ithin$ ,ithout. A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es
are@
beyond *elief$ *e(ond pardon$ *e(ond 1or past2 cure$ *e(ond dou*t$
*e(ond dispute$ *e(ond e0pression$ *e(ond e0pectation$ *e(ond grasp$
*e(ond help$ *e(ond all #easure$ *e(ond praise$ *e(ond price$ *e(ond
;uestion$ *e(ond repair$ *e(ond recognition$ *e(ond reach$ *e(ond
1a*ove2 suspicion$ *e(ond ,ords$ in use$ in print$ out of use$ in ;uestion$
on sale$ under consideration$ under control$ under discussion$ under
repair$ under supervision$ etc.
...9une had t,ice *een to tea there under t!e c!aperonage of aunt.
2)as$orthy3
:utside the river$ and out of sig!t he slac)ened his pace still #ore.
2)as$orthy3
...She re#ained under t!e care of /octor T!oroug!good until %ugust
the fifteenth. 2"ronin3
...he ran his *ea#ing e(es over Martin's second'*est suit$ ,hich ,as
also his ,orst suit$ and ,hich was ragged and past repair. 2(ondon3
Unconsciousl( he a*sor*ed her philosoph(. >nder !er guidance !e
was learning to cultivate the superficialniceties and let the deeper things
go hang. 2"ronin3
The %assive #eaning of the %hrase is generay signaed by the
conte+t& the e+ica #eaning of the sub.ect in %articuar. "o#%are the
foo$ing@
2a3 children in charge of a nurse k children are ta)en care of4
2b3 a nurse in charge of children B a nurse ta)es care of children.
1unctiona si#iarity of structures $ith no#ina %hrases and those
$ith %assive for#s of the verb is 0uite obvious.
a*ove criticis# too great to *e criticised
*e(ond repair too old to *e repaired
,ithout hearing near enough to *e heard
*e(ond all #easure too large to *e #easured
out of use no longer used
under his guidance guided *( hi# the
house is under construe' the house is *eing *uilt
tion
7;?
Capt.r 'I
ENGLISH 'ERB;FORMS AND THEIR PATTERN;'AL&E
Ti#e,distinctions find their e+%ression in verb,for#s. Engish
gra##atica ter#inoogy has a s%ecia $ord tense to indicate ti#e at
$hich an action or state is vie$ed as ha%%ening or e+isting. The s%eaker!s
sub.ective use of distinctions of Ti#e dra$n in accordance $ith the
conventions of the anguage is naturay %ri#ary in i#%ortance.
The syste# of the Engish verb offers its o$n difficuties for a foreign
student to #aster. The #ost troubeso#e %robe#s are concentrated in the
area of the finite verb& and incude& in %articuar& tense& as%ect& and #oda
au+iiary usage.
The co#%onents of gra##atica #eanings in actua verb,for#s are
often not so se%arabe as it #ight be suggested. Tense$ #ood and aspect
a%%ear to be cosey ent$ined. The ter#s tense'aspect or& say& tense'#ood
see# therefore fuy .ustified. -e can hardy say that there are %ure tenses&
%ure #oods or %ure as%ectsG t$o or three of these kinds of #eaning are
a$ays inse%araby %resent in any given verb for#. This $i be #ade cear
if $e identify the tense,for#s by s%ecifying their characteristic sentence,
functions and ook at the contrasting %atterns rather than contrasting for#s.
A #a.or 0uestion in earning the gra##ar of the Engish verb is
therefore to ook for the difference of distribution in various conte+ts&
inguistic or situationa& $here each verb,for# occurs.
*istinction #ust be #ade bet$een %aradig#atic 2%ri#ary3 and
syntag#atica 2secondary3 #eanings of gra##atica for#s& in other
$ords& bet$een its denotative and connotative #eanings.
'n the %o$er of connotation of gra##atica for#s ies the reserve force
of anguage. )ra##atica i#agery %ays such a considerabe roe in the
for#a arrange#ent of units of s%eech as to deserve our %articuar
attention.
The study of verb,for#s #ust reasonaby incude their functiona
trans%ositions $here $e distinguish@ a3 for#a conventiona trans%ositions
in fi+ed %atterns of gra##atica usage and b3 e+%ressive trans%ositions for
styistic %ur%oses. The for#er are styisticay un#arked and e#otionay
neutraG the atter are #arked and have a styistic vaue.
TAE /RESENT TENSE
'n the %ractice of %erha%s a anguages the idea of <no,< #eans a ti#e
$ith a%%reciabe duration the ength of $hich varies greaty $ith the
conte+t. 't is i#%ortant ony that the theoretica Eero,%oint shoud fa
$ithin
789
the %eriod auded to. The verb,for# itsef does not i#%y the ength of
duration before or after the %resent #o#ent covering a very $ide range of
#eaning as $e as e+%ression of inter#ittent occurrences. The i#%ied
conte+t& inguistic or situationa& is a that can be considered reevant.
The #uti%e %oyse#antic essence of the %resent tense #erits cose
attention as #ost directy reevant to the %robe# of synony#y in
gra##ar.
'n these ter#s& the %resent tense #ay be characterised by distinguishing
the incusive and e+cusive %resent. The first $i incude@
73 the actua %resent denoting an action occurring at the #o#ent of
s%eaking or $riting. ' see an aeroplane. The teacher ,ants to spea) to (ou.
I love (ou.
Aere beong aso author!s $ords& stage re#arks& co##ents in
ne$s%a%ers& etc.& e. g.@ "oes *ehind the screen. :pens the door. Cell rings.
;3 the neutra %resent used $hen no %articuar ti#e is thought ofG
de%ending on the conte+t it #ay indicate@
a3 so#ething that is a$ays true& e. g.@ The sun rises in the east
2generaising %resent3G
b3 actions %er#anenty characterising the sub.ect& e. g.@ Fleur does
,hat she li)es 20uaitative %resent3G
c3 abiity to do so#ething& e. g.@ She spea)s three languages. 1She can
spea) three languages2.
The neutra %resent is aso used in giving a definition or stating a rue.
This #ay be caed %resent of definition& e. g.@ 5ater free=es *elo, =ero.
As a #atter of fact& in such cases an action or state denoted by the
%resent tense can be referred to any s%here of ti#e@ %resent& %ast or future.
Aerein ies %robaby the reason of the fact that the fre0uency vaue of this
verba for# is consideraby higher in scientific Engish than in ordinary
use.
83 the iterative %resent refers to an action re%eated at intervas& the
re%etition being usuay indicated by an ad.unct ike ever( da($ t,ice
,ee)l($ al,a(s$ etc.& e. g.@ ' get up at eight ever( da(. This paper appears
t,ice ,ee)l(. 5e al,a(s go to the seaside in su##er.
'n ter#s of #odern inguistics& the %resent tense is often characterised
negativey& i. e. as the for# used $hen there is no %ositive reason for the
use of the %ast& future& or the sub.unctive or any other co#%e+ con.ugation
for#. As the un#arked ite# in the con.ugation of the Engish verb& it is
then caed the neutral or non'past of the ver*
7
. And this ange of vie$ is
not devoid of so#e ogica foundations.
The syntag#atic #eanings of the 4e+cusive4 %resent #ay be iustrated
by its use@ a3 ,ith future ti#e reference$ b3 ,ith the i#plication of a past
action$ c3 ,ith i#perative #odal force.
This #ay be sho$n diagra##aticay@
See/ B. S t r a n g. Modern Engish Structure. (ondon& 7=6:& %. 7;9.
)PR
T. Pr.,.nt T.n,.
The pri#ar( denotative #eaning
2'ncusive /resent3
a3 I see an airplane
b3 I love (ou.
'. 'ndicative Modaity
c3 )eneraising /resent
The sun rises in the east.
d3 'terative /resent I
al,a(s go to the
South in su##er.
e3 Huaitative /resent
She pla(s tennis ,ith
innate grace.
Secondar( s(ntag#atic #eanings
2E+cusive /resent3
a3 %ast ti#e reference w
%nd then in the night of the *an;uet she appears
in her e#eralds... 2Mitche3
b3 future ti#e reference
5e start to#orro,.
''. '#%erative Modaity
\ou go and see hi#.
The %resent tense recounts of a future action as vividy as if it $ere
%resent.
*istinction #ust be #ade here bet$een different shades of #oda
#eaning and adherent e+%ressivity i#%arted to the verb,for# by different
kind of conte+ts& inguistic or situationa@
73 strong deter#ination of the s%eaker to do so#ething or get so#ething
done. This is often the case in fa#iiar s%eech& in e+%ressive or other$ise
e#%hatic stye& e. g.@
4'f (ou #ention her<$ cried 5inifred$ "I go straig!t out to .ar) Lane
and I don't come bac#<. 2)as$orthy3
<\ou #a( tr($ and tr($ and tr( again$ Messrs. &odson and Fogg<$ said
Mr. .ic),ic) vehe#entl($ <*ut not one far'thing of costs or da#ages do
you eer get fro# #e$ if I spend the rest of #( e0istence in a de*tor's
prison<. 2*ickens3
<!d,ard$ said #iss Murdstone<$ <Let there *e an end of this. I go
to#orro,<. 2*ickens3
;3 strong certainty of future action vie$ed as a ogica resut or
conse0uence of another given action& e. g.@
&on't go ,orr(ing about $hat #ay never ha%%en& or (ou're lost.
2(indsay3
<&ra, a for# of settle#ent that passes all #( propert( to Miss Fleur's
children...< "rad#an grated/ <Rather e0tre#el( at (our age$ sir4 (ou lose
control<. 2)as$orthy3
"osh7 -ere's a ring ,ith a *ig *lue dia#ond. 5orth four thousand
pounds. %e're on the velvet for the rest of our lives. 2Sha$3
The use of the %resent tense $ith the i#%ication of futurity i#%arts
vivacity to s%eech and often serves styistic %ur%oses. And this is not
)P$
s%ecificay Engish. There is a cose %arae to this deveo%#ent in other
Euro%ean anguages.
A. M. /eshkovsky
7
says $ith truth that in such cases the category of the
%resent tense in Russian does not ose or #odify its #eaning& but .ust
actuaises it in vivid and cear reief& e. g.@
...To X RJJYOLLn TSYX PS UL TRJYJMS& RUS ULKSpJ MJ_L.
mJTWPmLn R pPTLOh Z ZMP UL RJsUP. \J RTSc TWJOJU UL _SUX USTPWTX
ROLpZ& X OLl_LcZRLnTN TLYISs Z PYZRLn JMUJpJ& MOPpJs Rl_Lc D
PYZRLn MOPpJpJ& WOSWNSpJ... 2|. yJITWJs3
<That dog<$ said 9err($ pointing out the old leader of the troop$ and
spea)ing in a terri*le voice <lost a halfpenn( toda(. -e goes ,ithout
supper<. 2*ickens3
She rose to the full e0tent of her #ore than #ediu# height$ and said/ <It
has *een on #( #ind a long ti#e dear$ and if no*od( else ,ill tell (ou$ I
have #ade up #( #ind that< D <%unt -ester interrupted her/ <Mind$
9ulia$ you do it D <she gasped D <on (our o,n responsi*ilit(7<
2)as$orthy3
The %resent tense $ith future ti#e reference is kno$n to be $idey
current in certain ty%es of subordination. *istinction #ust be #ade
bet$een its different uses in ob.ect subcauses $here it #ay be used@
a3 $ithout any s%ecia e+%ressive connotation& e. g.@
Suppose the( co#e a fe, #inutes later.
b3 $ith e+%ressive connotation or such #oda shades of #eaning as@
strong deter#ination& certainty or assurance& e. g.@
...Cut understand that if I decorate, I decorate alone, ,ithout
interference of an( sort. 2)as$orthy3
Ce sure that I come bac# ,ith good ne,s$ and I am not long gone.
2*ickens3
<...%nd do I #eep t!e c!ange'" as)ed Stanle($ ,ho had *een given a
shilling. <I should thin) (ou don't$ #( lad7< cried Turgis. 2/riesty3.
<5ell<$ he said$ <I shall have to see Soa#es ...%t all events I'll let (ou
)no, w!at !appens ,hen I spea) to Soa#es<. 2)as$orthy3
<:f course$ there's legal separation D ,e can get that. Cut separation7
U#< D <5hat does it #ean?< as)ed 5inifred desolatel(.D <That !e can't
touc! you or you !im, you're bot! of you married and unmarried."
2)as$orthy3
The use of the %resent tense $ith the i#%ication of futurity in ob.ect
subcauses is rather a fre0uent occurrence after such verbs in the %rinci%a
cause as@ to *e$ to care$ to hope$ to loo)$ to #ind$ to pra($ to see$ etc.
<Let's hope t!ey stay t!ere," Mullinder said. <The( ,ant to finish off
that lot once and for all this ti#e.< 2Siitoe3
The %resent tense #ay be functionay synony#ous $ith the /resent
/erfect. This is often the case in %atterns $ith verbs of saying& seeing and
hearing. The %resent tense is e#%oyed here %erfectivey to i#%y 4being in
a state resuting fro# having...4 E+a#%es are@
Fl( over #( cit($ little S,allo,$ and tell #e w!at you see t!ere.
2-ide3
7
See/ A. M. SKQJRTQZs. {PTTQZs TZUWLQTZT R ULPiUJ_ JTRSoSUZZ. f.& 7=8?.
7:>
I !ear$ (ou couldn't ,ait t,o ,ee)s for #e. 2Mitche3
\ou've *een to S,it=erland$ t!ey tell me. 2)as$orthy3
Reference is #ade here to a %ast action and the s%eaker uses the %resent
tense as though the $ords had .ust been s%oken& since he fees the #atter
as one of his %resent interest.
See aso the foo$ing e+a#%e@
<...The *o($ ,here is he?<
<-e is pla(ing ,ith so#e friends<.
<5ith so#e friends? 5ill he *e long?<
<%*out an hour<.
<% fine little *o(. I come to spea) ,ith (ou a*out hi#<. 2)ordon3 2I
co#e D I have co#e2.
The o%%osition %resent,%ast co#es to be neutraised. The conte+t is
e+%icit enough to #ake the necessary #eaning cear. 'n such cases the
%resent tense is e#%oyed 4%erfectivey4& to i#%y 4being in a state
resuting fro# having...4.
This use beongs chiefy to conversation and etter $riting& and is
co##on ony in the first %erson& though& $ith the verb see the second
%erson see#s aso to be 4%erfective4 in such %atterns as@ \ou see I have
done #( *est to help (ou.
The e+%ressive ee#ent is $e seen in styistic trans%osition of the
%resent tense $ith such %ast ti#e reference as given beo$@
<:ld Ta(lor told rather a good one at the pu* (esterda(<'$ he *egan. <It
,as a. ,edding in the countr(. Rather a rough cro,d of ,edding guests$
all ,aiting for the *ride to get changed *efore the( could get stuc) into the
*oo=e and dancing. 5ell$ one of the guests #anages to get into the *ride's
roo# and he rapes her. +o argu#ents<.
+aturall($ ever(*od( is ver( upset and the *est #an #a)es a speech.
-e tells the# that not a drop of *oo=e is to *e served until the ,rong is
righted. !ver(*od( loo)s longingl( at the *rand($ *ut not a drop can the(
get. Ti#e passes$ ,hen suddenl( the *est #an co#es running in again. -e
is *ea#ing all over his face$ and he calls for silence. 'It' s all right$ ladies
and gents'$ he sa(s. '-onour is satisfied. The *lo)e apologised<. 2)ordon3
The change of the tense,for#s $ith one and the sa#e ti#e reference s
a #ost effective styistic device in e+%ressive anguage. The %resent tense
recounts the %ast vie$ed by the s%eaker as vividy as if it $ere %resent.
I hand the first *oo) to #( #other. .erhaps it is a gra##ar$ perhaps a
histor( or geograph(. I ta)e a last dro,ning loo) at the page as I give it
into her hand$ and start off aloud at a racing pace ,hile I have got it fresh.
I trip over a ,ord. Mr. Murdstone loo)s up. I trip over another ,ord. Miss
Murdstone loo)s up. 2*ickens3
THE PRESENT CONTIN&O&S +PROGRESSI'E/ TENSE
. The %rogressive for#s are co##ony defined as denoting concrete
%rocesses of the action $hose %rogression is taking %ace at a definite
#o#ent of ti#e e+%ressed or i#%ied in the conte+t or s%eech situation&
7:7
V. e. %rocesses i#ited in ti#e as contrasted to those of genera vaidity. The
#ost i#%ortant function of the %rogressive as%ect is to refer to te#%orary
activities situations or goings,on.
The %rogressive for#s are nor#a $here %redication tes of actions$
events& or states of affairs that are in %rocess at the #o#ent of s%eech or
$riting and are thought as begun& but not ended& $ith beginnings andor
ends fet as reativey cose to the ti#e of $riting or s%eaking.
The denotative vaue of the /resent /rogressive #ay accordingy be
characterised as indicating@ a3 %resent ti#e reevance& b3 so#ething
%rogressive& c3 contact $ith the #o#ent of s%eech. These three se#antic
ee#ents 2se#es3 #ake u% its synchronic co#%onenta %oyse#y.
She loo)ed at hi# scornfull( and ans,ered/ <I don't )no, ,hat (ou are
tal)ing a*out7< 2)as$orthy3. <Sorr(7< said &esert$ a*ruptl(/ <I'# *oring
(ou. -ave a s,eet?' 2)as$orthy3. <\ou are tal)ing li)e a child<.
2)as$orthy3
)ra##ar books #ake reference to the fact that the continuous tenses
cannot nor#ay be used $ith verbs that do not denote duration in a i#ited
ti#e& such as@ *elieve$ *elong$ desire$ detest$ feel$ forget$ hear$ hope$ li)e$
love$ recollect$ re#e#*er$ i#agine$ refuse$ see$ s#ell$ thin)$ ,ish$ ,ant$
)no,$ etc.
But in %resent,day Engish& es%eciay in s%oken Engish& these verbs
are found #ore and #ore fre0uenty in continuous for#s either because the
verb is taken in a sighty different #eaning or because of their %articuar
a%%ication to this very #o#ent and s%ecia e#%hasis of duration& e. g.@
<*re (ou feeling strong$ darling? %unt !# is here$ and #( uncle -ilar(
and his ,ife<. 2)as$orthy3 <-e'll never give #e a sign of ,hat he's
t!in#ing or going to do. Li)e ,as7< 2)as$orthy3 Then it's little enough
(ou are #nowing of an( #an living$ let alone %shle(. 2Mitche3
't $i be reevant to observe that the gra##atica content of the
%rogressive for#s varies its effect according to the ty%e of #eaning
conveyed by the verb.
Most difficuties over the use of the %rogressive for#s arise& in fact&
$ith the casses of verbs $hich are nor#ay inco#%atibe $ith the
%rogressive.
1a2 .eter is *eing #ost inattentive.
1*2 I'# thin)ing a*out ,hat (ou said.
1c2 I'# listening to (ou.
.eter is *eing inattentive i#%ies a rather %er#anent 0uaity. I'#
thin)ing a*out ,hat (ou said differs fro# I thin) so$ as there is an ee#ent
of deiberateness about the thinking $here the continuous for#s are used@
thought is vie$ed here as a kind of $ork& $ith fairy $e defined
beginning and end& not #erey 0uick darting of o%inion rising
instantaneousy.
I'# listening to (ou differs fro# I hear (ou/ listening is conscious and
deiberate& but hearing$ in this sense& is a refe+.
Verbs of %hysica and #enta %erce%tions and verbs of saying are
co#%arativey sedo# used in %rogressive for#s. -hen this is the case& the
verb,for# #arks intensity of an action in %rocess $ith e#%hasis aid on it&
e. g.@
7:;
-er e(es ,ere not ;uite close *ut surel( ,ere not seeing. 2)as$orthy3
-e glanced at Fleur. There she sat$ arid ,hat she ,as feeling he
couldn't tell. 2)as$orthy3
She ga=ed and ga=ed$ ,ondering$ delighting$ longing$ and all the ,hile
the siren voice of the unrestful ,as ,hispering in her ear. 2*reiser3
"o#%are aso the foo$ing@
7. a3 \ou i#agine he'll co#e. \ou thin) he'll co#e.
b3 \ou are i#agining things. \ou are having hallucinations.
;. a3 I plan to leave to#orro,. I intend to leave to#orro,.
b3 I a# planning #( holida(s. I a# #a)ing arrange#ents for the
holida(s.
't $oud be $rong to say that certain verbs are never used in
"ontinuous for#s& rather& so#e kinds of %redication e+%ressed by certain
verb,%hrases resist e+%ansion of their for#s.
Thus& for instance& in +o, I'# re#e#*ering the /resent "ontinuous
#ay be referred to as used to e#%hasise the i#ited duration& but this is
arbitrary& for $e #ay say that in this case re#e#*er has the #eaning of
4#ake a conscious effort to re#e#ber4& in $hich sense the "ontinuous
for# is fairy co##on.
1urther e+a#%es are@ The('re living in London and The( live in
London. The "ontinuous for# suggests either that they have #oved there
recenty or that they intend to #ove soon& or both. The si#%e /resent
indicates that (ondon is their %er#anent ho#e.
-ith verbs such as read or ,or)$ $hich refer to non,#o#entary
activity& the /resent "ontinuous $i usuay suggest duration of the
activity& itsef& es%eciay if a %oint of ti#e is indicated& e. g.@
&on't call on #e$ I'# ,or)ing at t,elve
1
.
'n contrast& the activity has no duration in@ I'# leaving at t,elve. 'f this
differs at a fro# I leave at t,elve$ it is in ter#s of intention as co#%ared
to a fi+ed %an or decision.
Note. The fact that the "ontinuous for#s #ay be used to suggest a
genera intention can aso be iustrated by the use of the /ast and /resent
/erfect "ontinuous in %atterns ike the foo$ing@ I've *een co#ing to see
(ou for a long ti#e. The intention has asted over a ong ti#e and& as the
/erfect Tense sho$s& began in the %ast and e+tended right u% to the %resent
#o#ent. I'# ver( glad to see (ou. It ,as nice of 9on to thin) of *ringing
(ou do,n to us. <5e ,eren't co#ing to the house<$ 9on *lurted out$ <I 3ust
,anted Fleur to see ,here I lived7< 2)as$orthy3 1,e ,eren't co#ing B
,e did not intend to co#e2.
't is interesting to co#%are aso the foo$ing@
I long for (ou ever( #o#ent B ' a# longing for (ou ever( #o#ent.
7
^uoted *( 1. R. /a#er. A (inguistic Study of the Engish Verb. (ondon& 7=6<& %. 77.
7:8
The t$o for#s differ ony in e#otiona saturation and e#%hasis& their
gra##atica content being absoutey identica.
A. /outs#a in his Late Modern !nglish %oints out that in this
e+%ressive use the "ontinuous for#s #ay be co#%ared $ith the e#%hatic
anaytica for#s of the /resent Tense 2"o##on As%ect3. ' do long B I a#.
longing. Si#iary@ I did long B I ,as longing. Cf. :h$ ho, the stars ,ere
shining7 -o, the dia#ond did t,in)le and glitter.
Syntag#atic connotative #eanings of the /resent "ontinuous signaed
by different conte+ts& inguistic or situationa& $i be iustrated by its use
in trans%osition $here it #ay denote@
273 %ro%erties or other traits 240uaitative %resent43& e. g.@
She is al,a(s gru#*ling a*out trifles. She
is pla(ing tennis ,ith innate grace.
2;3 re%eated %rocesses of increasing duration or activities characteristic
of the sub.ect at the given %eriod.
This #eaning is generay signaed by the i##ediate e+ica conte+t&
adverbs of fre0uency and re%etition& in %articuar& or consituation& e. g.@
<-e is fond of her$ I )no,<$ thought 9a#es. <Loo)$ at the ,a( he's
al,a(s giving her things.< 2)as$orthy3 4I'll ca*le at one$ other,ise ,e
#a( have a lot of e0pense. The sooner the things are done the *etter. I'#
al,a(s regretting that I didn't<. 2)as$orthy3 <I had Mus)ha# do,n
(esterda( and he ,as 3oll( decent. I'# tr(ing to ta)e up *irds<.
2)as$orthy3 4... \es$ don't #a)e it an auto*iograph(. Let it go forth as
fiction. %nd no one #ust )no, that I'# ,or)ing at it<7 2)ordon3
That the /resent Tense and the /resent "ontinuous #ay both serve this
function $i be seen fro# the foo$ing e+a#%e $hen the t$o for#s go
%arae $ith identica #eaning@ <The rest of us have our o,n particular
catling. I'# teaching no, at one of the church schools. I also do so#e
coaching at night$ and no, and then articles I ,rite on the pro*le#s of the
coloured people are accepted *( the !uropean press D provided$ that is$ I
don't #a)e the# too critical<. 2)ordon3
283 an action antici%ated or %anned in the future. This use is often an
effective #eans to e+%ress a strong deter#ination on the %art of the
s%eaker. -hen $e conte#%ate an action unfoding before our eyes& it
naturay arouses certain feeings 2%raise& %easure& ba#e& i#%atience&
re%roach& etc.3& e. g.@
Crain said to his cousin/ <I'# signing on as ,ell in a ,a($ onl( for life.
I'm getting #arried.<
Coth stopped ,al)ing. Cert too) his ar# and stared/ <\ou're not.<
I'm. To .auline. 2Siitoe3
...-e could afford to control hi#self no,.
<&ais('s leaing (ou.<
<+onsense.<
"I am, t!oug!," she said ,ith a visi*le effort.
<She's not leaing #e7< To#'s ,ords suddenl( leaned do,n over
"ats*(. 21itEgerad3
7::
The i#%ication of a future action is endo$ed $ith #oda force and
s%ecia e#otive functions in cases ike the foo$ing@
E+a#ine aso the connotative vaue of the /resent "ontinuous in the
foo$ing e+a#%e@
Fleur huddled her chin in her fur. It ,as easterl( and cold. % voice
*ehind her said$ <5ell$ Fleur$ a# I going !ast?<
5ilfrid7 -is collar up to his ears$ a cigarette *et,een his lips$ hands
in poc)ets$ e(es devouring.
<\ou are ver( sill($ 5ilfrid7<
<%n(thing (ou li)e4 a# I going !ast?< 2)as$orthy3
%# I going !ast? co#es to #ean@ Shall I go !ast? B &o (ou ,ant #e
to go !ast?
:3 actions antici%ated or %anned in the future $ith the i#%ication that
so#ething #ust necessariy take %ace@
a3 5hen is the action co#ing on? +e0t #onth? 2)as$orthy3
b3 4'f (ou thin) I #ight ris) it$ Miss$ I'd li)e to slip round to #(
dentist<.D :h7 5hat race is *eing run this afternoon$ then$ topping?<
2)as$orthy3
't is i#%ortant to observe the difference bet$een I start ,or) to'
#orro, and I'# starting ,or) to'#orro,. The first suggests that to'
#orro, is the day fi+ed for starting& the second that the s%eaker no$
intends to start. Verbs $hich refer to activities that are co##ony fi+ed by
fir# decisions are #ore ikey to be used in the /resent 'ndefinite $ith the
future sense& e. g.@ to *egin$ to start$ to end$ to finish.
<3 a future action of irreguar occurrence& as in@
-e is pla(ing Shu*erfs to'#orro,.
The use of the /resent "ontinuous #ay i#%y& in contrast to the si#%e
/resent& that the action is s%oradic& unsetted& ine+%icabe. 'n %atterns of
this kind a %articuar content of the "ontinuous for# as contrasted to the
si#%e /resent sho$s #ore cearyG the i#%ication is that even though
there #ay be a recurrent activity& no e+%anation for it $i be found.
1
63 i#%erative #odaity. The e+%ressive ee#ent of trans%osition into
the '#%erative is %articuary strong@
-e tried to *rush %nthon( aside. Cut %nthon( fir#l( stood his ground.
<I'# sorr(<$ he said$ his teeth together$ <\ou're not going in there<.
2)ordon3 \ou are not going is synony#ous $ith &on't go7 k &on't (ou
go7
E+a#ine aso the variant #eanings of the /resent "ontinuous in the
foo$ing diaogue@
<5e're going after *uff in the #orning<$ he told her.
"I'm coming". she said.
<+o$ (ou're not<.
<:h$ (es$ I am. Ma(n't I$ Francis?<
<5e'll put on another sho, for (ou to#orro,< Francis Maco#*er said.
<\ou are not coming"$ 5ilson said. 2Ae#ing$ay3
The %attern,vaue of the /resent "ontinuous #ay be sho$n
diagra##aticay as foo$s@
7
See@ 1. R. /a#er. A (inguistic Study of the Engish Verb. (ondon& 7=6<.
7:<
Pr.,.nt Continuou,
The pri#ar( denotative #eaning
She is reading.
Secondar( s(ntag#atic #eanings
'. 'ndicative Modaity
2a3 )eneraising /resent
Language is al,a(s
c!anging.
2b3 'terative /resent
<I'# always t!in#ing
of hi#<$ she said.
2Maugha#3
2c3 Huaitative /resent
5hat's up Crian?
\ou're never cr(ing$
are (ou? 2Siitoe3
2d3 %ast ti#e reference
Ti#e passes$ ,hen suddenl( he is
coming up again.
2e3 future ti#e reference
Tell hi# I'm coming up to#orro,
#orning.
''. '#%erative Modaity
You are not coming $ith usw
THE PAST TENSE
The gra##atica content of the /ast 'ndefinite #ay be briefy
characterised as foo$s@ the /ast 'ndefinite re%resents an action or state as
reativey static in the %ast. The duration of the %rocess indicated by the
/ast 'ndefinite can vary according to the i##ediate e+ica conte+t or
s%ecia situation $ith no ti#e indicators at a.
The /ast 'ndefinite Tense refers an action to the %ast $ithout teing
anything about the connection $ith the %resent #o#ent. 't is %ri#ariy the
tense of narration. 't #ay denote@
73 a succession of actions in the %ast& e. g.@
I went up and !ad a bat!, and dressed, and stood at #( ,indo,$
listening to the drone of a tractor still cutting corn$ and getting a little
drun) of ,hiffs fro# the hone(suc)le. 2)as$orthy3
;3 si#utaneity in action& e. g.@
5hen it gae (ou the spirit$ distilled the essence$ it didn't see real,
and ,hen it gae (ou the gross$ cross'currented$ contradictor( surface$ it
didn't seem wort! w!ile +Ga!,4ort#/. He paid no attention ,hen the
(oung #an raised his hat. 2)as$orthy3
83 a s%ecia use of the /ast Tense is %resented by %atterns ike the
foo$ing@
%fter he left the house$ he recollected that he !ad not loc#ed the door.
That !appened *efore I met (ou.
The o%%osition bet$een %erfect verb for#s and the %ast tense for#s
occurring in such causes is neutraised. The function of signaing 4earier
ti#e4 is taken over by the $ords after and *efore.
:3 re%eated actions in the %ast. 2Aere beong aso %atterns $ith the /ast
'ndefinite used to denote a %er#anent characteristic of a %erson or thing
s%oken about3.
7:6
<3 the /ast Tense is fairy co##on in denoting abiities& %ro%erties or
habitua actions re%resented in s%eech situation as reativey static& e. g.@
She pla(ed tennis ,ith innate grace.
63 %ast actions ogicay connected $ith the %resent in %atterns $ith
adverbs of fre0uency and re%etition@ never$ ever$ al,a(s$ seldo# and
*efore. The gra##atica content of the /ast Tense in such cases goes
%arae $ith the /resent /erfect as its styistic synony# $ith a sub.ective
ee#ent in it& e. g.@ 4' a# a doctor$ (ou )no,.D Reall(? \ou never told
#e<. "I don't ,ant to argue. French and !nglish never did get on, and
never ,ill<. 2)as$orthy3
't is i#%ortant to re#e#ber that the adverb never in %atterns $ith the
/ast Tense is often used rather to intensify negation than in the #eaning of
<not ever< at <no ti#e<$ e. g.@
-e answered never a ,ord D [VU WLQ s US RVMmJRVR UViJpJ.
Cill never turned his head 2(ondon3D eVI WLQ V US JYSOUPRTX.
<So (ou've co#e *ac)<$ he repeated. She never loo#ed up, and never
spo)e$ the firelight pla(ing over her #otionless figure. 2)as$orthy3 D...
OSU US pIXUPIL UL UNJpJ& US TQLlLIL UV TIJRL...
The use of the /ast Tense in %atterns ike <&id (ou ever?< or <&id (ou
ever hear of such a thing?< is virtuay synony#ous $ith <-ave (ou ever
heard of such a thing?< The t$o structures differ ony in stye& the for#er
as highy e+%ressive is generay used #erey as e#otiona e+ca#ation in
e+%ressive anguage.
93 the /ast Tense is co##on in narration to indicate anteriority& e. g.@
He t!oug!t he had lost her$ then al#ost ran into her standing ;uite stilt.
2)as$orthy3
?3 there are aso cases $hen the /ast Tense is used for styistic
%ur%oses to denote that $hat has hitherto been true is so sti and $i
a$ays re#ain so. 1a#iiar e+a#%es 0uoted by 5. Ces%ersen are@
Men were deceiers ever. 2Shakes%eare3
Faint heart never won fair lad(.
THE PAST CONTIN&O&S +PROGRESSI'E/ TENSE
The %ri#ary #eaning of the /ast "ontinuous is that of a %ast action
sho$n in its %rogress at a given %ast #o#ent& e. g.@
The door was slo,l( opening, and %nthon( found hi#self ga=ing into
a pair of pale'gra( hooded e(es. 2)ordon3 She follo,ed his ga=e through
the falling rain and sa, a #an and a girl co#ing fro# the large *loc) of
flats opposite her ho#e. +o, the( were getting into a little #otor car.
2)ordon3
Verba %rocesses in narration #ay aso be denoted by the /ast
"ontinuous& e. g.@
The fog was rapidl( disappearing, alread( the #oon shone ;uite clear
on the high ground on either side. It see#ed to hi# ver( far off a great
throng ,as forming. It was menacing, s!outing. It stirred$ it #oved$ it
was adancing.
147
/rogression in ti#e as denoted by the /ast "ontinuous is #ost
fuctuating and variabe@ fro# severa short stretches of ti#e to ong
duration& re%eated actions or si#utaneity or& say& increasing duration.
E+a#%es are@
Suddenl( Soa#es said/ <I can't go on li)e this. I tell (ou I can't go on
li)e this. -is e(es were s!ifting fro# side to side$ li)e an ani#al's ,hen it
loo)s for ,a( of escape<. 2)as$orthy3 9ol(on ga=ed into his hat$ his
e#*arrass#ent was increasing fast4 so ,as his ad#iration$ his ,onder$
and his pit(. 2)as$orthy3 ...Cut Ma##( ,as sho,ing her age and
rheu#atis# was slowing her lu#*ering tread. 2Mitche3 Aere the i#%ied
conte+t is a that e+ists or can be considered reevant.
T,o other (ouths$ o*li;ue'e(ed$ dar)'haired$ rather sl('faced$ li)e the
t,o little *o(s, were tal#ing together and lolling against the ,all4 and a
short$ elderl($ clean'shaven #an in corduro(s$ seated in the ,indo,$ was
conning a *attered 3ournal. 2)as$orthy3 "o#%are aso@
a3 She was playing the piano fro# eleven to t,elve this #orning. b3
She played the piano fro# eleven to t,elve this #orning.
-hat #atters in the choice of the verb,for#& as a$ays in anguage& is
the s%eaker!s vie$ of #atters.
To su# u%& continuous for#s #ay either indicate that an activity is
inco#%ete or not as yet co#%eted& or ese #ay be nonco##itta
regarding the co#%etion of the s%ecified activity.
A s%ecia interest attaches to its styistic trans%osition $here it co#es
to re%resent@
a3 future action $hen that future #o#ent is vie$ed fro# the %ast. This
is often the case in %atterns $ith the free re%orted s%eech. The %ri#ary
#eaning of the verb,for# co#es to be neutraised by the situationa
conte+t& e. g.@ %t last$ #( dear$ I thought (ou ,ere never co#ing.
b3 $ith adverbs of fre0uency and re%etition the /ast "ontinuous $i
generay denote habitua actions& abiities& %ro%erties and other
characteristic traits& e. g.@ %nnette ,as al,a(s running up to to,n for one
thing or another$ so that he had Fleur to hi#self al#ost as #uch as he
could ,ish. 2)as$orthy3 !
'nstances are not fe$ $hen %atterning $ith such adverbs beco#es an
effective styistic device to e+%ress various e#otions@ annoyance&
irritation& dis%easure& anger& a#use#ent& %raise& etc. The e+%ressive
ee#ent is often intensified by so#e other indicators of the given conte+t&
e. g.@
-is car *u#ped so#ething slightl($ and ca#e to a stand. That fello,
Riggs ,as al,a(s *u#ping so#ething. 2)as$orthy3
The e#otive factors deter#ine and #odify %atterns of gra##atica
structure in unnu#erabe $ays. Attention has been re%eatedy dra$n to the
fact that they #ay affect not ony the choice of vocabuary but the
character of such #eta%hors as occur in the use of gra##atica for#s. The
"ontinuous Tenses of the %resent,day Engish are #ost dyna#ic in this
res%ect. More and #ore they are used $ith s%ecia functions of different
#oda force. The styistic range of their a%%ication in e+%ressive anguage
has beco#e sur%risingy $ide.
c3 $e aso kno$ such trans%ositions $hen the /ast "ontinuous is
endo$ed $ith s%ecia e#otive functions and co#es to e+%ress rather the
148
intention of doing so#ething than the action itsef. 'n such %atterns of
4i#%ied negation4 the connection bet$een the sub.ect and %redicate is not
to be taken in a direct or %ositive sense. The #eaning is thus negative& that
of an unreaised intention to do so#ething 2su%%ositiona #odaity3& e. g.@
4I suppose (ou ,ere too *us( to co#e to the station<.
-e coloured cri#son. <I was coming$ of course<$ he said$ <*ut
so#ething stopped #e<
1
.
'I ,as co#ing' #eans@ <I intended to co#e< 1*ut I did not2
;
.
(ike in other cases& the o%%osition 4rea D unrea4 co#es to be
neutraised here by conte+tua indication.
-ere he ,as not surprised to #eet Stener 3ust co#ing out$ loo)ing ver(
pale and distraught. %t the sight of Co,per,ood he actuall( *lanched.
<5h($ hello$ Fran)<$ he e0clai#ed$ sheepishl($ <,here do (ou co#e
fro#?<.
<5hat's up$ "eorge?< as)ed Co,per,ood. <I thought (ou ,ere
co#ing into Croad Street<.
<So I ,as<$ returned Stener$ foolishl($ <*ut I thought I ,ould get off at
5est .hiladelphia and change #( clothes. I've a tot of things to tend to (et
this afternoon. I was coming in to see you<. %fter Co,per,ood's urgent
telegra# this ,as sill( *ut the (oung *an)er let it pass. 2*reiser3.
Cf. Russian@ JWQOhRLI& ML US JWQOhI& RhYZOLI& ML US RhYOLI.
Ukrainian@ OJlQOZRLR& WL US OJlQOZRG RZYZOLR& WL US RZYOLR.
"osey reated to this is the anaogous #oda use of the /resent /erfect
"ontinuous& e. g.@ Mr. S. lands at Southa#pton tonight. -e has al,a(s
*een co#ing. This ti#e he has co#e.
TAE /ER1E"T TENSES
The category of ti#e reevance in Engish is based on the binary
o%%osition 4non,%erfective @@ %erfective4G the for#er is kno$n to be
un#arked& the atter %ossesses a s%ecia gra##atica #eaning. This is to
suggest that the action denoted by the un#arked for# is not correated
$ith so#e other #o#ent of ti#e or so#e other action $hereas the %erfect
for# is characterised by a s%ecia current reevance.
)ra##arians differ greaty in defining the inguistic nature of the
/erfect Tenses in Engish. That the category of /erfect is a tense category
is so#eti#es denied. Reference is often #ade to the s%ecific as%ective
essence of these verba for#s defined as resutative& retros%ective&
successive& etc.
A. '. S#irnitsky!s
8
vie$%oint %resents a s%ecia %oint of interest. Ais
basic assu#%tion is that the /erfect Tenses e+%ress the category of 4ti#e
reation4 %resented by the reguar o%%osition of a
7
^uoted fro# A. [. L I L i S R T Q L X . dOL__LWZiSTQLX QLWSpJOZX RZML R
LUpIZsTQJ_ XlhQS. qVIJIJpViUZs lYVOUZQr& & 7=<9& 7>.
@
See/ (atin 4i#%erfectu# de conatu4 used $ith anaogous #eaning& e. g.@ Venie*atis
igitur in %frica#... prohi*iti estis in provincia vestra pede# ponere.
8
b. . \ _ Z O U Z Q Z s . SOSQW Z QLWSpJOZX ROS_SUUJs JWUJTZWSINUJTWZ.
qUJTWOLUUhS XlhQZ R KQJISr& 7=<<& No. 7G fJOJIJpZX LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.&
7=<=& O. 877.
7:=
/erfect for#s to a non,/erfect for#s& such as ,or)s// has ,or)ed4
,or)ed // had ,or)ed4 ,ill ,or) // ,ill have ,or)ed$ etc. The
corres%onding reative ter#s ado%ted by A. S#irnitsky for these
gra##atica contrasts are 4non,%erfect4 and 4%erfect4.
The un#arked non,/erfect for#s do not refer to a s%ecia current
reevance $hereas the #arked /erfect for#s e+%ress %riority.
A. '. S#irnitsky %resents a ogica syste# of the correation bet$een
the 'ndefinite& the "ontinuous& the /erfect and the /erfect "ontinuous
for#s gra%hicay as a %araee%i%ed on $hose three di#ensions he
%aced@ 73 the category of tense 2the /resent& the /ast and the 1uture3& ;3
the category of as%ect 2the "o##on and the "ontinuous3 and 83 category
of ti#e reation 2the non,/erfect and the /erfect for#s3.
So#e$hat si#iar vie$s on the categories of the Engish verb are hed
by the A#erican schoar M. Coos
7
.
'n treating the 'ndefinite& the "ontinuous& the /erfect and the /erfect
"ontinuous for#s M. Coos& ike /rof. S#irnitsky& #arks out three different
verb categories $hich he cas 4tense4& 4as%ect4 and 4%hrase4.
5ther gra##arians advocate the vie$ according to $hich the category
of /erfect is a %ecuiar tense category& i. e. a category incuded in the verb
%aradig# aong $ith the categories 4%resent4 and 4%ast4
;
. According to ).
Vorontsova
8
the category of /erfect is a %ecuiar as%ect category and as
such #ust be incuded in the reguar gra##atica contrasts of 4co##on4
and 4continuous4 as%ects.
The divergency of the inguistic a%%roaches to the identification of the
/erfect Tenses in Engish is indeed striking.
The 0uestion #uch debated no$adays is ho$ define the invariabe
#eaning of these gra##atica for#s.
-hat shoud not esca%e our notice is that the shift fro# tense to as%ect
$hich is so s%ecific in the functiona reationshi%s of Engish verb,for#s
cannot be studied in isoation fro# the distributiona #eaning of the
/erfect Tenses.
5ne #ore 0uestion %ri#ary in i#%ortance is that the gra##atica
content of the /erfect Tenses cannot be studied $ithout a considerabe
reference to the e+ica character of the verb and variations of denotative
and connotative #eaning resuting fro# the use of /erfect for#s in
different syntactica environ#ent& arge %atterns& in %articuar.
The occurrence of the /erfect Tenses in different syntactic
environ#ents $i sho$ variations of their basic gra##atica content.
'nstances are not fe$ $hen the conte+t co#es to be e+%icit enough to
neutraise the o%%osition bet$een the /erfect Tenses and the %reterit verb,
for#s.
The current reevance as #arked by the /erfect Tenses #ust
reasonaby be referred to as their basic #eaning.
7
See/ M. Coos. The Engish Verb. The University of -isconsin /ress Madison and
Mi$aukee& 7=6:.
;
See/ 5. Ces%ersen. The /hioso%hy of )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=6?& %. ;<:.
8
See/ d. A. [JOJUJRL. aiSOQZ mJ pOL__LWZQS LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. M.& 7=6>& %. 7=7.
7<>
5bservations on the difference of distribution& in the kind of conte+t&
inguistic or situationa& $here each %erfect for# occurs& give every
reason to say that the resutative #eaning and the #eaning of
co#%eteness do not e+haust the as%ective content of the /erfect Tenses
$ith a their #uti%e %oyse#antic essence in %resent,day Engish.
-hat needs further investigations as gra##ar earning advances
is the study of the de%endence of the #eaning of /erfect for#s on the
tense category 2%resent& %ast and future3 and its distributiona #eaning in
cases $hen the a%%ication of the verb,for# see#s to go far beyond the
strict i#its of the syste#. The fact is& that $e occasionay find such
varied uses of the /erfect Tenses that they #ay bring to considerabe
inguistic changes of the #eaning of the for# itsef. 't is aso interesting
to note that considerabe variations in their %atterning so#eti#es
a%%ear a #atter of styistic %reference. There are i#%ortant treat#ents of
their distributiona vaue %resented by b. JrsLkJv in one of his
$ork,%a%ers qSOSQWUJ,mJKZOSUV JO_Z WL RZOLSUUX iLTJRZc
RVMUJKSUN R LUpIVsTNQVs _JRVr.
't $i not be su%erfuous to %oint out that there is a good dea of
difference bet$een the use of the /ast and /erfect Tenses in Engish
and so#e other anguages. The /erfect Tense is often used in other
anguages $here the /ast Tense is re0uired in Engish. This is the case
$hen attention is dra$n to the ti#e at $hich an action or event took
%ace in the %astG hence es%eciay in 0uestions beginning $ith ,hen?
2So#eti#es $ith ,here?2$ and in sentences $ith adverbia ad.uncts
ans$ering such 0uestions& e. g.@
5hen 1,here2 did (ou see hi# last?
1Cf. 5here have (ou *een all the
ti#e?2. T,o aeroplanes ,ere shot do,n
(esterda(. I received his letter a ,ee)
ago. -is father ,as *orn in Ireland.
&id (ou co#e *( tra# or *( *us?
The /resent /erfect Tense usuay denotes an action that fas $ithin
the ti#e,s%here of the %resent. 'ts uses are #ainy three@ 2a3 the
"ontinuative /erfectG 2b3 the Resutative /erfectG 2c3 the /erfect of
E+%erience.
The "ontinuative /erfect often corres%onds to a /resent Tense in
other anguagesG Engish shares $ith so#e other anguages the use of
the Resutative /erfect& $hich denotes a %ast action connected& through
its resut& $ith the %resent #o#ent& e. g.@
5e have *ought a ne, car. ... 1Cf. 5e
*ought a ne, car last ,ee)2. Loo) ,hat
(ou've done. Ten (ears have passed since
,e first #et.
-e have a use inter#ediate bet$een the "ontinuative and the
Resutative /erfect $hen the reference is to a %eriod of ti#e that is not yet
over& e. g.@ I've *een to the pictures t,ice this ,ee).
2But@ I ,ent to the pictures t,ice last ,ee)2.
7<7
To indicate co#%eted activities in the i##ediate %ast the /erfect
Tense $ith the adverb 3ust #ay be used& e. g.@ "eorge has 3ust gone out. It
has 3ust struc) t,elve.
'n s%oken Engish I've got is often e0uivaent to I have/ "uess ,hat
I've got in #( poc)et.
'n a sentence ike -e's got 1D o*tained2 ,hat he ,ants$ ho$ever& $e
have to do $ith a Resutative /erfect.
The /erfect of E+%erience e+%resses $hat has ha%%ened& once or #ore
than once& $ithin the s%eaker!s or $riter!s e+%erience. 't is not unkno$n in
other anguages& at east in head,causes& though an ad.unct e+%ressing
re%etition is usuay added. Si#iar ad.uncts #ay be added in Engish& e.
g.@ 272 I have sat for hours on the river *an) on a. fine su##er' s da($
,aiting for a fish to *ite. 2;3 5hen I have as)ed hi# the ,a($ I have
invaria*l( received a polite ans,er.
(ike the /resent Tense& the /resent /erfect #ay neutraise its %ri#ary
#eaning in subordinate causes de%endent on the #ain cause e+%ressing
or i#%ying future ti#e& e. g.@ 5ait till I've finished #( ,or). %s soon as I
have copied the te0t$ I shall give it to (ou. The /ast /erfect 2/u%erfect3
ans$ers %arty to the /ast Tense& %arty to the /erfect. 't see#s to
re%resent a shifting back of these tenses into the 2#ore distant3 %ast
1
.
5ne #ore i#%ortant %oint #ust not be eft un#entioned here. -e #ean
the use of the verba for#s $hich in %resent,day Engish go %arae $ith
the /resent /erfect and /ast /erfect as to their structure but differ
essentiay in their gra##atica content and styistic vaue. These are
%atterns $ith the %artici%e '' se%arated fro# the au+iiary have as in/ I
have all #( ,or) done. 5e have it all thought out$ don't ,orr(. /atterns of
this kind are often referred to as intensified for#s of the /erfect Tenses
2/resent or /ast3& the so,caed 4"oncusive /erfect4. According to 5. C e s
% e r s e n& for instance& they hardy differ fro# the %erfect for#s and serve
ony to e#%hasise the %resent state #uch stronger than the /erfect does.
There is& indeed& a suggestion of effort i#%ied in such for#s $hich
#akes the# forcibe and highy e+%ressive. But se%aration fro# the
au+iiary verb i#%arts such a cear cut ad.ectiva character to the %artici%e
that such %atterns denote not so #uch an action as a. state. A verba for#
co#es to function as an intensive stata %assive.
"oo0uia Engish abounds in %atterns ike the foo$ing@ \ou had it
#e#orised all through in the #orning$ *ut I feel (ou're forgetting it again.
5hen (ou ca#e$ I had #( plans alread( #ade. Attention $i be dra$n
here to the gra##atica a#biguity $hich #ay resut fro# the use of such
for#s in different conte+ts. This a#biguity is generay resoved by the
i##ediate e+ica conte+t.
The descri%tive character of the %artici%e isoated fro# the au+iiary
have has #ade %ossibe the foo$ing uses of the verb,%hrase@
a3 %atterns gra##aticay synony#ous $ith the /erfect Tenses
2/resent or /ast3& e. g.@
7
See/ R. -. Fandvoort. A Aandbook of Engish )ra##ar& (ondon& 7=6<& %. 6;. 7<;
7<;
I have it #e#orised to perfection. Cf./ I have #e#orised it...
I had it #e#orised to perfection. Cf./ I had #e#orised it...
b3 %atterns gra##aticay synony#ous $ith stata %assive. These #ay
be referred to as 4stata %assive of intensity4& e. g.@
The( have all their opponents *eaten.
c3 %atterns $ith the fu force of the %resent or %ast tense& causative in
their #eaning& e. g.@
I have #( suits #ade to order. I had #( suits #ade to order.
'nstances are not fe$ $hen the /resent /erfect is used $ith reference
to si#utaneous actions. Aere $e find %atterns ike the foo$ing@ -aven't
(ou had the ,indo, open since I have *een out?
't is interesting to note that in conte+ts $ith reference to habitua use
there is a %otentia a#biguity. Take the foo$ing sentence for iustration@
!ver( ti#e I have seen her she has *een reading. This #ay have t$o
%ossibe #eanings@ either that on each occasion she $as actuay reading
or that on each occasion she had %reviousy been reading. The a#biguity
arises fro# the fact that the /erfect #ay i#%y either the overa %eriod of
ti#e that $e are s%eaking about or& in addition& each re%eated %eriod. The
overa %eriod of ti#e is ceary sho$n by !ver( ti#e I have seen her to be
one that began in the %ast and continues u% to the %resent #o#ent. But the
successive %eriods of ti#e that are to be reated to these %oints of ti#e
#ay either be %eriods that si#%y overa% these %oints of ti#e or they #ay
be %eriods that began before and continue u% to the given %oints of ti#e.
'n #ost cases a sentence,%attern $ith ,henever or ever( ti#e foo$ed
by /erfect tense,for#s in both causes is obviousy inter%reted in the first
of the t$o senses& the /erfect being taken $ith reference ony to the
overa %eriod of ti#e& activity on each occasion overa%%ing the %oints of
ti#e. The other sense $i generay be indicated by so#e s%ecia
situationa conte+t.
Ne+t $e co#e to the use of the /ast /erfect Tense. 't $i as $e be
seen here that the synta+ of the verb bears an inti#ate reation to its
#or%hoogy because the gra##atica content of this verb,for# is aso
greaty conditioned by the syntactica arrange#ents in $hich it occurs.
5bserved in different %atterns of syntactic environ#ent the /ast
/erfect $i sho$ a considerabe variation in its gra##atica #eaning.
't is i#%ortant to e#%hasise the foo$ing@
a3 in a great #any cases the /ast /erfect Tense serves to connect
gra##aticay t$o %ast actions& one of $hich is %rior in ti#e. E+a#%es
are not far to seek@
&inn( spun round to the ,indo,. &ar) !ad fallen and if it hadn't she
couldn't have seen. 2)as$orthy3
So#eti#es it is %ossibe to use the si#%e /ast Tense for both actions
in anaogous arrange#entsG the difference $i be one of e#%hasis. The
/ast /erfect e#%hasises the %riority of ti#e. 'n its styistic vaue it is
sighty #ore for#a.
Thus& for instance& the foo$ing t$o sentences a%%ear to be
interchangeabe@ I had studied French *efore I started !nglish. I studied
French *efore I started "ree). Te+tbooks often say that 'had studied'
i#%ies that
7<8
"o#%are the Ukrainian@ Q pPQUSK& WLQ V RVMpPQUSWNTX. J mJTVtK&
WS s mJUSK.
Si#iary in Russian@ LQ LPQUSWTX& WLQ Z JWQIZQUSWTX. WJ mJTSSKN&
WJ Z mJUSKN.
"osey reated to this is the use of the 1uture Tense a%%ied to ifeess
things to denote %o$er or ca%acity& e. g.@ 273 The hall ,ill seat t,o
hundred. 2;3 That will do. 283 That won't do.
b3 the activity essentiay characteristic of the sub.ect& very often $ith
so#e a%%rova& disa%%rova or re%roach. The necessary #eaning is usuay
signaed by the conte+t& e. g.@
<Ver( true$ child4 *ut ,hat's to *e done? .eople will tal#, there's no
preventing it.< 2Sheridan3
<&octors7< said 9a#es$ co#ing do,n sharp on his ,ords4 <I've had all
the doctors in London for one or another of us. There's no satisfaction to
*e got out of the#4 the('ll tell (ou an(thing. There's S,ithin$ no,. 5hat
good have the( done hi#? There he is$ he's *igger than ever4 he's
enor#ous4 the( can't get his ,eight do,n. Loo) at hi#7< 2)as$orthy3
1urther e+a#%es are@ &on't listen to hi#7 -e will tell (ou incredi*le
things. The( will sit here for hours pla(ing chess.
This kind of functiona contrast in the use of the tense,for#s #ay be
iustrated by nu#erous e+a#%es in Ukrainian.
Cf. \ZMZWN V JQJ_ US _JOpUS. fJRiZWN V TIJRL US TQLS.
Si#iary in Russian@ \ZMZW Z pILlJ_ US _JOpUSW. fJIiZW Z TIJRL US
TQLSW.
"o#%are aso@ PMSU USmO mOZ WZcJs mJpJMS& QJpML RJINUJ Z
mILRUJ _iZW TQRJlN ISTL Z pJOh mJIUhS RJMh TRJZ. zZ lLKSIJcUSW& UZ
mOJpOS_ZW.
Aere is a good e+a#%e to iustrate the use of the 1uture Tense $here
it does not convey the %ure idea of tense but is associated $ith #oda
conce%tions of a very strong %resu#%tion 2Ay%othetica 1uture3@
<...Father7 I have said I do not... I have said I cannot...<
<C( the #ost #erciful ,hat? 5hat? The na#e for it7 5ords for it7<
<&o not fro,n on #e father. I ,ish hi# happiness. I cannot #arr( hi#.
I do not love hi#.<
<\ou will remember that (ou infor#ed #e aforeti#e that (ou did love
hi#.<
<I ,as ignorant. I did not )no, #(self. I ,ish hi# to *e happ(.<
2*reiser3
-e find here various shades of hy%othetica #eaning ranging fro# a
#ere su%%osition and con.ecture to a strong %resu#%tion. The necessary
#eaning is generay sensed fro# the gra##atica or situationa conte+t
and intonation in actua s%eech. 5ther e+a#%es are@
+)/ -e will alread( be asleep, don't distur* hi#. 2;3 That will be (our
luggage$ I thin). 283 Mother will be wondering ,here ,e are.
A %arae deveo%#ent #ay be traced in other anguages.
Cf. 1rench/ Il dor#ira dg3 1-e #ust alread( *e asleep2.
)er#an@ !r ,ird schon schlafen. &as ,ird schon ,ahr sein. &er Crief
,ird ,ohl fertig sein.
The 1uture /erfect Tense #ay take over anaogous functions. -e #ean
such conte+tua situations $hen it does not i#%y futurity at a but
7<6
is used to indicate a #ere su%%osition $ith reference to a co#%eted action&
e.g.@ The( will !ae !eard the ne,s #ay be synony#ous $ith I suppose
the( have heard the ne,s or The( #a( have heard the ne,s. 1urther
e+a#%es are@ a3 The( ,on't have seen (ou co#e. 1S(n. The( can't have
seen (ou co#e2 b3 It will !ae been alread( gat!ered fro# the
conversation of these ,orthies that the( ,ere e#*ar)ed in an enterprise of
so#e #agnitude... 2*ickens3
'n %resent,day Engish shall and ,ill are not the ony $ays of referring
to future ti#e. 1uturity #ay aso be e+%ressed by trans%ositions of other
verb,for#s& $e kno$n in #any& if not a& anguages. '#%ying futurity&
$e can say& for instance@ I'll read #( essa( on Tuesda(s B I read #( essa(
on Tuesda( B I'm reading #( essa( on Tuesda(. The difference $i ie
here in the i#%ied attitude to& ground of e+%ectation of the future action&
or deter#ination to do so.
<...%*out leaving (our hus*and$ Lad( Corven4 an( reason (ou'd care to
give #e?< Clare shoo) her head.
<I'# not going into #( life ,ith hi#$ either here or an(,here. %nd I'#
not going *ac) to hi#<. 2)as$orthy3
The 1uture Tense #ay be used $ith i#%erative force. This is the case&
for instance& $hen $e desire to s%eak courteousy and at the sa#e ti#e
indicate that $e are confidenty e+%ecting that our $ish $i be fufied.
%s (ou are going to the post office$ (ou will perhaps mail these letters
for #e.
-hen s%oken in earnest tone the future beco#es a#ost a co##and.
She 1grand#other to grandchild2 said$ <\ou will do nothing of the )ind7<
<+one of that7 none of that7< he said$ glo,ering under his strange$ sad$
gra( *ro,s. <I can't stand it7 &on't te#pt #e7 5e're not out of this place
(et. -e's not7 \ou'll come ho#e ,ith #e no,<. 2*reiser3
\ou'll go or I'll sell (ou do,n the river. \ou'll never see (our #other
again or an(*od( (ou )no,... -urr(7 2Mitche3
The i#%erative force is #ost e+%ressive in si#iar uses of the 1uture
"ontinuous@
<I )no, ,ho (ou're here ,ith<$ he continued$ sha)ing his head sadl(.
<The dog7 I'll get hi# (et. I've had #en ,atchin' (ou all the ti#e. :h$ the
sha#e of this da(7 The sha#e of this da(7 \ou'll be comin' ho#e ,ith #e
no,<. 2*reiser3
Trans%osition of the 1uture Tense into the '#%erative is co##on in
other anguages.
1rench@ Vous fere= signer ce te0te et vous #e le rapportere= de#ain.
Si#iary in )er#an@ 273 Mach die +oti=en. &u ,irst *ei #ir *lei*en.
2Brede3 2;3 &u ,irst den %pfel schieen von de# [opf des [na*en.
2Schier3
Cf. [Z lOJYZWS RTS& oJ X mOJTZR& V US WOSYL YVINKS OJl_JRIXWZ. [Z
ULmZKSWS _SUV mOJ TRJ ROLSUUX. YPMP [L_ MPS RMXiUZs.
The gro$ing use of the <going to,future4 is one #ore %oint of interest.
-e #ust naturay distinguish@
a3 *e going to D used as a state#ent of intention& synony#ous $ith
intend to$ e. g.@ The( are going to leave to'#orro,.
7<9
b3 *e going to D a %eri%hrastic verb,for# denoting a future action D a
reative styistic synony# of the ordinary future tense.
This gra##atica idio# has s%read consideraby during the ast <>D
6> years in Modern Engish& %articuary in its A#erican variant& and this
%rocess continues. Various di#ensions aong $hich such #essages #ay
differ are #ost directy reevant to the sub.ective #odaity of %redication.
The e+%ressive <going to,future4 often assu#es e#otiona vaue i#%ying
various subte shades of #eaning& such as& for instance& caution or
$arning& %ro%hecy or encourage#ent& %rohibition or categorica
co##and. "onte+tua nuances of such use are very eusive.
'n ob.ective referentia use the <going to,future4 #ay e+%ress futurity
$ithout any i#%ication of intention in the strict sense& e. g.@
Soon she is going to *e 16 ` Soon she ,ill *e 16.
Synse#antic in its character& it is $idey used in %resent,day Engish as an
aternative of the ordinary future tense.
The reative distribution of the <going to,future4 %resents a #a.or %oint
of interest in studying the styistic as%ect of verb,for#s& their sub.ective
use $ith different shades of e#otiona coouring.
"o#%are the subte shades of #oda force and e+%ressivity of the
conte+t,sensitive <going to,future4 in the foo$ing e+a#%es@
M( #other ran a,a( ,hen I ,as three$ and I have no sisters. It's going
to *e hard for (ou$ ,ith a no#adic$ unsatisfactor( *rute li)e #e.
2)as$orthy3 D $arning& %redication.
'ntensity and e#%hasis are %articuary strong in negative
constructions& $hich are often used as styistic aternatives of the
'#%erative Mood& e. g.@
\ou're not going to deceive #e al,a(s7 2*reiser3
't is to be noted that the se#antic ee#ent of %redeter#ination of or
certainty about an action can so#e$hat $eaken the #eaning of future ti#e
reevance.
<-e ought to understand7 -e piles up his #one( for #e<$ she thought4
<*ut ,hat's the use$ if I'm not going to *e happ(? Mone($ and all it
*rought did not *ring happiness<. 2)as$orthy3
<:h$ ,hat is going to happen no,?< she cried. 2Mansfied3 D
su%%osition& a%%rehensionG
<This is going to *e #( #asterpiece< 2-ide3 D %rediction& certainty.
<There's no use cr(ing #( dear. Cr(ing isn't going to help things<
2)ordon3 D %redeter#ination& convictionG
<\ou D (ou #ustn't thin) an( #ore of ,hat happened 3ust no,$ little
#an<$ he said hus)il(. <See? That's all over no,. That's forgotten. That's
neer going to happen again. See?< 2Mansfied3 D certainty& %ro#ise.
The anaysis of the distributiona #eaning of the tense,for#s in
%resent,day Engish& brief as it is& $i re#ind us of the constitutiona
vaue of syntactic #or%hoogy $hose sub.ect #atter is 4gra##ar in
conte+t4. Variations in the use of the verb,for#s& their %otentia %oyse#y
and trans%ositions conditioned by the #ode of the s%eaker!s re%resentation
of the verba idea are a source of constant inguistic interest. *ifferent
verb,for#s #ay be used $ith one and the sa#e ti#e,reference.
5bservations in this fied #ake it a%%arent that the various functions of the
tenses
7<?
are not yet finay and absoutey fi+ed. Making for greater subteties and
finer shades in e+%ressing the s%eaker!s sub.ective attitude to the utterance
functiona shifts are sti taking %ace. This can be best iustrated& for
instance& by the e+tension of the sub.ective use of the continuous for#s in
e+%ressive anguage $here they are endo$ed $ith s%ecia e#otive
functions. Not ess characteristic are the inguistic changes observed in the
use of #oda verbs. An interesting deveo%#ent of recent years is& for
instance& the use of #a( j infinitive '' as e0uivaent to could j infinitive ''
$ith the i#%ication that the envisaged outco#e did not occur. The
reationshi% bet$een the# is certainy not& as 5E* i#%ies& anything to do
$ith tense in %resent,day Engish.
Revision Materia
7. Be ready to discuss the distinction bet$een %aradig#atic and
syntag#atic #eanings of verb,for#s.
;. "o##ent on e+%ressive trans%ositions of the Engish tense,for#s&
neutraisation of gra##atica #eaning and situationa synony#y in
gra##ar. "o#%are anaogous deveo%#ents in other anguages.
8. )ive e+a#%es to iustrate the use of verb,for#s in trans%osition
$ith future ti#e reference.
:. "o##ent on the use of <going to4,future in Modern Engish.
<. Be ready to discuss the styistic range of "ontinuous for#s in
Modern Engish.
6. "o##ent on the denotative and connotative vaue of the /resent
"ontinuous 2/rogressive3 Tense.
9. *escribe the inguistic essence of the /erfect Tenses in Modern
Engish.
?. )ive e+a#%es to iustrate #oda re,inter%retation of verb,for#s as
connected $ith the %robe# of Mood. "o#%are si#iar deveo%#ents in
other anguages.
=. *iscuss the state#ent that in Modern Engish the "ontinuous tense,
for#s are #ore and #ore assu#ing the function to intensify the verba
idea and in #any cases have e#otiona vaue.
7>. "o##ent on the inguistic changes in the use of Engish verb,
for#s in their %resent deveo%#ent.
77. *iscuss the o%%osition 4finitude D non,finitude4 in Modern Engish.
Capt.r 'II
THE
PRONO&N
/ERS5NA( /R5N5UNS
'n the category of %erson Engish #akes distinction bet$een three
casses of %ersona %ronouns denoting res%ectivey the %erson 2s3 s%eaking
2first %erson3G the %erson 2s3 s%oken to 2second %erson3 another %erson2s3
or thing2s3 D third %erson.
/erson distinctions are naturay cosey reated to the category of
nu#ber.
There is no for#a distinction of %ersons in %ura& e. g.@ ,e spea)$ (ou
spea)$ the( spea). There is no distinction of nu#ber in the 7st and ;nd
%ersons either.
'n %oint of fact& the binary o%%osition spea) // spea)s in a Engish
verbs& e+ce%t the #oda au+iiaries e+%resses the reation@ 8rd %erson
singuar or any other %erson of both nu#bers. The e+ce%tion to the
%atterns of con.ugationa variants is aso the verb to *e$ $hose %aradig# is
uni0ue and incudes five distinct finite for#s@ a#$ is$ are$ ,as$ ,ere.
Archaic verb,for#s in 't or 'st are generay associated $ith the od
%ronoun thou. These are un%roductive in Modern Engish and used ony in
reigious te+ts and occasionay for styistic %ur%oses in eevated s%eech or
%oetry. Thou and (e $ere for#ery often shifted to e+%ress the s%eaker!s
#ood and tone. The <thou of conte#pt< $as so very fa#iiar that a verba
for# $as coined to na#e this e+%ressive use. Shakes%eare gives it& for
instance& to Sir Toby Bech 1T,elfth +ight2 in the ines urging Andre$
Aguecheek to send a chaenge to the disguised Vioa@ 4Taunt hi# $ith the
icense of ink& if thou thous!t hi# so#e thrice& it sha not be a#iss
7
4
/roteus and Vaentine in T,o "entle#en of Verona initiay e+change
thou$ but $hen they touch on the sub.ect of ove& on $hich they disagree&
their address changes to the <(ou of estrange#ent<.
(ike in other %rovinces of gra##ar& attention #ust be dra$n to the use
of %rono#ina for#s in trans%osition. The affective vaue of such
4#eta%hors4 #ay be traced in #any& if not a& #odern anguages. The first
to be #entioned in Engish is the use of the %ronouns ,e$ (ou and the( in
%atterns $here they are synony#ous $ith the for#a generic one.
The so,caed 4editoria4 ,e 2(at. %urais #odestia3 is $e kno$n&
for instance& as used in #any #odern anguages by authors of scientific
%a%ers& #onogra%hs or artices in a ne$s%a%er& etc. E+a#%es are hardy
needed.
1
^uoted in/ Stye in (anguage ed. by T h. A. S e b e J k. Ne$ York,(ondon& 7?6>.
160
The %ronoun ,e is co##on in %roverbia sayings@
5e shall see ,hat ,e shall see. 5e soon *elieve ,hat
,e desire. 5e never )no, the value of ,ater till the
,ell is dr(.
Cf. WJ TIPiZWTX mOZ JMUJ_ SMZUTWRSUUJ_ PTIJRZZ&D STIZ _h RTS
D JW _LIL MJ RSIZQL D PMRJZ_ Z PWOJZ_ WS_mh ULKSs JYJOJUUJs
OLYJWh& STIZ QLMhs Zl ULT D JW _LIL MJ RSIZQL D mJs_SW& iWJ
QLMhs iLT& WJYJs mJWSOXUUhs MIX JYJOJUUJpJ WOPML& YPMSW TWJZWN
ZlUZ WRJSpJ YOLWL UL OJUWS. 2b. yJITWJs3
E+%ressive effects of great subtety $i be found in the use of the
%ronoun ,e in such e+a#%es as@
<I sa(<$ said -urst,ood$ as the( ca#e up the theatre lo**($ <,e are
e0ceedingl( char#ing this evening<.
Carrie fluttered under his approving glance. 2*reiser3
Cf. Ukrainian@ zP& XQ _Z TSYS mJiPRLt_J TNJpJMUVv
Russian@ zP& QLQ _h TSYX iPRTWRPS_ TSpJMUXv
1rench@ Se porte'on #ieu0 au3ourd'hui?
The %ronoun ,e is often used $hen s%eaking& for instance& to ones,%et
chid or to a sick %erson $ith %ayfuy o%ti#istic e#otiona coour,ing.
The shift of the %rono#ina for# e+%resses a shift in the s%eaker attitude
and tone. Aere again $e #ust say that this recurrent feature !s not
s%ecificay Engish and #ay easiy be traced in other #odern anguages&
e. g.@ -o, are ,e feeling no,? 1,e ] (ou2.
*iscussing so#e tendencies of the %resent ti#es& E. /artridge
7
gives
e+a#%es of adding to one!s re%y a decaration in the third %erson& e. g.& in
res%onse to&& &o (ou li)e that?<,e hear the %erson addressed say <+o$ said
he fro,ning7<
1urther e+a#%es are@
<Mr. "rund('s going to o*lige the co#pan( ,ith a song<$ said the
Chair#an.
<+o he ain't<$ said Mr. "rund(.
<5h( not?<$ said the chair#an.
<Cecause he can't<$ said Mr. "rund(.
<\ou had *etter sa( (ou ,on't<$ replied the chair#an.
<5ell$ then$ he ,on't<$ retorted Mr. "rund(. 2*ickens3
Nursery tak is kno$n to have its traditiona characteristicsG #others
and fathers& aunts and grannies are iabe to address chidren using the
third %erson instead of the second& as $i he 2or she2 do it. E+a#%es of
this kind #ay be found in nu#bers.
The generic use of the %ronoun (ou $i be found in any s%here of
a%%ication. 't is co##on in coo0uia Engish& in iterary %rose& in
%roverbia sayings@
\ou never can tell. \ou can't eat (our ca)e and have it.
\ou cannot 3udge a tree *( its *ar)$ etc.
7
See/ E. /artridge. Sang Today and Yesterday. (ondon& 7=6>& %. 7;8.
767
E#otiona coouring is %articuary strong in (ou $ith its #ore or ess
a%%arent a%%ea to the %erson s%oken to& as in@
<+o, and then? Mr. Croo#$ didn't (ou al,a(s sho, (our feelings?< If
(ou #ean did I al,a(s sho, that I ,as in love ,ith her D of course I did$
(ou can't hide a thing li)e that<. 2)as$orthy3
<I'# ancient$ *ut I don't feel it. That's one thing a*out painting$ it )eeps
(ou (oung<. 2)as$orthy3
And here is a good e+a#%e fro# C. (ondon to iustrate that the
generic (ou and one are not interchangeabe $hen used in this function@
<C( the ,a($ Mr. !den<$ she called *ac)$ as she ,as leaving the roo#$
<,hat is *oo=e? \ou used it several ti#es$ (ou )no,<.
<:h$ *oo=e<$ he laughed. <It's slang. It #eans ,his)e( and *eer D
an(thing that ,ill #a)e (ou drun)<.
<%nd another thing<$ she laughed *ac). <&on't use '(ou' ,hen (ou are
i#personal. \ou' is ver( personal$ and (our use of it 3ust no, ,as not
precisel( ,hat (ou #eant<.
<I don't 3ust see that<.
< 5h($ (ou said 3ust no, to #e$ ',his)e( and *eer D an(thing that ,ill
#a)e (ou drun)' D #a)e #e drun)$ don't (ou see?<
<5ell$ it ,ould$ ,ouldn't it?<
<\es$ of course<$ she s#iled. <Cut it ,ould *e nicer not to *ring #e into
it. Su*stitute 'one' for '(ou'$ and see ho, #uch *etter it sounds<. 2(ondon3
-ith reference either to an uns%ecified %erson or to %eo%e in genera
$e #ay aso use the %ronoun the(. 't is i#%ortant to observe that in s%oken
Engish (ou i#%ies reference to the s%eaker or those $ith $ho# he
identifies hi#sef& the( D reference to %eo%e $ith $ho# the s%eaker does
not identify hi#sef& e. g.@ +o tree$ no shru*$ not a *lade of grass$ not a
*ird or *east$ not even a fish that ,as not o,ned. %nd once on a ti#e all
this ,as 3ungle and #arsh and ,ater$ and ,eird creatures roa#ed and
sported ,ithout hu#an cognisance to give the# na#es... 5ell7 The( had
got it under$ )ennelled it all up$ la*elled it$ and sto,ed it in la,(ers'
offices. 2)as$orthy3
The( used as a generic %ronoun usuay refers to so#e %ersons
unkno$n and is often highy e#otiona denoting that the s%eaker
dissociates hi#sef and the %erson addressed fro# the situation& e. g.@
M( poor little girl$ ,hat have the( *een doing to (ou?
Anaogous is the use of the 1rench %ronoun ils$ e. g.@
Mais .ied'd'%louette parla et dit/
D Ils #'ont pris #on couteau.
^ui cela?
1
The generic the( #ay aternate $ith the $ord people %atterning
si#iary $ith generic force& e. g.@
Mrs. Candour. Ver( true child/ *ut ,hat's to *e done? .eople ,ill tal)
D there is no preventing it. 2Sheridan3
"o#%are the use of the )er#an %ronoun sie in anaogous
trans%osition@
7
See/ /. d. Z J W O J R T Q Z s . aiSOQZ mJ pOL__LWZiSTQJs TWZIZTWZQS
OLUPlTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=<6& O. 786.
76;
Ih# ha*en sie das %uto gestohlen. ` Ih# hat #an das %uto gestohlen
1
.
The %ronoun the( $ith reference to indefinite %ersons is so#eti#es
used $ith de#onstrative force& e. g.@
The( #ust hunger in ,inter that ,ill not ,or) in su##er. 2%roverb3
The shift of the %rono#ina for# e+%resses a shift in the s%eaker!s
attitude and tone. Aere again $e #ust say that this recurrent feature is not
s%ecificay Engish. 5ther anguages %resent si#iar %heno#ena.
'n Russian and Ukrainian the generic use of verb,for#s in the ;nd
%erson singuar and %ura $ithout a %rono#ina indicator is a $e kno$n
styistic device& e. g.@
qJ_PUVTWJ_ TWLWZ _JUL WVINQZ WJMV& QJIZ lYLpLWZK TRJn mL_!XWN
lULUUX_ RTVc WZc YLpLWTWR& XQV RZOJYZIJ InMTWRJr. 2[. . |SUVU3
qSTUn MOPYh lLmSRLSW _JIJMSN&
_JIJMSN& _JIJMSN.
qWP mSTUn US lLMPKZKN& US PYNSKN&
US PYNSKN& US PYNSKNr.
1oIPG OJPEpQTFIWJHpE PEKEOJUI PIQTf2
Cf. \JUSw \JUSw S WSYS& MJRViUZs TRVWS& TWOVRLniZ& RVWLt
lS_IX... OJQZUPILTN TRVWJRL _LWZ& mJQLlLIL UL_ IZiSUNQJ QOLTUS... [Z
mJiPRLtWS& oJ RZ iLTWZUL WJpJ TRVWP& USRSIZiQL XWJiQL sJpJ ZRJpJ WVIL&
USmOZ_VWUZs QPWJiJQ sJpJ YSl_VOUJ MPKV. 2. fZOUZs3
7
E. Agricoa& A. )rner& R. fner. -rter und -endungen.
-rterbuch Eu# deutschen S%rachgebrauch. (ei%Eig& 7=68& %. <:6.
)6P
Capt.r 'III
THE AD'ERB
Adverbs #ake u% a rather co#%icated grou% of $ords varying $idey
in for# and distribution.
"onsidered in their #or%he#ic structure& adverbs #ay be cassified in
eight grou%s.
7D;. The t$o argest grou%s are those for#ed fro# derived and base
ad.ectives by adding the suffi+ 'l($ e. g.@ hopefull($ ph(sicall($ strangel($
falsel($ etc.
8. The third grou% consists of those that are for#ed by #eans of the
derivationa %refi+ 'a 2%hone#icay ]g^3 to nouns& ad.ectives or verbs. 5f
about si+ty of the# in #ore or ess co##on use neary haf are for#ed
fro# nouns@ a*oard$ aside$ a,a($ etc.
The rest are about e0uay divided a#ong those for#ed fro# verbs& e.
g.@ a#iss$ astir4 fro# ad.ectives D ane,$ a*road.
'n traditiona gra##ars such $ords are generay cassed as both
ad.ectives and adverbs and they are so isted in #ost dictionaries& $hich
see#s hardy .ustified since fro# the structura %oint of vie$ none of the#
can fit the basic ad.ective %osition bet$een deter#iner and noun. 2-e
cannot say the aloud voice or the adrift *oat2
7
.
:. The fourth grou% of adverbs originay very s#a& but in %resent,
day Engish e+hibiting signs of ra%id gro$th incudes those for#ed by
adding the derivationa suffi+ ',ise to nouns.
A fe$ adverbs of this ty%e are $e,estabished $ords ike cloc),ise$
other,ise$ li)e,ise4 others are recent coinages or nonce,$ords ike
cra*,ise and actor',ise. 'n A#erican Engish the suffi+ ',ise is #ost
active and can be #ore freey attached to #any nouns to create adverbs
ike personnel',ise. Such for#s are recognised in $riting by the use of the
hy%hen.
<. Then co#es a s#aer grou% of adverbs for#ed by the addition of
the derivationa suffi+ ',ard1s2 to a i#ited grou% of nounsG ho#e'
,ard1s2$ for,ard1s2$ *ac),ard1s2. Most adverbs of this grou% have t$o
for#s& one $ith the fina s and one $ithout& variousy distributed. The
for#s $ithout s are ho#ony#ous $ith ad.ectives@ the *ac),ard child$ he
loo)ed *ac),ard.
6. Ne+t $e co#e to a grou% of adverbs for#ed by co#bining the
%ronouns so#e$ an($ ever( and no $ith a i#ited nu#ber of nouns or
%rono#ina adverbs& such as@ so#eplace$ an(,a($ ever(,here$ no,here$
etc. There are fe$er than t$enty of these in co##on use.
7
See@ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?& %. ;?:.
76:
9. Another reativey s#a grou% of adverbs incudes those that are
for#ay identica $ith %re%ositions@ a*out$ around$ *efore$ do,n$ in$
inside$ over$ on$ etc.
?. The ast grou% of adverbs is the #isceaneous cass of those that
have no for#a signas at a to distinguish the# in isoationG $e kno$
the# as adverbs because of their %ositions in utterances& in $hich the other
%arts of s%eech are ceary identifiabe. Many adverbs in this grou% are
fairy fre0uent in occurrence@ al,a(s$ no,$ then$ here$ there$ often$ seldo#$
still$ even. 5thers in this grou% are $ords $hich #ay aso a%%ear as other
%arts of s%eech& such as@ do,nstairs$ ho#e$ late$ little$ fast$ sto,$ earl($ far$
near.
A $ord shoud be said about adver*';ualifiers.
A#ong adverbs there are so#e $hich have degrees of co#%arison and
others $hich have not.
Adverbs in the co#%arative degree& $hether for#ed by adding the
suffi+ 'er or anayticay by adding #ore and #ost #ay take the sa#e
0uaifiers that co#%arative ad.ectives do& e. g.@ still #ore difficult$ a little
louder.
The adverbia #eaning can be intensified by adding right$ far$ *( far$ e.
g. @ far ahead$ right ahead$ far *etter$ *etter *( far$ far do,n$ far *elo,$
etc.
'ntensity of adverbia #eaning #ay aso be %roduced by the use of full
and ,ell as intensifiers. The atter are survivas of 5d Engish and ess
fre0uent in %resent,day use& e. g.@ -e ,as ,ell out of sight4 ,ell ahead$ etc.
A s%ecia %oint of inguistic interest is %resented by the deveo%#ent of
4#erged4 or 4se%arabe4 adverbs. The ter# 4#erged4 is #eant here to
bring out the fact that such se%arabe co#%ounds are e+icay and
gra##aticay indivisibe and for# a singe idea.
"onsidered in their structure& such 4se%arabe4 co#%ounds #ay be
cassified as foo$s@
a3 pr.po,ition S noun3 at hand$ at ho#e$ *( heart$ on horse*ac)$ on
foot 2` *( foot D arch.2$ in turn$ to date4
b3 noun S pr.po,ition S noun3 ar# in ar#$ da( *( da($ da( after da($
da( to da($ face to face$ ,ord for ,ord$ (ear *( (ear4
c3 pr.po,ition S ,u-,tanti=i,.d ad2.cti=.3 at last$ at first$ at large$ in
large$ in full$ in ;uiet$ in short$ in vain$ of late$ of old4
d3 pr.po,ition S =.r-a! noun #ade through conversion@ at a guess$ at
a run$ in a rush$ on the #ove$ on the run4
e3 pr.po,ition S nu0.ra!3 at first$ at once$ at one$ *( t,os4
f3 coordinat. ad=.r-,3 *( and *($ on and off 1D off and on2$ on and
on4
g3 pronoun S ad2.cti=. +or particip!./3 all right$ all told$ :. [. 2a
correct3G
h3 pr.po,ition S pronoun3 after all$ in all$ at all.
'n %oint of fact #ost adverbs of that kind #ay be reasonaby referred
to as gra##atica idio#s. This can be seen& for instance& in the unusua
absence of the artice before their noun co#%onents and s%eciaised use
76<
of the noun in its singuar for# ony@ on foot 2but not on the foot$ or on feet
$hich #ay occur in free %re%ositiona $ord,grou%s3& in fact 2but not in the
fact2$ at first 2but not at the first2$ etc.
*enoting subte shades of adverbia #eaning& adverbs of this ty%e are
0uite %entifu not ony in Modern Engish but in other Euro%ean
anguages.
Cf. Russian@ UL YSpP& UL ISWP& R TSOMLc.
Ukrainian@ UL INJWP& R pJTWV& R pJTWXc.
1rench@ en *as$ en vain$ par cur.
)er#an@ nach -ause$ =u -ause$ von -and$ etc.
*iscussing the nature of such adverbs in Russian V. V. VinogradJv
%oints out@
q OXML TIJR T_SKLUUJS PmJWOSYISUZS JO_h& TJR_SoLnoSs
lULiSUZX Z_SUZ TPoSTWRZWSINUJpJ Z ULOSiZX& RSMSW Q WJUQZ_ Z
Zl_SUiZRh_ T_hTIJRh_ UnLUTL_. OJZTcJMZW TRJSJYOLlUJS QJISYLUZS
JO_h _SMP PUQZX_Z Z_SUZ TPoSTWRZWSINUJpJ Z ULOSiZX.
zLmOZ_SO& GT dEOc/ qzL TQJOJ_ cJMP _h TYOJTZIZ WSISpP Z US
TIhcLIZ WJIiQLr 2|. yJITWJs3G qaU UL cJMP KLWLITX JW ZlUS_JSUZXr
2yPOpSUSR3& UJ qeOJTZI USTQJINQJ TIJR UL cJMPr 2W. S. _SINQJ_&
WJOJmIZRJ3 Z W. m.G GT nJbc/ q TRZTW TLUSs UL RTS_ YSpPr 2b. yJITWJs3G
qbISKQL& oSIQLX UL YSpP mJMTJIUPcZ& TQOhITX lL RJOJWL_Zr 2ScJR3 wQ.
qTmSI ULYSpP mSOSQPTZWN Z PKSI UL RSiSOUnn OLYJWPr& qmSOSQZUPWNTX
TIJRL_Z ULYSpPr Z W. m. wQ. GT KJFc I GTKJFcf
1
.
The fre0uency vaue of #erged adverbs is on a #arked increase in
%resent,day Engish contributing very #uch to the deveo%#ent of
structura synony#s& such as& for instance@
chiefl( D in chief
finall( D in fine full( D
in full partl( D in part
;uietl( D in ;uiet
suddenl( D of a sudden
vainl( ] in vain )indl(
D in )ind
-e spo)e so ,ar#l( that I had to ans,er in )ind. 2Sno$3 These are not
a$ays interchangeabe and #ay differ not ony in shades of adverbia
#eaning but in their styistic vaue. Thus& for instance& such co#%ounds as
in fine$ in vain$ in chief are decidedy #ore bookish& #ore for#a than the
si#%e adverbs of si#iar #eaning. So#e of the# are interchangeabe $ith
si#%e adverbs ony in so#e conte+ts of their use.
CATEGOR( OF STATE
5%en to thought and discussion is the inguistic nature of such $ords in
the Engish vocabuary as are generay registered in dictionaries either as
%redicative ad.ectives or adverbs& e. g.@ a*lase R JpUV& a*loo#
7
See/ [. [. [ Z U J p O L M J R . dOL__LWZiSTQJS PiSUZS J TIJRS. M.& 7=:9&
766
R RVWP& a*oil R QZmVUUV& adrift UL mILRP& aghast JcJmISUZs LcJ_& afire R
JpUV& afla#e R JpUV& afloat UL RJMV& UL mILRP& afraid lIXQLUZs& agog R
TmJMVRLUUV& R lYPMSUUV& a3ar WOJcZ RVMQOZWZs& ahead TmSOSMP&
mJmSOSMP& a)in TmJOVMUSUZs& alight lLTRViSUZs& R JpUV& ali)e mJMVYUZs&
alive ZRZs& alone JMZU& aloof R TWJOJUV& a#iss USMJOSiUZs& US MJ MVIL&
US MJ ILMP& asleep TmIXiZs& astir R OPTV& athirst TmOLpIV RZs& LMLniZs&
a,a)e USTmIXiZs& mZINUZs& ULTWJOJSUZs& a,are JYVlULUZs& etc.
1ro# a historica %oint of vie$ it is interesting to note that #ost
%redicative ad.ectives of this kind have originated fro# %re%ositiona
%hrases& e. g. @ a*loo# in *loo#$ a*oil on the *oil$ afire on fire$
afla#e in fla#e$ a3ar on the 3ar$ asleep in sleep$ etc. So#e others go
back to %artici%ia for#s& e. g. @ aghast 1agast$ agasted %ast %artici%e of
agasten D 4to terrify43& afraid od %ast %artici%e of affra($ etc.
The functioning units of the given ty%e #ake u% a s%ecia cass of
$ords $hich (. V. S~erba a%ty caed 4category of state4. And there see#s
no s#a .ustification to introduce this ter#
7
.
A bit of study $i ead us to the concusion that according to the
%ositions they can fi and the function they can %erfor# in various
structures they do not need to be cassed as ad.ectives or adverbs.
-hen $e co#e to e+a#ine the %atterns in $hich $ords of this
#or%hoogica cass are invoved& $e find that their o%eration in the
structure of s%eech e+hibits s%ecia for#a 0uaities distinguishing the#
fro# ad.ectives and adverbs $ith $hich they contrast. The first to be
#entioned here is that they are #arked by gra##atica indication of ti#e
and #ood in $hich the co%ua,verb or its 4#eaningfu absence4 is a$ays
a necessary co#%onent.
-ords of the category of state #ay denote@ a3 %hysica state of %ersons
and things& e. g. @ alive$ asleep$ athirst$ a,a)e4 afire$ afla#e$ alight$ aglo,$
a*la=e$ etc.G b3 %sychoogica state@ afraid$ agape$ agog$ aghast$ asha#ed$
ashudder$ atre#*le$ a,are$ etc.G c3 state in #otion& e. g.@ afoot$ astir$
afloat$ etc. So#e $ords of this cass denote %osition in s%ace& e. g.@ aloof$
astra($ astride$ as)e,$ etc.
The for#a arrange#ents in $hich these $ords occur #ay be briefy
characterised as foo$s@
a3 foo$ing a co%ua,verb& they generay function as sub.ective or
ob.ective %redicatives. 'n this function they easiy co#bine $ith co%uative
verbs cf various kind& e. g.@ -er little resolute face under its copper cro,n
,as suspiciousl( eager and aglow. 2)as$orthy3. The la#ps ,ere still
alig!t all pale$ *ut not a soul stirred D no living thing in sight.
2)as$orthy3 T. buter ca#e to la( the ta*le for dinner$ and seeing his
#aster apparentl( asleep$ e0ercised e0tre#e caution in his #ove#ent.
2)as$orthy3 Then he *eca#e aware of so#ething else. % true artist never
stands aloof fro# the people.
b3 $ords of the category of state are aso used as ordinary attributes in
%ost,%osition or e#%hatic attributes. 'n the atter case they #ay take
7
|. [. SOYL. a iLTWXc OSiZ R OPTTQJ_ XlhQS. [ TY.@ q{PTTQLX OSiNr& Rhm. 7=;?.
769
is aso based on a certain gra##atica %attern but it is intended for
no#ination 2na#ing an action directed at the ob.ect and the ob.ect itsef3.
't is to be noted& ho$ever& that in certain conte+ts and s%eech situation
the atter #ay aso function as a unit carrying infor#ation.
"onsider the foo$ing@ ' 273 The student is ,riting4 2;3 There is a *oo)
on the ta*le4 283 It is
cold. ''. I'll not go an(,here4 2:3 :nl( ,ith (ou4 5hen are (ou going to
leave?
2<3 To#orro, #orning. 5hich ,a( are (ou going? 263 D To the left.
-o, is he? 293 D Up to the #ar). 2?3 To )no, ,hat ,as on her #ind7
The above given syntactic structures #arked by 273& 2;3& 283& 2:3& 2<3&
263& 293& 2?3 carry the necessary infor#ation and a have a co##unicative
vaue. 't shoud be cear& ho$ever& that the t$o ty%es of syntactic
structures differ essentiay in their %urey gra##atica status.
The structura %atterns underying sentences 273& 2;3 and 283 e+ist in the
anguage as syste# and are a$ays intended for co##unicationG those in
2:3& 2<3& 263& 293 and 2?3 are not s%eciay intended for infor#ation and #ay
function as such ony in certain conte+ts& inguistic or situationa 2:& <3& in
a de%endent %art of a diaogue 2<& 6& 93 or say& in a co#%osite sentence 2?3&
etc.
-ord,co#binations are constructed according to the rues of a given
anguage and function very #uch in the sa#e $ay as the uti#ate unit D
the $ord.
The conce%t of the $ord co#bination $as first suggested by V. V.
VVnogradov
7
$ho defined it as 4a free e0uivaent of a %hraseoogica unit4&
the atter& in its turn $as vie$ed as 4a free e0uivaent of a $ord4. The
$ord,co#bination and the $ord are thus assu#ed to be functionay
identica. This can be sho$n by co#%aring& for instance& the verb to decide
and the $ord,co#bination to ta)e a decision4 to glance and to cast a
glance$ etc.
Ma.or Synta+ studies inguistic units of co##unicative vaue. 'n Ma.or
Synta+ $e are concerned $ith the rues according to $hich $ords and
$ord,co#binations are actuaised in s%eech& i. e. used as %arts of
%redicative units D units of co##unication integrated into a given
situation and e+%ressing the %ur%osefu intention of the s%eaker in the for#
of sentences. This division #akes distinction co#bining $ords to for#
non,%redicative 2no#inative3 co#%e+ units& on the one hand& and
co#bining $ords to e+%ress %redication& on the other.
'n ter#s of #eaning& the sentence is traditionay defined as the
e+%ression of a co#%ete thought. But this see#s to be o%en to thought and
discussion because co#%eteness is& in fact& very reative and de%ends
argey on the %ur%ose of the s%eaker or $riter as $e as on the conte+t&
inguistic or situationa.
(ogica definitions of the sentence %redo#inated in the %receding
%eriods of the deveo%#ent of the syntactic theory. The conce%ts of
structura gra##ar are based on gra##atica and %honetic criteria. 'ts
authors deveo% the %rinci%es suggested by (. Boo#fied D
7
See/ [. [. [ Z U J p O L M J R . dOL__LWZiSTQJS PiSUZS J TIJRS. M.& 7=:9. 79>
the conce%t of endocentric and e+ocentric %hrases as sentence ee#ents
and the i##ediate constituents anaysis.
The %rinci%e of transfor#ationa gra##ar is that the $hoe gra##ar
of a anguage constitutes a definition of the sentence.
The traditiona definition is that a sentence is a grou% of $ords
e+%ressing a co#%ete thought is to,day often criticised on the ground that
a sentence is so#eti#es one $ord and that the thought is not a$ays
co#%ete but argey de%ends on the #eaning of %receding sentences.
So#e recent $riters have atte#%ted to #ake 4utterance4 do the $ork of
the cassica ter# 4sentence4. But this does not see# fuy .ustified
because the t$o ter#s beong to different %anes& one historica and the
other inguistic.
The dissatisfaction $ith the ter# see#s to resut fro# the fact that
accurate studies of synta+ distinguishing $hat is gra##aticay sef,
contained in $riting& and $hat are the corres%onding structures in actua
s%eech& have not yet been #ade. This deserves s%ecia syste#atic
descri%tion.
Sentence,%atterning in Engish has been described %roceeding fro#
different anges of vie$. Thus& for instance& the conce%t of the reationa
fra#e$ork of anguage has ed to the study of the inner syntactic
reationshi%s in the sentence $hich see#s #ost %ro#ising in the
investigation of the de%th of syntactic %ers%ective.
Structura 2descri%tive3 inguistics endeavours to %resent the syntactic
as%ect of anguage in ter#s of a tabuated survey of sentence %atterns and
the rues of deveo%ing and e+tending these %atterns. The notion of the
structura %attern is $orked out $ith reevance to a si#%e
#ono%redicative sentence.
Most gra##arians hod the vie$ that anguage is a syste# of
interde%endent units in $hich the vaue of each unit resuts soey fro# the
si#utaneous %resence of the others. *istinction is reasonaby #ade
bet$een syntag#atic and %aradig#atic or associative reations.
'n actua s%eech syntag#atic reations $i be observed bet$een
inguistic units of different eves& e. g. %hone#es and #or%he#es $ithin a
$ord& bet$een $ords in %hrase structure and sentence& bet$een %hrases in
sentences& or& say& bet$een the %arts of co#%osite sentences& etc.
The 0uestion naturay arises about the reation of %redicativity to the
gra##atica organisation of the sentence. )ra##arians are not agreed at
this %oint. The sentence is so#eti#es vie$ed ony as a s%eech event $ith
no reevance to its gra##atica organisation and distribution at a. 5n the
co##unicative eve any %art of the utterance #ay function as %redicate.
This vie$ is #ost e#%haticay stated by E. Benveniste
1
.
A sentence #ay consist of one or #ore $ords.
E+a#%es of one,$ord sentences are such e+ca#ations as Than)s7
"ood7$ Fire7$ Rain7$ Loo)7$ ^uic)7$ Stead(7$ Mother7.
5ther& not necessariy e+ca#atory e+a#%es are@ \es.D +o. .erhaps.
] Certainl(.] Incredi*le.] Tired?$ Rain?$ 5hat? 1D 5hat did (ou sa(?2
7
See/ E. Benveniste. /rob#es de inguisti0ue gnrae. (es niveau+ de !anayse
inguisti0ue. /aris& 7=66& %%. 7;?,7;=.
797
5ne,$ord sentences are& as a rue& synse#antic. The necessary idea is
#ade cear by a %articuar situation& a state#ent #ade or a 0uestion asked
in #other sentence.
Cf. 5h( don't (ou dance? D &ance? I never do.
A si#%e sentence has its o$n syste# of for#a #eans to e+%ress
ob.ective #oda #eanings and ti#e reations concerning the reaity or
irreaity of $hat is e+%ressed in %redication. The refection of ob.ective
reaity in a sentence is a$ays cear of %ur%ose.
Modaity and syntactic ti#e reevance cannot be thought of in isoation.
The t$o categories are inse%arabe and %resent& in fact& a reguar structura
feature of any sentence.
*istinction #ust naturay be #ade bet$een the #or%hoogica
categories of ti#e and 4syntactic ti#e reevance4. The for#er are
e+%ressed by #eans of gra##atica #or%he#es& the atter as a category of
the sentence,eve has its o$n for#a #eans@ s%ecia structura sentence,
%atterns and verb,for#s #ade to serve syntactic %ur%oses.
'n different conte+ts of their use verb,for#s can be functionay re,
evauated& e. g. %resent tense,for#s can be used $ith %ast or future ti#e
reevance& as in@ I'# not co#ing *ac) to !ngland. Cless (ou al,a(s 9on.
2)as$orthy3 She is pla(ing Chopin to#orro,.
The category of 4syntactic4 #ood can be e+%ressed by@ a3 the structura
sentence,%attern itsefG b3 the notiona verb in a given structure of
%redicationG c3 verbess sentence,%atternsG d3 functiona re,evauation of
the verb,for#s of the 'ndicative and '#%erative MoodG e3 functiona re,
evauation of so#e ty%es of sub,causes.
The theory of the functiona sentence %ers%ective $orked out by the
/rague Schoo of inguistics has ed in recent ti#es to the conce%t of three
stages of syntactic abstraction $here the sentence is vie$ed as@ 73 a singe
s%eech eventG ;3 a syntactic structure #ade u% of the syntactic ee#ents
$ith no reevance to situationa conte+ts and beonging ony to gra##arG
83 an utterance in its functiona sentence %ers%ective.
5n the third eve of anaysis $e e+a#ine the co##unicative sentence
dyna#ics. The utterance is divided here into t$o sections& one of the#& the
4the#e4 contains $hat is the starting %oint of the state#ent& and the other&
the 4rhe#e4 carries the ne$ infor#ation for $hose sake the sentence has
been uttered or $ritten.
'n #or%hoogy $e identify the gra##atica #eanings and for#s
%roceeding fro# its syste# of for#a o%%ositions around $hich the
gra##atica syste# of the anguage is to a arge e+tent buit u%. And so it
is $ith syntactic categories $here the gra##atica abstraction #akes it
%ossibe to distinguish o%%ositiona reations on different eves of
inguistic anaysis.
To begin $ith& the sentence itsef as a gra##atica category is
%ri#ariy invoved in the o%%osition@
the /ri#ary Unit of (anguage
No#inative Unit
-ord
the /ri#ary Unit of S%eech
"o##unicative Unit
Sentence
79;
5%%ositiona reations on the sentence eve are #ost obvious in the
foo$ing@
1. .eter pla(s &oes .eter pla(? .eter$ pla(7
@. .eter pla(s .eter does not pla(.
h. .eter pla(s .eter ,ill 1#ust$ #a(2 pla(.
"orreation bet$een .eter pla(s and .eter does not pla( gives the
o%%osition a::ir0ation 33 n."ation.
The correative grou% .eter pla(s D .eter #ust 1#a(2 pla( or .eter
see#s to pla( gives the o%%osition indicati=. 33 pot.ntia!.
As a #atter of fact& each sentence is the crossing %oint of the given
o%%ositions@
.eter pla(s narrative 2neither interrogative sentence nor i#%erative3
affir#ative 2not negative3 sentence indicative 2not
su%%ositiona3
'n these ter#s& $e distinguish the foo$ing ty%es of sentences@
d.c!arati=.1 int.rro"ati=.1 i0p.rati=..
73 *ecarative sentences assert or deny so#ething.
% ,ind had cleared the #ist$ the autu#n leaves ,ere rustling and the
stars ,ere shining.
;3 'nterrogative sentences ask a 0uestion. They #ay be subdivided
into@
a3 sentences re0uiring to e+%ress a certain thought& to confir# or negate
$hat has been asked by the s%eaker.
<&o (ou li)e that?< D <+o<.
<Isn't it 3oll(?< she cried$ and 9ohn ans,ered/ <Rather<. 2)as$orthy3
b3 sentences re0uiring additiona infor#ation about the thing asked.
Such sentences sho$ $hat infor#ation is re0uired& and #ay refer to any
%art of the sentence& e. g.@
<5h( did (ou go together?< pursued Soa#es. 2)as$orthy3
<Loo) here< he said$ <,hat's the #eaning of it?< 2)as$orthy3
83 '#%erative sentences e+%ress re0uests $hich in different conte+ts
range fro# categorica order to co##and and entreaties. The necessary
#eaning is generay signaed by the conte+t and intonation@
Co#e up to#orro, #orning7
'#%erative Modaity #ay aso be e+%ressed by@
73 Sub.unctive for#s in $ish,sentences& cas& toasts& etc. Success
attend (ou7 Ma( our countr( flourish and prosper7
;3 Verb,for#s of the 'ndicative Mood in trans%osition@ <5e
1
re going after *uff in the #orning<$ he told her. <I'# co#ing<$
she said.
<Mo$ (ou're not.<
<:h$ (es$ I a#. Ma(n't I$ Francis?<
<5e'll put on another sho, for (ou to#orro,<.Francis Maco#*er said.
<\ou are not co#ing<$ 5ilson said. 2Ae#ing$ay3 1\ou are not co#ing `
&on't co#e ` &on't (ou co#e2 ...:h$ the sha#e of this da(7 The sha#e of
this da(7 \ou'll *e co#in' ho#e ,ith #e no,.
... 5e're not out of this place (et. -e's not. \ou'll co#e ho#e ,ith #e no,.
2*reiser3
798
83 Nouns and noun,%hrases& e. g. @ Silence7
%ttention7 Fire7 1D :pen fire72
:3 Moda %hrases& e. g.@
-e shall co#e ,ith no dela(.
<3 Adverbs and adverbia %hrases& as in@
For,ard7 For,ard7
't see#s beyond 0uestion that a study of syntag#atic reations #ust be
based on the vaency anaysis ai#ed at giving co#%rehensive rues for
co#bining $ords into sentences. The identification of the necessary
e+ica or structura #eaning of the $ord is often based on its
corres%onding distribution. (anguage %atterns #ust be observed in their
interna co#%osition inas#uch as it correates $ith different kinds of
usage. 'n other $ords& a distinction shoud be #ade& bet$een $hat #ight
be caed e+ica coocation and $hat so#e inguists ca& or used to ca&
gra##atica coocation& for $hich another na#e is !coigation!.
'n gra##atica coocation or coigation& $hich is a$ays a #atter of
structure& ony certain ty%es of #or%he#es habituay find the#seves in
so#e environ#ents and are definitey e+cuded fro# othersG as& for
instance& a# is found in cose association $ith I or he$ she$ it D $ith
%resent tense ending $ith 's or 'es 2in the $ritten #ediu#3 or the
%rono#ina deter#iner that D $ith singuar nouns& those D $ith %ura
nouns& and so on.
)ra##atica coocation of this sort restricts the choice of $ords very
rigorousy. (e+ica coocation restricts the choice in #ore or ess the sa#e
$ay but not so rigidy& since it does ao$ transgression of the rue for
various styistic %ur%oses. "onte+ts have a $ay of #aking a gra##atica
for# convey different structura #eanings incuding so#eti#es the e+act
o%%osite of $hat is ordinary intended.
'n inguistic studies $e generay distinguish@ gra##atica or $ord,
changing& e+ica& or derivationa& and %hone#ic %aradig#s.
Thus& for instance& the %aradig# in the decension of the noun MOPp in
Russian $i give a set of such $ord,for#s as@ MOPp& MOPpL& MOPpP& MOPpL&
MOPpJ_& J MOPpS.
The %aradig# of the Engish noun girl is girl B girls$ girl's$ girls'.
A #or%hoogica %aradig# is a set of $ord,for#s of one e+e#e@ case
D nu#ber D in nouns& tense D as%ect D in verbs. The %aradig# of the
verb ,or) is %resented by the foo$ing $ord,for#s@ ,or) D ,or)s$
,or)ed$ ,ill ,or)$ is ,or)ing$ ,as ,or)ing$ ,ill *e ,or)ing$ has ,or)ed$
had ,or)ed$ ,ill have ,or)ed$ has *een ,or)ing$ had *een ,or)ing$ ,ill
have *een ,or)ing.
1ro# the kerne $ord love a nu#ber of derivative $ords can be
generated by #eans of certain $e kno$n rues teing us $hat
#or%he#es #ust be added and to $hat kerne they #ust be added 2V or
N3@
love 2N3 love 2V3
lovel( 2A3 lover 2N3
loveliness 2N3 loving 2A3 lovingl( 2*3
79:
loveless 2A3 lova*le 2A3
*eloved 2A3
Si#iary@
live 2V3 live ]aiv^ 2A3
livea*le 2A3 lively 2A3
liveliness 2N3
liven 2V3
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich $ords #ay be co#bined in actua
usage can reasonaby be inter%reted in ter#s of syntactic %aradig#s. 5ne
$ord,for# can %erfor# the function of different sentence,ee#ents& and
one sentence,ee#ent can be #or%hoogicay and e+icay e+%ressed by
different inguistic signs.
(inguisticay the #eaning of a sentence,ee#ent is naturay to be
understood through reations $ith the content of the other sentence,
ee#ents. As such it is a$ays reative in its character and is not actuaised
in isoation.
Syntactic reations #ake u% a custer of o%%ositions in various ite#s of
syntactic hierarchy. And there see#s to be a reguar syste# behind the#.
The study of synta+ in these ter#s is #ost he%fu and can cast #uch
ight on the nature and functioning of anguage.
As a #atter of fact& the %aradig#atic and syntag#atic conce%ts of
anguage go as far back as N. V. Krushevsky!s state#ents about the
reationa fra#e$ork of anguage buit u% on si#iarity and differentiation
of sentence ee#ents.
This a%%roach to the study of synta+ beco#es increasingy usefu for
insight into the structure and functioning of any anguage.
/R5B(EMS 51 SENTEN"E,/ARA*')M
/robe#s of syntactic %aradig#atics figure 0uite %ro#inenty in
inguistic studies of recent years. Accurate studies of sentence %aradig#s
in the theory of Engish structure have not yet been #ade and #uch
re#ains to be done before co#%ete data in this %art of Engish synta+ are
avaiabe.
A #a.or inguistic interest is %resented by the treat#ent of the
%robe# in #odern Russian Synta+
;
.
By 4sentence,%aradig#4 $e #ean the syste# of its for#s.
Thus& for instance& the %aradig# of a si#%e kerne sentence #ay be
identified in ter#s of #oda and ti#e reations as e+%ressed by its #a.or
%atterns.
*. -orth #akes distinction bet$een infectiona and derivationa
syntactic %aradig#s& $hich is not devoid of ogica foundations.
The si#%est case of an infectiona %aradig# #ay be iustrated by
variations of one category in a given %attern& e. g. the category of nu#ber
and %erson in the sub.ect and in the ob.ectG the category of #ood& tense&
nu#ber& %erson in the %redicate& and so#eti#es in both sub.ect and
%redicate. By $ay of iustration@
The distribution of these for#s is kno$n to be governed by a ty%e of
correation $ith the sub.ect caed concord. Concord #ay be defined as the
co#%e#entary distribution of inguistic for#s having the sa#e syntactic
function in syste#atic correation $ith other for#ay distinct for#s $ith
$hich they are syntacticay inked.
"oncord is certainy not so %ro#inent in the structure of Engish as it is
in so#e other anguages& but it occasionay beco#es i#%ortant in deaing
$ith %ersons of verbs. Thus& for instance& the third,singuar %erson is used
$henever a si#%e verb in the head,verb is a %redicate $hose sub.ect is
one of the foo$ing@
273 a noun for $hich he$ she$ or it #ay be substitutedG
2;3 one of the %ronouns he$ she or it4
283 the de#onstrative %ronouns@ this or that4
2:3 a structure of #odification of $hich one of the above is headG
273 any other %art of s%eech beside a noun& or a structure of
#odification or co#%e#entation $ith such %art of s%eech as head or
verba ee#ent& e. g.@ Too #uch )no,ledge #a)es the head *old. .la(ing
,ith fire is dangerous4
2;3 one of certain s%ecia %redication structures@ the incuded cause and
the infinitiva cause& e. g.@ 5hat (ou sa( is true. To see is to *elieve4
283 a structure of coordination in $hich the coordinator is or$ nor$
1n2either... 1n2or$ or not 1onl(2... *ut 1also2 and in $hich the ast coordinate
ee#ent beongs to 273 D 263 aboveG aso one of certain other s%ecia
structures of coordination
7
.
5n this eve of anaysis the starting %oint #ust naturay be the
si#%est t$o,#e#ber decarative sentence $ith the sub.ect in the sin,
7
See/ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?. 796
guar and the %redicate e+%ressed by the verb,for# of the /resent Tense
2"o##on As%ect3& 'ndicative Mood& Active Voice.
Transfor#ations of this kerne si#%e t$o,#e#ber decarative
sentence #ay be %aradig#aticay re%resented as foo$s@
The child pla(s
The child does The child &oes the 5ho 5ho does -o, the pla( does not
child %aysv not pla(? child pla( pla(?
pla(s7
The given %attern #ay be transfor#ed into@ a3 an attributive ad.unct
and b3 a structure of secondary %redication.
2a3 the pla(ing of the child the
child's pla(
the pla( of the child The
child pla(s the pla(ing child
the child's pla(ing
2b3 for the child to pla( the
child pla(ing ,ith the child
pla(ing
The sentence is a co#%e+ syntactic unit and as such it can enter a
nu#ber of syntactic %aradig#s buid u% on si#iarity and differentiation of
the sentences. A the syntactic %aradig#s of the sentence #ake u% its
4hy%er%aradig#4.
7
/robe#s of sentence,%atterning have received increasing attention in
syntactic studies of recent years.
'#%ortant treat#ents have been #ade $ith a vie$ to describe the
syntactic syste# of a anguage as a cosed inventory of the basic structura
sentence,%atterns and give a survey of the reguarities in their %ossibe
e+%ansion and reduction.
-ith the diversity of vie$,%oints $ithin descri%tive inguistics it is not
sur%rising that gra##arians differ in their assu#%tions and #ethods of
such anaysis. 1or the #ost %art there is a considerabe variation in
defining the %rinci%a ty%es of sentences as finite in nu#ber.
'n the $ords of A. Stageberg& for instance& there are basicay = #a.or
ty%es of sentencesG C. Aook& E. Mathe$s in Modern %#erican "ra##ar
and Usage give basicay ony five #a.or %atterns $hich over ninety %er
cent of %resent,day sentences foo$. The five %atterns described in this
gra##ar are deter#ined ony by the %osition of the #a.or co#%onents of a
sentence. 'f the %osition of one of #a.or co#%onents is atered& the
sentence foo$s a 0inor1 rather than a #a.or %attern.
The five #a.or %atterns are@
Ma2or Patt.rn I3 Sub.ect and Verb
5o#en applauded.
Ma2or Patt.rn II3 Sub.ect D Verb D 5b.ect
5e ate ha#*urgers.
7
See6 *. -orth. The Roe of Transfor#ations in the *efinition of Syntag#as in
Russian and 5ther Savic (anguages. The Aague& 7=68.
155
Ma2or Patt.rn III3 Sub.ect DVerb D /redicate No#inative
-us*ands are nice.
Ma2or Patt.rn I'3 Sub.ect D Verb D /redicate Ad.ective
-elen is *eautiful.
Ma2or Patt.rn '3 E+%etive D Verb D /redicate Ad.ective D Sub.ect
There ,ere traitors in their #idst. It is eas( to s,i#. It
re#ained for #e to concur. It's 1or there's2 no use cr(ing over
spilled #il).
A the above given structura %atterns #ay naturay be e+%anded by
adding to either the sub.ect or the verb other $ords caed !#odifiers!@
Addition of one,$ord #odifiers@
Several ,o#en applauded politel(.
Addition of %hrase #odifiers@
The ,o#en standing in the aisles applauded ,ith vigour.
Addition of de%endent causes in the co#%e+ sentence@
The ,o#en ,ho ,ere standing in the aisles applauded ,hen the
presiding officer as)ed for #ore chairs.
*u%ication of the %attern D the co#%ound sentence@
5o#en applauded and #en grinned.
*u%ication %us de%endent cause D the co#%ound,co#%e+
sentence@
5hen the presiding officer as)ed for #ore chairs #an( ,o#en in the
aisles applauded and several #en grinned sleepishl(.
'n -hiteha!s Structural !ssentials of !nglish
1
the %rinci%a ty%es of
sentences are sho$n as based on a #ore i#ited nu#ber of ty%es of $ord,
grou%s referred to as sentence situations.
The si#%est for# of the sentence D that $hich consists si#%y of
sub.ect and of verb or verb,grou% %redicate goes here by the na#e
S.nt.nc. Situation I3
-e cried.
Co(s (ell.
5hat he had atte#pted had failed.
%ll the good #en ,ere fighting.
To sing such song as this could help.
S.nt.nc. Situation II 2V D "o#%e#ent3@
The #atter slipped his #e#or(. It
,as raining cats and dogs.
S.nt.nc. Situation III D a sentence $ith t$o co#%e#ents@
The reporter gave the lad( a present.
To# Sa,(er painted the fence ,hite.
5e found the house *ro)en do,n.
The captain had ,anted his aide to e0a#ine the #atter.
7
See/ A. -hiteha. Structura Essentias of Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<6.
79?
'n transfor#ationa gra##ar kerne sentences are aso given $ith a different degree of
generaisation@ 9 ty%es of kerne sentences in (. S. Aarris! Co'occurrence and
Transfor#ation in Linguistic Structure and 8 ty%es D in B. Aatha$ay!s Transfor#ational
S(nta0.
There are basicay si+ #a.or structura %atterns $e identified in ter#s of
sentence ee#ents& their function and %osition& in q\WOPQWPOUhs
TZUWLQTZT LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQLr edited by (. (. 'ofik@
1. S/@ The *ird sings.
@. S/c "o#%
s
@ -e is a *o(8(oung.
h. S/5
7
@ The hunter )illed the *ear.
i. S/5
;
5
7
%l*ert gave hi# a *oo).
v. S/5
7
"o#%
>
@ -e painted the door ,hite.
6. There /S@ There is a *oo) on the ta*le.
More e+tensive and accurate is the tabuated survey of different ty%es
of kerne sentences given by ). ). /oche%tsov
7
.
Based on certain assu#%tions about the kinds of %rocesses that e+ist in
anguage and the #anner in $hich they correate this survey %resents a
#a.or inguistic interest.
't shoud be cear& ho$ever that the descri%tion of Engish structures
that has been and is being deveo%ed by different schoars in accordance
$ith the ne$ a%%roaches and 4di#ensions4 of anguage cannot be
regarded as a cosed fi+ed syste#. There is an enor#ous a#ount to be
earned concerning the nature of anguage in genera and the structure of
Engish in %articuar.
That the basic %atterns of Engish sentences fa into a i#ited nu#ber
of ty%es and can be cassified according to the for# of the %redicate see#s
to have been first %ointed out by \. y. a n V J n s
;
at the beginning of this
century. 'n his tabuated survey he gives five basic %atterns& each taking its
characteristic for# fro# the structure of the %redicate@
Fir,t For0 o: t. Pr.dicat.
Sub.ect /redicate
&a( da,ns.
The
shades
of night ,ere falling.
S.cond For0 o: t. Pr.dicat.
Sub.ect /redicate
2verb j %redicative ad.ective or %redicative
noun or %redicative %ronoun3
Croesus ,as rich or a )ing.
Thought is free.
Seeing is *elieving.
The #eeting stands ad3ourned.
5e are getting read(.
7
See/ d. d. J i S m J R . JUTWOPQWZRUhs LULIZl TWOPQWPOh mOSMIJSUZX.
;
See/ \.y. 5nions. An Advanced Engish Synta+. (ondon& 7=8;.
79=
Tird For0 o: t. Pr.dicat.
Sub.ect /redicate 5b.ect Man( hands
#a)e light ,or). +o*od( ,ishes to
)no,.
Fourt For0 o: t. Pr.dicat.
Sub.ect /redicate
2verb j t$o ob.ects3
5e taught the dog tric)s.
1 as) (ou this ;uestion.
Fi:t For0 o: t. Pr.dicat.
Sub.ect /redicate
2verb j ob.ect j %redicative ad.ective or
%redicative noun3
The( elected hi# consul.
-e thought hi#self a happ( #an.
The thought drove hi# #ad.
(inguistic research in syntactic %aradig#atics is sti in its beginning.
There is no ack of %ro#ising directions for further study aong these
ines.
't see#s beyond 0uestion that anguage %atterns #ust be observed in
their interna co#%osition inas#uch as it correates $ith different kinds of
usage. The reationa fra#e$ork of anguage is buit u% on si#iarity and
contrasts of its structura ee#ents.
The asy##etric duais# of the inguistic sign& $hich is #ost obvious
in functiona #or%hoogy& #erits consideration in syntactic structures.
An ade0uate descri%tion of sentence %atterns #ust account for various
i#%ortant reations bet$een sentences and ty%es @of their construction.
So#e overty %arae sentences are identica at their face vaue but
differ in their sense,structure.
Thus& for instance& the basic %attern S k V
inf
can so#eti#es be
understood in a certain $ay %arae to other sentences of a different structure&
e. g.@
-e paints a3 act of %aintingG
b3 0uaity& occu%ation. S(n. -e is a painter4
She se,s a3 act of se$ingG
b3 0uaity& occu%ation. S(n. She is a se,er4
-e drin)s a3 act of drinkingG
b3 0uaity. S(n. -e is a drin)er4
-e li#ps a3 S(n. -e ,al)s la#el(4
b3 -e is la#e.
So#e sentences differ in their for#a structure but are si#iar in
#eaning.
7?>
The %ossibiity to e+%ress one and the sa#e #eaning by overty
different sentence,%atterns #ay be iustrated by nu#erous e+a#%es. Cf./
2a3The la)e tee#s ,ith fish. 2a3 The la)e is alive ,ith fish.
2b3-e could not sleep. 2b3 -e felt ,a)eful.
2c3The pla( did not ta)e. 2c3 The pla( ,as not a success.
2d3I have plent( of ti#e. 2d3 I'# in plent( of ti#e.
2e3% heav( rain ,as falling. 2e3 It ,as pelting do,n.
2f3 -e is running a te#perature. 2f3 -e has a te#perature.
't is reevant to observe that the sources of synony#y in sentence,
structure are syntactic %rocesses of different inguistic status. Synony#s
are kno$n to be generated by syntactic transfor#ations based %ri#ariy or
significant changes in the gra##atica structure of the sentence& such as&
for instance& no#inaity of various ty%es& co#%ression of subcauses& in
%articuar.
Another source of synony#ity #ust be sought in various trans%ositions
of syntactic structures eading to their functiona re,evauation& as& for
instance& 4ne+us of de%recation4& rhetorica 0uestions or the use of
%seudo,subcauses of condition as inde%endent units of co##unication& e.
g.@
If onl( I )ne, a*out7 S(n. I'd li)e to )no, a*out it. Carrie$ if
(ou're not a ,onder7 S(n. Carrie$ (ou are a ,onder7
or& say& trans%ositions of co#%arative subcauses $here they are aso used
as inde%endent units of co##unicative vaue& e. g.@
%s if I ever told hi# a*out it7
S(n. I never told hi# a*out it.
Not ess characteristic are trans%ositions of decarative sentences into
the s%here of i#%erative #odaity& $hich is often acco#%anied by
#or%hoogica trans%ositions of tense,for#s.
Cf. Co#e ho#e ,ith #e no,7
S(n. \ou'll co#e ,ith #e no,7
\ou'll *e co#ing ho#e ,ith #e no,7
There are aso #any other facts about sentence,%atterning that need
research in synta+.
A #a.or %oint of interest is %resented by 4%eri%hrasis4 invoving
%ri#ariy the change of the e+ica status of the sentence.
(e+ico,gra##atica %eri%hrasis ies& in fact& beyond the centra
concern of %aradig#atics in synta+.
'n 4%eri%hrastic4 synta+ $e find it reasonabe to #ake distinction
bet$een@
73 e+ica convertibiity intended to convey the necessary ogica stress
in a given utterance@
1a2 \ou have given #e (our cold.
2b3 I have caught (our cold.
7?7
1a2 -e lost his courage.
1*2 Courage deserted hi#.
1a2 -e lent the# #one(.
1*2 The( *orro,ed #one( fro# hi#.
1a2 -e su*sided into sleep.
1*2 Sleep too) hi# in its e#*race.
;3 e+ico,gra##atica %eri%hrasis based on se#antic and functiona
si#iarity bet$een ad.ectives and verbs in %atterns ike the foo$ing@
I li)e #usic. I'# fond of #usic.
I regret it. I'# sorr( a*out it.
-e )no,s it. -e is a,are of it.
83 e+ico,gra##atica %eri%hrasis by no#inaisation@
-e lost his nerves.
-e ,as all nerves.
:3 the use of %hrasa verbs ada%ted to stye and %ur%ose in each case
2as%ect or voice #odifications& in %articuar3@
-e ,as asleep D -e gave hi#self up to steep. 5e
supported hi# ` -e found our support.
<3 e+ica %eri%hrasis based on e+ica synony#y of verbs in the
structure of %redication& e. g.@
-e shared his secret ,ith
#e. -e let #e into his
secret.
(e+ico,gra##atica %eri%hrasis by %hrasa verbs of various ty%es is a
foodgate of synony#s in sentence,%atterning. This no#ina tendency is
decidedy on the increase in %resent,day Engish.
Variations in the structure of the %redicate %roducing subte shades of
ob.ective and sub.ective distinctions #ake u% a reguar syste# and %resent
a rather co#%icated sub.ect $hich inguists have by no #eans fuy
investigated. This insight into sentence,%atterning he%s to coordinate and
dee%en the student!s gras% of the anguage.
Capt.r >
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
/arts of the sentence are a syntactic category constituted by the organic
interaction of different inguistic units in s%eech.
't is i#%ortant to observe that the division into %arts of s%eech and the
division into %arts of the sentence are organicay reated. This does not
ca for #uch to e+%ain. The %art of s%eech cassification is kno$n to be
based not ony on the #or%hoogica and $ord,#aking characteristics of
$ords but their se#antic and syntactic features as $e. The atter are
%articuary i#%ortant for such %arts of s%eech as have no #or%hoogica
distinctions at a. A $ord 2or a %hrase3 as a %art of sentence #ay enter into
various reations $ith the other %arts of a given sentence. These #utua
reationshi%s are so#eti#es very co#%icated as being conditioned by
different factors@ e+ica& #or%hoogica and syntactic %ro%er.
'#%ortant observations in the theory of the %arts of the sentence based
on the interreation of ty%es of syntactic bond and ty%es of syntactic
content $ere #ade by A. '. S#irnitsky
7
. A %art of the sentence is defined
as a ty%ica co#bination of the given ty%e of syntactic content and the
given ty%e of syntactic bond as reguary re%roduced in s%eech. *ifferent
ty%es of syntactic bond for# a hierarchy $here distinction shoud be #ade
bet$een %redicative bond and non,%redicative bond. 5n the eve of the
sentence ee#ents this resuts in the o%%osition of %rinci%a %arts and
secondary %arts.
The %redicative bond constitutes the sentence itsef.
The %arts of the sentence $hich are connected by #eans of the
%redicative bond are principa! part,. These are the core of the
co##unicative unit. The non,%redicative bond co#%rises attributive&
co#%etive and co%uative reations.
Sub.ect,%redicate structure gives the sentence its reative inde%endence
and the %ossibiity to function as a co#%ete %iece of co##unication.
This& ho$ever& #ust be taken $ith so#e %oints of reservation because a
sentence #ay be incuded in so#e arger syntactic unit and #ay thus
$eaken or oose its inde%endence functioning as %art of a arger utterance.
Using the ter#s <su*3ect< and <predicate< $e #ust naturay #ake
distinction bet$een the content of the %arts of the sentence and their
7
See/ b. . \ _ Z O U Z Q Z s . \ZUWLQTZT LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. M.& 7=<9.
7?8
inguistic e+%ression& V. e.@ a3 the $ords as used in a given sentence and b3
the thing #eant& $hich are %art of the e+trainguistic reaity.
The distinction #ade at this %oint in Russian ter#inoogy bet$een
4mJMISLoSS4 D 4TQLlPS_JS4 and 4TPYSQW4 D 4mOSMZQLW4 see#s
%erfecty reasonabe. The t$o conce%ts #ust be ke%t a%art to #ean a3 the
$ords invoved and b3 the content e+%ressed& res%ectivey.
The sub.ect is thus the thing #eant $ith $hich the %redicate is
connected.
A the basic sentences consist& first of a& of t$o i##ediate
constituents@ ,u-2.ct and pr.dicat..
'n the basic sentence %atterns sub.ects are rather si#%e& consisting of
either a singe noun& a noun $ith its deter#iner or a %ronoun. They can
naturay gro$ #uch #ore co#%icated@ nouns can be #odified in 0uite a
variety of $ays and other syntactic structures can be #ade sub.ects in
%ace of nouns or its e0uivaents.
Meaning reationshi%s are naturay varied. Sub.ects can refer to
so#ething that is identified& described and cassified or ocatedG they #ay
i#%y so#ething that %erfor#s an action& or is affected by action or& say&
so#ething invoved in an occurrence of so#e sort.
The se#antic content of the ter# <su*3ect< can be #ade cear ony if
$e e+a#ine the significant contrastive features of sentence %atterning as
o%erating to for# a co#%ete utterance.
'n Modern Engish there are t$o #ain ty%es of sub.ect that stand in
contrast as o%%osed to each other in ter#s of content@ the d.:init. ,u-2.ct
and the ind.:init. ,u-2.ct.
D.:init. ,u-2.ct, denote a thing,#eant that can be ceary defined@ a
concrete ob.ect& %rocess& 0uaity& etc.& e. g.@
2a3 Fleur s#iled. 2b3 To defend our Fatherland is our sacred dut(. 2c3
.la(ing tennis is a pleasure. 2d3 -er prudence surprised #e.
Ind.:init. ,u-2.ct, denote so#e indefinite %erson& a state of things or
a certain situation& e. g.@
2a3 The( sa(. 2b3 \ou never can tell. 2c3 :ne cannot *e too careful. 2d3
It is rather cold. 2e3 It ,as eas( to do so.
(anguages differ in the for#s $hich they have ado%ted to e+%ress this
#eaning. 'n Engish indefinite sub.ects have a$ays their for#a
e+%ression.
Sentences of this ty%e $i be found in 1rench@ 2a3 :n dit. 2b3 Il fait
froid.
Si#iary in )er#an@ 2a3 Man sagt. 2b3 !s ist )alt.
'n Russian and Ukrainian the indefinite sub.ect is e+%ressed by one,
#e#ber sentences@
dJRJOXW& iWJ mJpJML Zl_SUZWTX. fJUJ mOSMmJIJZWN& iWJ
gQTmSMZZX PS lLQJUiZIL TRJn OLYJWP.
'n so#e ty%es of sentence %atterns Modern Engish reies on the $ord,
order arrange#ent aone. 'n The hunter )illed the *ear variation in the
order of sentence ee#ents $i give us a different sub.ect. Engish synta+
is $e kno$n as %ri#ariy characterised by 4sub.ect D verb D
co#%e#ent4 order.
184
't $i be noted& ho$ever& that in a good #any sentences of this ty%e
the sub.ect and the doer of the action are by no #eans in fu
corres%ondence& e. g.@ This roo# sleeps three #en$ or Such *oo)s sell
readil(.
't co#es 0uite natura that a sub.ect co#bines the e+ica #eaning $ith
the structura #eaning of 4%erson4.
Things are s%ecificay different in cases $hen it and there are used in,
sub.ect %ositions as re%resentatives of $ords or onger units $hich e#body
the rea content of the sub.ect but are %ost%oned.
It is #ost pleasant that she has alread( co#e.
It ,as eas( to do so. T!ere are a fe, #ista)es
in (our paper. T!ere ,ere no seats at all.
It and there in such syntactic structures are generay caed
antici%atory or introductory sub.ects.
There in such %atterns is often referred to as a function $ord& and this
is not devoid of so#e ogica foundation. 't is %ronounced $ith $eak or
tertiary stress& $hich distinguishes it fro# the adverb there %ronounced
1ehr$ eh2 and having %ri#ary or secondary stress. There is so#eti#es
caed a te#%orary sub.ect fiing the sub.ect %osition in %ace of the true
sub.ect& $hich foo$s the verb. This inter%retation see#s to have been
borne out by the fact that the verb fre0uenty sho$s concord $ith the
foo$ing noun& as in@
there is a botanical gardens in our to,n
there were onl( t!ree of us there comes !is ?oy
The gra##atica organisation of %redicates is #uch #ore co#%icated.
The %redicate can be co#%osed of severa different structures. 't is .ust
this variety of the %redicate that #akes us recognise not one basic Engish
sentence %attern but severa.
'n ter#s of #odern inguistics& the %redicate is reasonaby defined as
the '" of the sentence %resented by a finite,for# of the verb& if even in its
Eero,aternant.
/redicates $ith Eero,aternants offer s%ecia difficuties on the %oint of
their anaysis as reevant to the %robe# of ei%sis $hich has a$ays been
a dis%utabe 0uestion in gra##ar earning.
Various criteria of cassifying different kind of %redicate have been set
u% by gra##arians. The co##on definition of the pr.dicat. in ter#s of
#odern inguistics is that it i, a 0or. or !.,, co0p!.% ,tructur. 4it t.
=.r- or =.r-;pra,. at it, cor.. This is %erfecty reasonabe and in %oint
of fact agrees $ith the advice of traditiona gra##ars to identify a
%redicate by ooking for the verb. The sentence& indeed& a#ost a$ays
e+ists for the sake of e+%ressing by #eans of a verb& an action& state or
being. The verb $hich is a$ays in key %osition is the heart of the #atter
and certain 0uaities of the verb in any anguage deter#ine i#%ortant
ee#ents in the structura #eaning of the %redicate. These features $i
engage our attention ne+t. To begin $ith& the %redicate #ay be co#%osed
of a $ord& a %hrase or an entire cause. -hen it is a notiona $ord& it is
naturay not ony structura but the notiona %redicate as $e.
7?<
The %redicate can be a $ord& a $ord,#or%he#e or a %hrase. 'f it consists
of one $ord or $ord,#or%he#e it is ,i0p!.T if it is #ade u% of #ore than
one $ord it is caed co0pound. 'n ter#s of co#%e#entation& %redicates
are reasonaby cassified into =.r-a! 1ti#e presses$ *irds fl($ the #oon
rose$ etc.3 and no0ina! 1is happ($ felt strong$ got cool$ gre, old2.
The t$o ty%es of %redicates in active synta+ #ay be diagra##ed as
foo$s@
A. Verba /redicate Si#%e Tastes differ.
"o#%ound :ne #ust do one's dut(.
B. No#ina /redicate
Si#%e ^uite serious all this7
"o#%ound The picture ,as *eautiful.
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich %redication can be e+%ressed in
active synta+ %er#its a very arge nu#ber of sentence,%atterns to be buit
in %resent,day Engish. -e find here both %oints of coincidence $ith other
anguages and s%ecia %ecuiarities of sentence,%atterning conditioned by
the $hoe course of anguage deveo%#ent.
/redication& $ith its i##ediate reevance to the syntactic categories of
%erson& ti#e and #odaity& is kno$n to be e+%ressed not ony
#or%hoogicay. Syntactic arrange#ent and intonation #ay do this duty as
$e.
Ti#e reations& for instance& #ay find their e+%ression in syntactic
structures $ithout any #or%hoogica devices indicating ti#e.
The one,#e#ber sentence Fire7& de%ending on the conte+t& inguistic
or situationa& #ay be used as@
73 a styistic aternative of the i#%erative sentence #eaning@ L3
TWOVIXsw b3 lLmLIZ RJpJUNw T3 mOZUSTZ RJpUnw
;3 a styistic aternative of a decarative sentence stating a fact@ RZMUJ
RJpJUN.
Si#iary in Russian@ JpJUNw L3 TWOSIXsw b3 lLpZ JpJUN or mOZUSTZ
JpUXw T3 RZMSU JpJUN.
The #uti%icity of syntactic $ays in $hich #odaity and ti#e reations
as $e as the category of %erson #ay be e+%ressed in infinitiva causes is
aso $e kno$n. E+a#%es are co##on%ace.
Run a,a(7 "o to the east7 2)as$orthy3
To thin) that he should *e tortured so ] her Fran)7 2*reiser3
Cf. aMUP _ZUPWP& SoS JMUP _ZUPWP& RZMSWN SS& mOJTWZWNTX& mJLWN
Ss OPQPw 2|SO_JUWJR3
[Jl_JUJ IZw fSUX mOJMLWNw D fSUX lL mJSIPs pIPmL...
2|SO_JUWJR3
'n the theory of Engish structure the ter# <sentence anal(sis< is o%en
to #ore than one inter%retation.
Structura gra##atica studies of so#e #odern inguists have
abandoned #any of the co##ony hed vie$s of synta+. -ith regard to
the #ethodoogy e#%oyed their inguistic a%%roach differs fro# for#er
186
treat#ents in anguage earning. To begin $ith& distinction #ust be
#ade bet$een the #entalistic< and the #echanistic< a%%roach to sentence
anaysis.
By <#entalistic< a%%roach $e #ean the4%arts of the sentence4
anaysis based on consideration of se#antic reationshi%s bet$een the
sentence ee#ents.
The <#echanistic< a%%roach is kno$n to have originated in USA in
nineteen forties. 't is associated %ri#ariy $ith the na#es of Boo#fied&
1ries& Aarris and )eason. "ai#ed to be entirey for#a& the
<#echanistic< a%%roach is based ony on the structura reations of
sentence ee#ents& i. e. their %osition in the s%eech chain. To #ake the
distinction bet$een the t$o a%%roaches cear consider the foo$ing
e+a#%es@ <#entalisticall(< 2i. e. anaysing sentences by %utting 0uestions3
<to invite students< and <invitation of students< are %arsed as syntactic
structures $ith ob.ects denoting the %erson to$ards $ho# the action is
directed.
'n ter#s of <#echanistic< anaysis& students and of students $oud be
different sentence ee#ents because they differ in ter#s of structure
2e+%ression %ane3.
The ne$ #ethod of sentence anaysis is kno$n as the #ethod of
i##ediate constituents 2'"!s3. As $e have aready %ointed out& the
conce%t of '" $as first introduced by (. Boo#fied and ater on
deveo%ed by other inguists.
The structura grou%ing of sentence ee#ents into '"!s has naturay
its o$n syste# in each anguage. 't has been recognised that Engish
has a dichoto#ous structure.
The conce%t of i##ediate constituents 2'"!s3 is i#%ortant both in
#or%hoogy and synta+. An i##ediate constituent is a grou% of
inguistic ee#ents $hich functions as a unit in so#e arger $hoe.
The study of synta+ is greaty faciitated by studying the ty%es of
i##ediate constituents $hich occur. -e have earned to ca the direct
co#%onents of the sentence 4grou%s4. 'n ter#s of #odern inguistics
they are i##ediate constituents.
A basic sentence %attern consists first of a of a sub.ect and a
%redicate. These are caed the i##ediate constituents of the sentence.
They are constituents in the sense that they constitute& or #ake u%& the
sentence. They are i##ediate in the sense that they act
i##ediatey on one another@ the $hoe #eaning of the one a%%ies to
the $hoe #eaning of the other.
The sub.ect of a basic sentence is a noun custer and the %redicate
is a verb custer& $e can therefore say that the i##ediate constituents
2'"!s3 of a sentence are a noun custer and a verb custer. Each of the
'"!s of the sentence can in turn be divided to get '"!s at the ne+t o$er
eve. 1or e+a#%e& the noun custer of a sentence #ay consist of a
deter#iner %us a noun. 'n this case& the construction #ay be cut
bet$een the deter#iner and the noun& e. g. the girl. The '"!s of this
noun custer are the and girl. The verb custer of the sentence #ay be a
verb %us a noun custer 1pla(ed the piano2. This custer can be cut
into '"!s as foo$s@
pla(ed8the piano.
7?9
The '" anaysis is& in fact& nothing very starting to traditiona
gra##ar. 't $i a$ays re#ind us of $hat $e earned as the direct
co#%onents of the sentence@ 4sub.ect grou%4 and 4%redicate grou%4. But it
%roceeds further do$n and incudes the division of the sentence into its
uti#ate constituents.
'n ter#s of "h. 1ries! distributiona #ode of syntactic descri%tion& the
sentence M( *rother #et his friend there is re%resented by the foo$ing
sche#e@
The basic assu#%tion of this a%%roach to the gra##atica anaysis of
sentences is that a the structura signas in Engish are stricty for#a
#atters that can be described in %hysica ter#s of for#s& and arrange#ents
of order. The for#a signas of structura #eanings o%erate in a syste# and
this is to say that the ite#s of for#s and arrange#ent have signaing
significance ony as they are %arts of %atterns in a structura $hoe.
'n ter#s of the '"!s #ode %revaent in structura inguistics& the
sentence is re%resented not as a inear succession of $ords& but as a
hierarchy of its i##ediate constituents. The division is thus #ade $ith a
vie$ to set off such co#%onents as ad#it& in their turn& a #a+i#u#
nu#ber of further division and this is a$ays done %roceeding fro# the
binary %rinci%e $hich #eans that in each case $e set off t$o '"!s.
Thus& for instance& the sentence M( (ounger *rother left all his things
there $i be anaysed as foo$s@
M( (ounger *rother left all his things there
M( XX (ounger *rother left all his things XX there
and so on unti $e receive the #ini#u# constituents $hich do not ad#it
further division on the syntactic eve
left all his things there
My younger brother left qq all qqqq his things qq there
left qqq all qqqq his qqqqq things there
The transfor#ationa #ode of the sentence is& in fact& the e+tension of
the inguistic notion of derivation to the syntactic eve& $hich
7??
%resu%%oses setting off the so,caed basic or 4kerne4 structures and their
transfor#s& i. e. sentence,structures derived fro# the basic ones according
to the transfor#ationa rues.
THE SECONDAR( PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
The secondary %arts of the sentence are cassified according to the
syntactic reations bet$een sentence ee#ents. These reations differ in
character.
5%%ositiona reations bet$een the %rinci%a and secondary %arts of the
sentence are 0uite evident. The for#er are the core of the co##unicative
unit& the atter deveo% the core as being a3 i##ediatey reated to so#e of
the sentence,ee#ents or b3 reated to the %redicative core as a $hoe.
The cosest bond is co##ony observed in attributive reationshi%s.
Attributive ad.uncts e+%and sentence,ee#ents rather than the sentence
itsef.
-is possessive instinct$ su*tler$ less for#al$ #ore elastic since the 5ar$
)ept all #isgivings underground. 2)as$orthy3
The second ty%e of non,%redicative bond& the co#%etive one& is #ore
oose. 't deveo%s the sentence in another $ay. 'n this ty%e of bond the
secondary %arts reate& to the %redicative core as a $hoe.
The sa#e nu#*er of the une#plo(ed$ ,inter and su##er$ in stor# or
cal# $ in good ti#es or *ad$ held this #elanchol( #idnight rende=vous at
Fleish#ann's *read *o0. 2*reiser3
The co#%etive bond can e+%and the sentence indefinitey.
The co%uative bond connects syntacticay e0uivaent sentence
ee#ents.
5ith the #one( he earned he *ought novels$ dictionaries and #aps
*ro,sed through the threepenn( *o0es in the *ase#ent of a secondhand
*oo)shop do,nto,n. 2Siitoe3
'n actua s%eech various ty%es of syntactic bond can actuaise various
ty%es of syntactic #eaning. Thus& for instance& both %rocess and 0uaitative
reationshi% can find their e+%ression in@
2a3 the attributive bond an eas( tas)4
pla(ing *o(s4
2b3 the co#%etive bond I found the tas)4
I found the *o(s pla(ing4
2c3 the %redicative bond The tas) ,as eas(4
The *o(s ,ere pla(ing.
T. Attri-ut.
The 0uaificative reationshi% can be actuaised by the attributive bond.
The %aradig# of these inguistic #eans is rather #anifod. -e find here@
73 ad.ectives@ the ne, house4 a valua*le thing4
;3 nouns in the /ossessive "ase@ #( *rother's *oo)4
83 noun,ad.unct grou%s 2N j N3@ ,orld peace$ spring ti#e4
:3 %re%ositiona noun,grou%s@ the daughter of #( friend4
7?=
<3 %ronouns 2%ossessive& de#onstrative& indefinite3@ #( 3o($ such
flo,ers$ ever( #orning$ a friend of his$ little ti#e4
63 infinitives and infinitiva grou%s@ an e0a#ple to follo,$ a thing to
do4
93 gerunds and %artici%es@ 2a3 ,al)ing distance$ s,i##ing suit4
2b3 a s#iling face$ a singing *ird4
?3 nu#eras@ t,o friends$ the first tas)4
=3 $ords of the category of state@ faces alight ,ith happiness4
7>3idio#atic %hrases@ a love of a child$ a 3e,el of a nature$ etc.
'f an ad.ective is #odified by severa adverbs the atter are generay
%aced as foo$s@ adverbs of degree and 0uaitative adverbs stand first and
ne+t co#e #oda adverbs& adverbs denoting %ur%ose& ti#e and %ace& e. g.@
usuall( intentionall( ver( active
8 ; 7 A
politicall( and sociall( :
't co#es 0uite natura that the coocabiity of adverbs $ith ad.ectives
is conditioned by the se#antic %ecuiarities of both. So#e adverbs of
degree& for instance& are freey e#%oyed $ith a 0uaitative ad.ectives
1a*solutel($ al#ost$ e0tre#el($ ;uite$ etc.3& others are conte+tuay
restricted in their use. Thus& for instance& the adverb seriousl( $i
generay #odify ad.ectives denoting %hysica or #enta state& the adverb
vaguel( 1]not clearl( e0pressed2 goes %atterning $ith ad.ectives
associated $ith %hysica or #enta %erce%tion.
T. O-2.ct
The ob.ect is a inguistic unit serving to #ake the verb #ore co#%ete&
#ore s%ecia& or i#it its s%here of distribution.
The divergency of reations bet$een verbs and their ob.ects is
#anifod. The co#%etive bond in #any& if not in a& anguages covers a
$ide and varied range of structura #eaning. This see#s to be a universa
inguistic feature and #ay be traced in anguage after anguage. But
though Engish shares this feature $ith a nu#ber of tongues its structura
deveo%#ent has ed to such distinctive idiosyncratic traits as deserve a
good dea of attention.
A verb,%hrase has fre0uenty a dua nature of an ob.ect and an
adverbia #odifier. Structures of this sort are %otentiay a#biguous and
are generay distinguished by rather subte for#a indications aided by
e+ica %robabiity.
The syntactic vaue of inguistic ee#ents in a %osition of ob.ect is
naturay conditioned by the e+ica #eaning of the verb& its reated noun
and their correation. Regrettabe #istakes occur if this is overooked.
The dichoto#ic cassification into %re%ositiona and %re%ositioness
ob.ects see#s %ractica and usefu. 't is to be noted& ho$ever& that the
division based on the absence or %resence of the %re%osition #ust be taken
$ith an i#%ortant %oint of reservation concerning the ob.ects $hich
190
have t$o for#s@ prepositional and prepositionless de%ending on the $ord,
order in a given %hrase& e. g.@ to sho, hi# the *oo) D to sho, the *oo) to
hi#4 to give her the letter D to give the letter to her.
The trichoto#ic division of ob.ects into direct$ indirect and
prepositional has its o$n de#erits. 't is based on different criteria $hich
in #any cases naturay eads to the overa% of indirect and %re%ositiona
casses.
5b.ect reations cannot be studied $ithout a considerabe reference to
the e+ica #eaning of the verb.
'nstances are not fe$ $hen %utting an ob.ect after the verb changes the
e+ica #eaning of the verb. And there is a syste# behind such
deveo%#ents in the structure of Engish different fro# %ractice in other
anguages.
"o#%are the use of the verbs to run and to fl( in the foo$ing
e+a#%es@
a2 to run fast$ to run ho#e4
b3 to run a factor($ to run the house$ to run a car into a garage4
a3 to fl( in the air4
*2 to fl( passengers$ to fl( a plane$ to fl( a flag.
'n atte#%ting to identify the inguistic status of different kind of
ob.ects in Modern Engish ). ). /oche%tsov advocates other criteria for
their cassification based on the reation bet$een the verb and its ob.ect in
the syntactic structure of the sentence. *ue attention is given to the for#a
indications $hich& ho$ever& are considered secondary in i#%ortance to
content. The cassification is based on the dichoto#y of the t$o basic
ty%es@ob.ect,ob.ect and addressee,ob.ect. The for#er e#braces the
traditiona direct ob.ect and the %re%ositiona ob.ect as its t$o sub,ty%es.
The addressee,ob.ect has t$o variants different in for#@ %re%ositioness
and %re%ositiona. The ob.ect of resut& cognate ob.ect& etc.& are considered
to have no status as ob.ect ty%es and are but %articuar grou%ings $ithin the
boundaries of the t$o basic ty%es of ob.ect outined above
7
. This #ay be
diagra##ed as foo$s@
Ty%es of 5b.ect 5b.ect,ob.ect Addressee,ob.ect
Sub,ty%es of
5b.ect
direct %re%osi
tiona
Ty%es of Bond %re%os
itione
ss
%re%os
itiona
%re%ositiones
s
%re%ositiona
E+a#%es@
-e
)ne,
this.
-e )ne,
of this.
-e gave
#e a letter.
-e gave a
letter to #e.
7
See@ d. d. JiSmJR. a mOZUZmLc TZUWLp_LWZiSTQJs QILTTZZQLZZ pILpJIL 2UL
_LWSOZLIS pILpJINUJs TZTWS_h TJROS_SUUJpJ LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL3. qZIJIJpZiSTQZS
ULPQZr& 7=6=& No. 8.
7=7
The identification of ob.ect reations fro# the above given ange of
vie$ is not devoid of ogica foundation and see#s %ractica and usefu.
Ver*'phrases ,ith .repositionless :*3ect
To identify the se#antic and structura traits of different variants of
verb,%hrases $e sha co#%are the foo$ing@
2A3 dig ground$ #eet our friends$ *uild a house$ o*serve the stars$ etc.
2B3 ,al) the streets$ sit a horse$ s#ile a sunn( s#ile$ *o, one's than)s$
nod approval$ etc.
-ith a their si#iarity& the t$o ty%es of verb,%hrases differ essentiay
in their syntactic content. The for#er i#%y that the %erson or thing is
directy affected by the action& i. e. the action is directed to the ob.ect
$hich co#%etes the verba idea and i#its it at the sa#e ti#e. The duty of
the ob.ect in e+a#%es 2B3 is to characterise the actionG the %hrase
therefore is descri%tive of so#ething that is fet as characteristic of the
action itsef.
/hrases of grou% 2A3 are fairy co##on. A i#iting ob.ect #ay be
e+%ressed by nouns of different casses& concrete and abstract& iving
beings and inani#ate things& na#es of #ateria& s%ace and ti#e. The range
of verbs taking such kind of ob.ects is kno$n to be very $ide.
/hrases of grou% 2B3 are so#e$hat i#ited in their use. The range of
verbs taking such descri%tive ob.ects is rather s#a. Many %atterns of this
kind are idiosyncratic in their character. So#e verbs $hich are generay
intransitive ac0uire a transitive #eaning ony in such coocation.
5b.ects of grou% 2A3 are functionay identica in their i#iting
character but are contrasted to each other in the foo$ing ter#s@
73 the outer character of the action@ the ob.ect is acted u%on $ithout
any inner change in the ob.ect itsef& as in@ dig the ground$ clean the
*lac)*oard$ appl( the rule$ dress the child$ ta)e a *oo)$ send a letter$ etc.G
;3 the inner character of the action@ the ob.ect is acted u%on& $hich
resuts in so#e inner changes in the ob.ect itsef@ i#proving the #ethod$
in3ured the tree$ ,ea)ened the #eaning$ intensified the idea$ etc.G
83 the resutative character of the action. This kind of ob.ects %resents
no difficuty and no %articuar interest& e. g.@ painted a picture$ #ade the
dress$ ,rote a #onograph$ *uilt a house$ etc
The sa#e kind of ob.ect is obvious after verbs ike *eget$ create$
develop$ dra,$ construct$ invent$ #anufacture$ etc.
'n ter#s of transfor#ationa anaysis& %hrases of grou% 2A3 are
characterised by the foo$ing@
73 %rono#ina transfor#ation D noun,ob.ects #ay be re%aced by
corres%onding %rono#ina for#s& e. g.@ dug it$ dressed it$ too) it$ ,ashed it
1the linen2$ violated it 1the rule2$ etc.
;3 transfor#ation through no#inaisation@
dig the ground D digging the ground4
violating the rule ] the violation of the rule4
he approved our choice D his approval of our choice.
7=;
83 ad.ectivisation@
she ,ashed her linen D her ,ashed linen4 he
deserted his friend D his deserted friend4
forgot his pro#ise D forgetful of his pro#ise.
Verb,%hrases of grou% 2B3 have so#e characteristic features of their
o$n.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
1a2 -e ,rites a good letter4
1*2 -e ,rites a good hand.
-e stri)es #e as capa*le$ orderl($ and civil4 I don't see ,hat #ore
(ou ,ant in a cler). -e ,rites a good hand$ and so far I can see he tells the
truth. 2)as$orthy3
/hrases of grou% 2B3 can have overa%%ing reations of #anner and
conse0uence@
Such are %hrases $ith the so,caed cognate ob.ect
7
& e. g.@ to live a
life$ to fight a fight$ to laugh a laugh$ to s#ile a sunn( s#ile$ to fight a
*attle$ etc.
The syntactic content of such verb,%hrases can be ade0uatey
e+%ained by transfor#ationa anaysis& e. g.@
-e has fought the good fight k ...has fought so as to produce the good
fight.
-e lived the life of an e0ile k... his #anner of living ,as that of an
e0ile.
"o#binations of this kind are found $ith verbs that are other$ise
intransitive 1live$ s#ile2.
/hrases $ith the cognate ob.ect are styistic aternatives of
corres%onding si#%e verbs@ to live a life D to live4 to s#ile a s#ile D to
s#ile$ etc. functioning as an easy #eans of adding so#e descri%tive
trait to the %redicate $hich it $oud be difficut to add to the verb in so#e
other for#. To fight the good fight$ for instance& is se#anticay different
fro# to fight ,ell4 he laughed his usual careless laugh is not absoutey
synony#ous $ith he laughed carelessl( as usual.
"ognate ob.ects co##ony have attributive ad.uncts attached to
the#.
-aving said that 9ol(on ,as asha#ed. -is cousin had flushed a dus)(
(ello,ish red. 5hat had #ade hi# tease the poor *rute? 2)as$orthy3
-e laughed suddenl( a ringing free laugh that startled the echoes
in the dar) ,oods. 2Mitche3
She fro,ned at his facetiousness D a prett($ adora*le fro,n that
#ade hi# put his ar# around her and )iss it a,a(. 2(ondon3
5inter sno,ed its sno,$ created a #asterpiece of arctic #ist and rain
until a vanguard convo( of ,ar# da(s turned into !aster$ ,ith supplies
of sun run surreptitiousl( through fro# ,ar#er lands. 2Siitoe3
The chief %oint of inguistic interest is %resented by V j N %hrases
$ith intransitive verbs $here the reations bet$een verb and noun ead
to the for#ation of s%ecia e+ica #eanings. The use of verbs $hich are
other$ise se#anticay intransitive in V j N %atterns is fairy co#,
7
5ther ter#s of 4cognate ob.ect4 are@ 4inner ob.ect4& 4ob.ect of content4& 4factitive
ob.ect4 2an oder ter# is 4figura ety#oogica43.
7=8
#on. Verbs invoved in such syntactic reations undergo considerabe
se#antic changes. So#e of the# ac0uire a causative #eaning& e. g. to run
a horse$ to run a *usiness$ ,al) the horses$ etc.
Verbs of seeing$ such as to loo)$ ga=e$ stare$ glare$ $hich are generay
used $ith a %re%ositiona ob.ect& $hen e#%oyed in V j N %atterns
deveo% the #eaning 4to e+%ress by ooking4& as in@ She loo)ed her
surprise4 -e said nothing *ut glanced a ;uestion4 She stared her
discontent.
Si#iary@ to *reathe relief$ to so* repentance$ to roar applause$ to
s#ile appreciation$ to *ra( a laugh and still others.
As $e see& %atterns of this sort are fre0uent $ith verbs $hich are
other$ise intransitive& as in@
<Cecause...< Crissenden sipped his todd( and smiled appreciation of
it. 2(ondon3
1urther e+a#%es are@
She nodded approval.
-e *o,ed his than)s.
She *ea#ed satisfaction.
She laughed her than)s.
-e *reathed his astonish#ent.
-e could onl( stare his surprise.
So#e$hat reated to these for#ations are such gra##atica idio#s
$here so#e s%ecia addition to a secondary $ord cannot convenienty be
e+%ressed by #eans of a sub.ect@ a %redicative,$ord is conse0uenty
oosey attached to the sentence as the bearer of the s%eciaisation in the
for# of #odifier& as in@ her face ,as ver( pale$ a gre(ish pallor.
Not infre0uenty #odifying $ords are introduced by the %re%osition
,ith. "onsider the foo$ing e+a#%es@
+ot #uch give and ta)e a*out &esert D restless$ dishar#onic$ and a
poet7 %nd proud M wit! t!at inner self4depreciation pride ,hich never
let up on a #an. 2)as$orthy3
Si#iary@
She ,as prett($ wit! t!e prettiness of twenty.
He ,as sic) ,ith a sic)ness more t!an of a body, a sic#ness of mind.
Ad=.r-ia! Ad2unct,
The cassification of adverbia sentence,ee#ents has its o$n
difficuties& because adverbias different in their syntactic content can be
identica in ter#s of the for#a syntactic bond.
By <s(ntactic content< $e #ean the content of the reationshi%s
bet$een $ords in sentence,structure. These are@
a3 %rocess reationshi%& i. e. the reation bet$een the %rocess and the
agent of the %rocessG
b3 ob.ect reationshi% D the reation bet$een the ob.ect and the
%rocess or bet$een t$o ob.ectsG
c3 0uaification reationshi% D the reation bet$een the 0uaity and the
ob.ect or the %rocessG
d3 adverbia 2or circu#stantia3 reationshi%.
7=:
Syntactic content is naturay understood as abstracted fro# the
%ertainance of $ords to the %arts of s%eech and concrete e+ica #eaning.
'n ter#s of syntactic content& adverbias #ay reasonaby be subdivied
into@
a3 0uaificative and b3 circu#stantia. The for#er are cosey akin to
ad.ectives.
Cf. %n eas( thing to do. -e
did it easil(. % )ind
ans,er. -e ans,ered
)indl(.
"ircu#stantia adverbias are #odifiers of %ace& %ur%ose& ti#e&
concession& attending circu#stances& etc.
This is not to say ho$ever that the above division covers a instances
of the functiona use of $ords in the %osition of adverbia ad.uncts.
(anguage is a syste# of interde%endent units in $hich the vaue of each
unit resuts ony fro# the %resence of the others. There are naturay
borderine cases of dua or overa%%ing reationshi%s. /re%ositiona
%hrases are often a#biguous. They are not indifferent to the concrete
e+ica #eaning of $ords and their abiity to co#bine $ith one other in
certain %atterns. Various i#%ortant reations bet$een ty%es of such
conte+t,sensitive %hrases can be ade0uatey e+%ained by transfor#ationa
anaysis.
"o#%are the foo$ing for iustration@
1a2 She touched the ani#al ,ith her careful hand 1She touched the
ani#al carefull(2.
1*2 She touched the ani#al ,ith her hand.
-e cannot fai to see that ob.ect reations in 2a3 are so#e$hat
$eakened. The %hrase is suggestive of adverbia #eaning signaed by the
ad.ective 4carefu4& $hich cannot be said about the second e+a#%e 2b3.
-5R*,5R*ER
The %osition of $ords and syntactic structures reative to one another
is $e kno$n to be a #ost i#%ortant %art of Engish synta+. 5n this eve
of inguistic anaysis distinction #ust naturay be #ade bet$een t$o
ite#s@ the order of $ords in %hrase,structure and the order of $ords in
sentence structure.
*ue to the scarcity of #or%hoogica devices Engish has deveo%ed a
toeraby fi+ed $ord,order $hich in #ost cases sho$s $ithout fai $hat is
the sub.ect of the sentence.
But this is not to say that the gra##atica rues of the nor#a $ord,
order are stricty observed in absoutey a cases. The for# of e+%ression
#ay de%art fro# the co##on $ord,order for certain ogica reasons
7=<
or under the stress of e#otion& considerations of stye& eu%honic reasons&
etc. The s%eaker or $riter generay has so#e s%ecia e#%hasis to %ut on
so#e %art of the sentence 2rhetorica order3.
The foo$ing co#%arison $i sho$ the de%arture fro# the nor#a
$ord,order in e+%ressing sub.ect,%redicate reations 2Sk / /kS3G
2a3 Ca#e frightful da(s of sno, and frost. 2(ondon3
Cf. Frightful da(s of sno, and frost ca#e.
2b3 :h7 ver( ,ell. %nd suddenl( she *urst into tears of disappoint#ent$
sha#e and overstrain. Follo,ed five #inutes of acute #iser(.
2)as$orthy3
Cf. Five #inutes of acute #iser( follo,ed.
1urther e+a#%es are@
2c3 -e re#e#*ered Irene sa(ing to hi# once/ <+ever ,as an( one *orn
#ore loving and lova*le than 9on<. 2)as$orthy3
2d3 Then arrived in a group a nu#*er of +icholases$ al,a(s punctual
D the fashion up Lad*ro)e "rove ,a(4 and close *ehind the# !ustace
and his #en$ gloo#( and s#elling rather of s#o)e. 2)as$orthy3
Variations in $ord,order characterising a $ord or a %hrase as to its
the#atic and rhe#atic 0uaity have s%ecia co##unicative functions.
E+a#ine aso the $ord,order arrange#ent in the foo$ing sentences $ith
the front,%osition of ob.ects and adverbia ad.uncts@
:n the hearth stood an enor#ous *o,l$ ,ith *ottles *eside it$ glinting
in the firelight. 2"h. Sno$3
...%t last I turned a,a(. :n the pave#ent$ ,al)ing to,ards #e$ ,as
Sheila. 2"h. Sno$3
Thus$ dreadfull($ ,as revealed to hi# the lac) of i#agination in the
hu#an *eing. 2)as$orthy3
So#eti#es e#%hatic front,%osition of sentence,ee#ent is found
$ithout inversion of sub.ect and %redicate. This is the case& for instance&
$ith ob.ects referring to $hat i##ediatey %recedes in the conte+t.
To the little I told hi#$ he ,as for#all( s(#pathetic4 *ut in his heart he
thought it all ine0plica*le and so#e,hat effe#inate. 2"h. Sno$3
& :f these she read to little 9on$ till he ,as allo,ed to read to hi#self4
,hereupon she ,his)ed *ac) to London and left the# ,ith hi# in a heap.
2)as$orthy3
To her ne, fangled dress$ frill( a*out the hips and tight *elo, the
)nees$ 9une too) a sudden li)ing D a char#ing colour$ fla0'*lue.
2)as$orthy3
-er heart he onl( )ne, the value of ,hen she said softl(/
u
"o on out$
and don't ever co#e in here again.< 2Siitoe3
-ith regard to the reative %ositions of sub.ect and verba %redicate
there are three %ossibiities $hich #ay be denoted res%ectivey@
2a3 the 4nor#a4 order Sk /G
2b3 the 4inverted4 order / k SG
2c3 the inverted order $ith / s%it u% into t$o %arts and S co#ing
bet$een the#.
't is interesting to observe that in sentences of the third ty%e 2c3 the
sub.ect often has a engthy attribute attached to it& $hich adds to its
rhe#atic 0uaity and se#antic %revaence in the $hoe state#ent.
7=6
UPARCELLINGV AND WSEGMENTATIONW
IN ENGLISH SENTENCE;STR&CT&RE
1e+ibiity in sentence,structure #erits consideration in sentence,
%atterning $ith the so,caed <parcelling< by $hich $e #ean %acing a
syntacticay de%endent sentence,ee#ent out of its usua sentence fra#e
and setting it off by a fu sto% ike an inde%endent unit.
/arceing is not infre0uent in s%oken Engish and iterary %rose. 'n
such isoated %osition $e #ay find adverbia ad.uncts& ob.ective
co#%e#ents& attributes and e%ithet ad.uncts. The e+%ressive vaue of such
sentence,%atterns& #arked by s%ecia intonation contours in actua s%eech&
#akes the# #ost effective.
7. Adverbia ad.uncts in isoated %osition@
Suddenl( #( #ind leapt clear. <I should li)e to tal) a*out that<$ I said.
<+ot tonight. To#orro, or the ne0t da(<. 2"h. Sno$3
The( ran close into ,ind. Slowly. .antastically slowly. 2Adridge3
+o,$ on this course$ the( ,ere running ,ith the *rea),ater. 3eel wit!
it. &ut out to sea and away from it. *nd fast. 2Adridge3
<I have *een glancing into so#e of the roo#s. Let's go to Cone(
Island$ old sport. In my car. <It's too late<. 21itEgerad3
;. 'soated %redicatives@
-e ,as e0hausted. 0ompletely finis!ed, and sic# wit! t!e balt ,ater
in hi#. 2Adridge3
8. 'soated sub.ect,grou%s in %atterns $ith the introductory it@
It !ad been t!e most ironical t!ing of all. To arrive fro# "advos after
releasing those fro# the Meta0ists. To co#e *ac) here and #eet Meta0ists
fro# !g(pt ,ho ,ant cooperation. 2Adridge3
:. 'soated %arts of co#%e+ #oda %redicate@
If (ou have trou*les let #e share the#. \ou are so #uch to #e D #(
onl( trou*le I can fi0 (our life. =oin it wit! mine. 2*reiser3
<. 'soated attributive ad.uncts@
-e had reached the centre of .arlia#ent S;uare$ ,hen a figure co#ing
to,ards hi# s,erved suddenl( to its left and #ade in the direction of
Victoria. Tall, wit! a swing in its wal#. 2)as$orthy3
6. /re%ositiona and %re%ositioness ob.ects in isoated %osition@ Crian
said to his cousin/ <I'# signing on as ,ell in a ,a($ only for
life. I'm getting #arried<. Coth stopped ,al)ing. Cert too) his ar# and
stared/ <\ou're not<.
<a#. To ;auline. &on't (ou thin) ,e've *een courting long enough?<
2Siitoe3
The( have sna)es in !ngland4 3ungle and wild animals and
#ountains. Cities and s,a#ps and big rivers. \ou loo) as if (ou don't
*elieve #e. 2Siitoe3
She ,as interrupted at that point. C( #e. 2Sainger3. , 'n such syntactic
arrange#ents the hierarchy of the s%oken chain breaks into seg#ents.
The fina intonation of the seg#ents see#s to convert the# into
inde%endent syntactic units. The syntag#atic subordination of the se%a,
7=9
rated ee#ent co#es to be neutraised by its intonation inde%endence.
And here are a fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es of sub,causes %aced for
e#%hasis out of their usua sentence fra#e and set of by a fu sto% ike
inde%endent units@
4' could *e content<$ ,ent on -urst,ood$ <if I had (ou to love #e. If I
!ad you to go, for a companion". 2Sainger3
I thought of the future$ and spo)e of the past. &ecause Holly wanted to
#now about my c!ild!ood. 2"a%ote3
It sounds li#e it. *s t!oug! tigers were loose in Holly's apartment.
2"a%ote3
Sentence disintegration of this ty%e is not s%ecificay Engish and $i
be found in other anguages.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es fro# 1rench are@
Il co##ena attendre. La no#ination ;ui allait arriver$ pour une
ville inconnue. Les ressources de la province. La vie tran;uille et l'htel.
2"onchon3
!lle a gtg dgportge. %vec sa #sre. 2(angfus3
Il continue ici vivre co##e un lion. Il se *ut$ .our les autres.
2(affitte3
Violette riait. %troce#ent faut. 2"onchon3
7
Cf/ JWSIJTN XOQJpJ TRSWL& WJImh& KP_L PIZ. TIhKLWN
ZlhTQLUUPn OSiN. 2\SsPIZUL3
LQZS TWRJIh P JTZUw RSWL QJKLiNZc pILl. 2. LlLQJR3
;
[hcJMZW RSIZQZs pJUoZQ. eSl KLmQZ. SoS QLQZS,WJ InMZ T UZ_.
yJS OhZS. 2aISKL3
zSW& S_P UPSU YhI Z_SUUJ gWJW D iPJs. fSiWLUUhs.
zSRJl_JUhs. 2RSWLSRL3
"osey reated to 4%arceing4 is <seg#entation<.
/arceing and seg#entation are both intended to give e#%hatic
%ro#inence to the se%arated sentence,ee#ents and as such have #uch in
co##on. But the t$o syntactic devices are not absoutey identica.
/arceing can s%it a sentence into t$o or #ore %arts& $hereas
seg#entation is& in fact& a t$ofod designation& a s%ecia kind of
redu%ication $here the sentence is s%it into t$o interde%endent sentence,
ee#ents reated as 4the the#e4 and 4the rhe#e4 res%ectivey& the for#er
being set off in a %osition of an inde%endent unit.
Seg#entation is aso one of the universa features of syntactic
arrange#ent. Structures of this kind are not s%ecificay Engish and are
kno$n to be fairy co##on in other anguages. A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es for
iustration@
%nd those geese D t!ey don't see#$ to #ind (our counting their
features$ do the(? 2)as$orthy3
7
See/ b. b. bUMOZSRTQLX. RISUZX TSmLOLWZlLZZ R TWZIZTWZiSTQJ_ TZUWLQTZTS
TJROS_SUUJs cPMJSTWRSUUJs mOJlh. f.& qZIJIJpZiSTQZS ULPQZr& 7=6=.
;
LOSIIXZX& SS QJ__PUZQLWZRUJ,gQTmOSTTZRUhS Z TZUWLQTZiSTQZS PUQZZ. [
QU.@ qfJOJIJpZX Z TZUWLQTZT TJROS_SUUJpJ OPTTQJpJ IZWSOLWPOUJpJ XlhQLr. f.& 7=6?.
7=?
<This is fantastic<$ #ur#ured 9ol(on. 5ell$ the fello, couldn't force his
,ife to live ,ith hi#. Those da(s ,ere past a,a(7 %nd he loo)ed round at
Soa#es ,ith the thought/ <Is he real$ t!is man'" 2)as$orthy3
%nd ,hat a*out t,ilight sleep? 5h( hadn't he *een there? -e #ight
have D nature. &a#n it7 +ature D as if it couldn't leave even her alone7
2)as$orthy3
There are i#%ortant treat#ents of the sub.ect in "h. Bay!s
Linguisti;ue ggngrale et Linguisti;ue franaise$ $here seg#ented
sentences are referred to as consisting of t$o %arts@ 4the#e4 and 4%ro%os4.
The 4the#e4 is generay re%resented in 4%ro%os4 by %ronouns. 'f the
4the#e4 2noun3 %recedes the 4%ro%os4 2%ronoun3& the structure is caed a
re%rise& if the 4%ro%os4 2%ronoun3 %recedes the 4the#e4& the structure is
referred to as antici%ation. Seg#ented sentences have a$ays a #idde
%ause and s%ecia intonation.
Seg#ented structures #ake the ong estabished order of $ords in
1rench ess rigid& the e+ica unit functioning in a sentence beco#ing ever
#ore inde%endent. This ne$ trend in the deveo%#ent of 1rench synta+ is
gaining attention of #any schoars as one of the #ost striking features of
its %rogressive deveo%#ent.
The sub.ect has been discussed in A. A. Andrievskaya!s $ork,%a%er
qLOLQWSOUhS iSOWh TJROS_SUUJpJ OLUPlTQJpJ TZUWLQTZTLr
7
& $here
$e find the foo$ing tabuated survey@
73 the necessary re%etition of the direct ob.ect e+%ressed by a %ronoun
2the ony case of the %re,%osition of the direct ob.ect in traditiona $ord,
order in 1rench3& e. g.@
9e la reprendrai$ #a place. 9e la *us$ #a *outeille.
;3 the necessary re%etition of any ob.ect %aced at the head of the
sentence& e. g. @
Ces paroles$ elle les pronona d'un ton tran;uille.
83 the necessary re%etition of the ob.ect e+%ressed by a $hoe cause
24/ro%osition con.onctionnee43& e. g.@
^ue la position fut entisre#ent changge$ 3e ne le pensais pas.
:3 the re%etition of the sub.ect& $ith adverbs at the head of the
sentence& e. g.@
%insi la vie sociale les reprenait'elle.
<3 the necessary re%etition of the noun,sub.ect in the inverted structure
of a 0uestion& e. g.@
Mon frsre$ est'il venu?
/R5B(EMS 51 TAE A"TUA( *'V'S'5N 51 TAE SENTEN"E
1Functional Sentence .erspective2
Syntactic descri%tion #ay begin $ith 4discourse4 anaysis as its
starting %oint.
'n these ter#s& synta+ is described as 4te+tinguistics4 concerned
%ri#ariy $ith the gra##atica organisation and se#antic as%ects of
su%ra,%hrasa unities.
qzLPQJRV lLmZTQZr& W. 76. [Zm. <. .& 7=<9& %%. 98,7>:.
7==
A su%ra,%hrasa unity usuay functioning as a co##unicative $hoe
consists of a nu#ber of se#anticay reated sentences. 'n $riting it
corres%onds to 4%aragra%h4& in s%oken anguage this se#antic unity is
signaed by %ausation.
A 4%aragra%h4 is a traditiona ter# used in #anuscri%ts and %rinting to
indicate a distinct subdivision of a discourse& cha%ter& or $riting. 't is
#arked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the ine at the
end.
As a ogica category the %aragra%h is characterised by coherence and
reative unity of the ideas e+%ressed& as a inguistic category it is a
co##unicative unit #arked off by such for#a inguistic #eans as
intonation and %auses of various engths.
A su%ra,%hrasa unit is anaysed into sentences and %hrases as
interde%endent units& the vaue of $hich resuts fro# the si#utaneous
%resence of the others.
/aragra%hs in %ictoria and e#otive %rose break u% the narrative not
ony to faciitate understanding but aso for e#%hasis.
Take the foo$ing for iustration@
-e la( flat on the *ro,n$ pine'needled floor of the forest$ his chin on
his folded ar#s$ and high overhead the ,ind *le, in the tops of the pine
trees. The #ountainside sloped gentl( ,here he la(4 *ut *elo, it ,as steep
and he could see the dar) of the oiled road ,inding through the pass.
There ,as a strea# alongside the road and far do,n the pass he sa, a #ill
*eside the strea# and the falling ,ater of the da#$ ,hite in the su##er
sunlight. 2Ae#ing$ay3
Ro*ert 9ordan stood up to follo, hi#$ then reconsidered and$ lifting the
canvas off the t,o pac)s$ pic)ed the# up$ one in each hand$ and started
,ith the#$ 3ust a*le to carr( the#$ for the #outh of the cave. -e laid one
pac) do,n and lifted the *lan)et aside$ then ,ith his head stooped and
,ith a pac) in each hand$ carr(ing *( the leather shoulder straps$ he ,ent
into the cave. 2Ae#ing$ay3
It ,as hot that night. Coth she and her #other had put on thin$ pale$
lo, froc)s. The dinner flo,ers ,ere pale. Fleur ,as struc) ,ith the pale
loo) of ever(thing4 her father's face$ her #other's shoulders4 the pale
panelled ,alls$ the pale gre( velvet( carpet$ the la#p'shade$ even the soup
,as pale. There ,as not one spot of colour in the roo#$ not even ,ine in
the pale glasses$ for no one dran) it. 5hat ,as not pale ,as *lac) D her
father's clothes$ the *utler's clothes$ her retriever stretched out e0hausted
in the ,indo,$ the curtains *lac) ,ith a crea# pattern. % #oth ca#e in$
and that ,as pale. %nd silent ,as that half'#ourning dinner in the heat.
2)as$orthy3
*iscourse anaysis then carries our attention to the actua division of
the sentences #aking u% a su%ra,%hrasa unity& i.e. their co##unicative
function in a given situation& in other $ords& the 4functiona sentence
%ers%ective4& $hich is& in fact& the #ain category on this eve of inguistic
anaysis.
200
By actua division $e #ean dividing a sentence into t$o sections& one
of $hich contains that $hich is the starting %oint of the #essage D 4the
the#e4& and the other D the ne$ infor#ation for $hich the sentence has
been s%oken or $ritten D 4the rhe#e4.
The t$o ter#s are )reek in origin@ <the#e< co#es fro# the )reek root
the, 4to set<$ <to esta*lish< and #eans <that ,hich is set or esta*lished<.
The ter# <rhe#e< is derived fro# the root r., <to sa(< or <tell< and
#eans <that ,hich is said or told a*out<.
There have been severa %airs of ter#s %ro%osed for this %ur%ose& such
as 4%sychoogica sub.ect4 and 4%sychoogica %redicate4
7
& 4e+ica sub.ect4
and 4e+ica %redicate4
;
& 4se#antic sub.ect4 and 4se#antic %redicate4. The
ter#s 4%sychoogica sub.ect4 and 4%sychoogica %redicate4& introduced
by the )er#an schoar A. /au
8
& incude a notion of individua %sychoogy&
$hich is beyond the s%here of inguistics itsef. 5ther ter#s see# to be
inade0uate as inco#%atibe $ith our genera a%%roach to anaysing
anguage %heno#ena.
Variation in actuaising a $ord or a %hrase in a sentence is organicay
co#bined $ith changes in the order of $ords.
The gra##atica arrange#ent of $ords in such %atterns #ay $e
iustrate the fact that the for#a and the ogica sub.ect of the utterance are
t$o inde%endent ee#ents.
The hierarchy of the co#%onents of the utterance is generay #ade
e+%icit by their syntag#atic reations in the gra##atica organisation of
the sentence.
-e naturay cannot say that every sentence #ust necessariy consist of
t$o such sections. So#e sentences& one,#e#ber sentences& in %articuar&
cannot be divided u% in this $ay& and things are not cear $ith so#e other
ty%es.
Ao$ever& #ost sentences do consist of these t$o sections and the
reation bet$een the syntactic structure of the sentence and its division into
those t$o sections #erit consideration.
'n #ost 'ndo,Euro%ean anguages the ogica structure of the thought
e+%ressed by a sentence is indicated by $ord,order but the functiona
vaue of the order of $ords is naturay not a$ays the sa#e in anguages
of different ty%es& $here $e a$ays find their o$n idiosyncratic traits and
conventiona %ractices of different character.
'n a anguage $ith a highy deveo%ed #or%hoogica syste# and free
$ord order arrange#ent the order of $ords is $idey used as a #eans to
#ake the functiona sentence %ers%ective e+%icit.
'n anguages ike Engish or 1rench& for instance& the gra##atica
function of the fi+ed $ord,order does not a$ays %er#it the rearrange#ent
of sentence,ee#ents.
Recourse is often #ade to other inguistic devices doing this duty& e. g.@
s%ecific syntactic %atterns& artices& %artices and adverbs of e#,
7
See@ A. /au. /rinEi%ien der S%rachgeschichte. <th Ed.& Aae& 7=89& %. 7;:.
;
See@ b. . \ _ Z O U Z Q Z s . \ZUWLQTZT LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. M.& 7=<9.
8
See@ C. 1irbas. So#e Thoughts on the 1unction of -ord,5rder in 5d Engish and
Modern Engish. 7=<=.
;>7
%hatic %recision 1even$ onl($ #erel($ solel($ too$ 3ust$ nota*l($ particularl($
especiall($ positivel($ etc.3& %rosodic 2su%raseg#enta3 #eans& such as
variation in %itch& e#%hatic stress& %ausation& etc.
The cassifying indefinite artice is very often used to introduce
so#ething that #akes %art of the ne$ infor#ation. E+a#%es are
nu#erous.
E+a#ine the foo$ing for iustration@
). 2L3 XJDYFZ@ RhpIXUPIL E? HZ[@.
\ R
+-/ ]? HZ[@ RhpIXUPIL ^JDYFZ@. y
R
2a3 T!e girl loo)ed out of t!e window.
T R
2b3 * girl loo)ed out of t!e window.
R T
;. _JA[E`JAKDH YhIJ [J^@aJZH HK ^JGJD[E.
T R
bJ^@aJZH HK ^JGJD[E YhIJ aJA[E`JAKDH. T
R
2a3 T!e forestry ,as near t!e illage.
T R
2b3 T!ere was a forestry near t!e illage.
R T
The functiona sentence %ers%ective 21S/3 in Russian is signaed by
the $ord,order arrange#ent@ the $ords MSRPKQL and ISTUZiSTWRJ are the
the#e $hen they stand at the beginning of the sentence and the rhe#e
$hen they are in the end,%osition. 'n Engish this difference is #ade cear
by the use of the artices in 273 and the structure $ith <there is< in 2;3.
1urther e+a#%es are@
5hen she left !rnest's a huge *as)et of groceries rested at the foot of
the pra#$ and the s#all fortune of a pound note la( in her coat poc)et.
2Siitoe3
&o,n the long avenue of his #an'a*out'to,n e0perience$ *ursting$ as
it ,ere$ through a s#irch of dou*tful a#ours$ there stal)ed to hi# a
#e#or( of his (outh. 2)as$orthy3
In ans,er to the ring$ appeared a page *o( ,ith a silver soup tureen.
2)as$orthy3
"o#%are aso the 4the#e D rhe#e4 arrange#ent in the foo$ing
sentences@
-e could sho, (ou this letter (esterda(. :nl( he
could sho, (ou this letter (esterda(. -e could
onl( sho, (ou this letter (esterda(. -e could
sho, (ou this letter onl( (esterda(. -e could
sho, this letter onl( to (ou (esterda(.
202
Si#iar in function is the use of %artices and adverbs of e#%hatic
%recision in other anguages@
Russian@ WJINQJ& Z_SUUJ& ZTQIniZWSINUJ& etc.
Ukrainian@ WVINQZ& IZKS& TL_S& RILTUS& etc.
1rench D seule#ent$ uni;ue#ent$ nota##ent$ 3uste$ etc.
)er#an@ eIr$ gerade and others.
The roe of the order of $ords used to signa the TDR arrange#ent is
#ost evident in e+a#%es ike the foo$ing@
%nd fast into this perilous gulf of night ,al)ed Cosinne($ and fast after
hi# ,al)ed "eorge. 2)as$orthy3
Cf. . eJTUZZ KSI YhTWOJ mOX_J R RJIUh UJiZ& pOJlZRKSs YSMJs&
Z WLQ S YhTWOJ KSI lL UZ_ JOM.
In the centre of the roo#$ under the chandelier$ as *eca#e a host$
stood the head of the fa#il($ old 9ol(on hi#self. 2)as$orthy3
Cf. JTSOSMZUV QV_ULWZ& mVM InTWOJn& XQ V IViZWN cLlXUP& TWJXR
pILRL TV_!& TL_ TWLOZs JIVJU.
The actua division of the sentence stands in vivid and cear reief in
syntactic structures $ith doube inversion by $hich $e #ean not ony
%utting the sub.ect before the %redicate but se%arating the verba %redicate.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are given beo$& others $i readiy occur to the
student.
-e stooped over the dra,er ,here she )ept her 3e,els4 it ,as not
loc)ed$ and ca#e open as he pulled4 the 3e,el *o0 had the )e( in it. This
surprised hi# until he re#e#*ered that it ,as sure to *e e#pt(. -e opened
it.
It ,as not e#pt(. &ivided in the little green velvet co#part#ent$ ,ere
all the things he had given her$ even her ,atch$ and stuc) into the recess
that contained the ,atch ,as a three'cornered note addressed <Soa#es
Fors(te<$ in Irene's hand,riting. 2)as$orthy3
The idea about the .e$e bo+ is given in the %revious sentenceG the
adverbia ad.unct and the %redicate <&ivided in the little green velvet
co#part#ent ,ere< are the starting %oint of the state#ent 2the the#e3 and
the ne$ infor#ation is carried by the sub.ect of the sentence <all the things
he had given her$ even her ,atch< D the rhe#e.
Si#iary@ <stuc) into the recess that contained the ,atch ,as 4is the
the#e& and the ne$ infor#ation is carried by the sub.ect 4a three'cornered
note addressed <Soa#es Fors(te<$ in Irene's hand,riting<D the rhe#e.
't is interesting to observe that in sentence %atterns of the given ty%e
the sub.ect often has a engthy attribute attached to it& $hich adds to its
rhe#atic 0uaity and se#antic %revaence in the $hoe state#ent.
'n different s%eech events the co#%onents of the functiona sentence
%ers%ective #ay corres%ond to different sentence,ee#ents. 'n each case
variation in the TDR arrange#ent as #otivated by the consituation $i be
#ade cear by variation in %rosody.
2a3 Cohn is going to S%ain ne+t $eek.
T R
k an ans$er to the 0uestion@ <5hen is 9ohn going to Spain?<
2b3 Cohn is going to S%ain ne+t $eek.
T R T
203
k an ans$er to the 0uestion@ <5here is 9ohn going ne0t ,ee)?<
2c3 Cohn is going to S%ain ne+t $eek.
R
@
T
k an ans$er to the 0uestion@ <5ho is going to Spain ne0t ,ee)?<
2d3 Cohn is going to S%ain ne+t $eek.
k an ans$er to the 0uestion@ <5hat is 9ohn going to do?<
Syntactic #eans to e+%ress the rhe#atic 0uaity of the sub.ect incude
aso structures of %redication $ith the %assive verb,for#s and converted
sub.ect introduced by the %re%osition *(.
1i+ed %hrases of e#%hatic %recision it is... 1it ,as2 aso can& by
situation& ay e#%hasis on any %art of the sentence and intensify its
rhe#atic 0uaity.
Sentences that are introduced by it is 1it ,as...2 have s%ecia traits of
their %atterning and are ogicay interesting. -e #ay reasonaby say that
they ho#ony#icay co#bine a gra##atica and a styistic #eaning
a$ays signaed by the s%eech conte+t or situation.
The use of such structures is a$ays a ogica resut of the %revious
inguistic situations& and it is but natura that ony the syntactica conte+t
can define their functiona and styistic vaue& $ith a the subte shades of
sub.ective #oda force %otentiay i#%icit in the#.
Variation in actuaising a $ord or a %hrase in a sentence is organicay
co#bined $ith changes in the order of $ords. The t$o devices in such
structures a%%ear ine+tricaby invoved and are inse%arabe.
The gra##atica arrange#ent of $ords in these %atterns #ay $e
iustrate the fact that the for#a and the ogica sub.ect in a sentence are
t$o inde%endent ee#ents.
The it,inversion is usefu in a ty%es of %rose as fiing the %osition of
the sentence o%ener $ith a structura $ord that enabes %ost%one#ent of
the the#e.
The fore#ost notion in the s%eaker!s thoughts& i. e. the ogica sub.ect
of the utterance is the ee#ent introduced by it is... 1it ,as ...2.
-hen $e say It is the teacher that decides or It ,as the student I ,as
loo)ing for$ $e #ean@ the teacher is the deciding %erson and the student
$as the young #an ' $as ooking for. The reative cause thus does not
restrict the teacher or the student but obviousy beongs to it. It is coffee I
li)e *est of all #ay be easiy transfor#ed into Coffee is ,hat I li)e *est of
all. This see#s to e+%ain $hy in such sentences $e can have a that'clause
or a contact,cause after a $ord $hich is in itsef so definite that it cannot
be further restricted@
It is he that #ust decide.
It was our victor( that saved the ,hole ,orld fro# fascist slaver(.
-e cannot fai to see this ogica connection in so#e %roverbia
sentences& $hich& anaysed differenty& $i give no sense@
It is an ill *ird that fouls its o,n nest.
It is not t!e ga( coat that #a)es the gentle#an.
It is t!e early bird that catches the ,or#.
204
The inguistic essence of structures $ith it is$ it ,as has been variousy
treated by gra##arians. /atterns of this sort are so#eti#es referred to as
s%ecia e#%hatic for#s of a si#%e sentence 2A. /outs#a& 5. Ces%ersen3&
co#%e+ sentences $ith e#%hatic attributive causes 2E. Kruisinga3&
co#%e+ sentences $ith subordinate sub.ect causes 2). "ur#e3
7
.
Any %art of the sentence can thus be #ade %ro#inent and intensified in
its e#%hatic 0uaity. E+a#%es foo$@
a3 t h e s u b . e T t of the sentence@
It ,as not s!e ,ho ,as after the#$ *ut the( after her. 2)as$orthy3
The pro*le# in the *ac)ground of her consciousness ,as ho, to help
hi#$
and she turned the conversation in that direction$ but it was (artin ,ho
ca#e to the point first. 2(ondon3
b3 t h e o b . e c t of the sentence@
-e it was ,ho# the( cheered. 2Bates3
Cf . The( cheered hi#.
1urther e+a#%es are@
It is not only companions!ip he ,ill #iss$ *ut also his *est friends.
It is not t!is picture I disli)e.
c3 the %re%ositiona ob.ect@
It was not t!e results of their e0peri#ents that ,e disapproved of$ *ut
so#e diagra#s 1the results of their e0peri#ent D the rhe#e of the
sentence3.
It ,as not to "eorge Fors(te that the #ind #ust turn for light on the
events of that fog'engulfed afternoon. 2)as$orthy3
... *ut it ,as !is daughter that Soa#es ,anted to ga=e fro# *ehind
5inifred's shoulder. 2)as$orthy3
d3the attributive ad.unct@ It's an ill ,ind that *lo,s
no*od( good +pro=.r-/.
e3 a d verb V a 7 s of ti#e@
It ,as at t!is time that he ,rote letters of en;uir( to the general...
2(ondon3
It ,as then that she sa, ,ith ,ho# she had to deal$ the lad( ,as
undou*tedl( Mrs. Soa#es$ the (oung #an Mr. Cosinne(. 2)as$orthy3
It ,as not until t!ey found t!emseles a second time before t!e $e,
that he said/ <I don't )no, ,h( (ou as)ed #e to co#e$ Fleur. It's pla(ing
the goat for no earthl( reason. 2)as$orthy3 f3 adverbias of #anner@
It ,as t!us that Fran) %lgernon Co,per,ood's Chicago financial
career ,as definitel( launched. 2*reiser3
%as it t!at wit! t!e eyes of fait!, he sa, Cosinne( loo)ing do,n fro#
that high ,indo, in Sloane Street$ straining his e(es for (et another
gli#pse of Irene's vanished figure ... 2)as$orthy3
7
See/ A. /outs#a. A )ra##ar of (ate Modern Engish. /. ;. )roningen& 7=;6G E. Kruisinga. A
Aandbook of /resent,*ay Engish. )roningen& 7=87G ). 5. "ur#e. A )ra##ar of the Engish
(anguage& v. 8. Ne$ York& 7=8<G see also/ |. \. eLOcPMLOJR& . b. WSIZUp. dOL__LWZQL
LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=6>G [. 'yish. The Structure of Modern Engish. M.,(.& 7=6<.
;><
It was t!us simply, that she recorded a scene ,hich had reall( #ade a
deep and co#plicated i#pression on her. 2)as$orthy3
-ith reference to %ersons& sentence,%atterns $ith the %ronoun he or
she are aso co##on.
He would indeed be a cleer #an ,ho could decipher this old
#anuscript.
-e is a good friend ,ho spea)s ,ell of us *ehind our *ac)s 2%roverb3.
The foo$ing co#%arison $ith Russian $i not be out of %ace& in
%assing.
WJW& QJWJOJ_P RUZ_LIL
yh R mJIPUJoUJs WZKZUS&
NX _hTIN MPKS WRJSs KSmWLIL&
Nn pOPTWN Wh T_PWUJ JWpLMLIL&
Ss JYOLl RZMSIL RJ TUS.
WJW& iSs RlJO ULMSMP pPYZW&
WJW& QJpJ UZQWJ US InYZW... 2|SO_JUWJR3
't is aso interesting at this %oint to co#%are the use of Russian and
Ukrainian %artices gWJ& WJ& S& in %atterns ike the foo$ing@
a `Jc dKH Rh lLMP_LIZTNv %!at is it (ou are thin)ing
a*out?
ZEc KH RVU mOJ S OJl_JRIXRv 5ho ,as it that he has spo)en
a*out it to?
J S RZ WPW JY_VOQJRPtWSvv 5hat is it (ou are discussing
here?
1urther e+a#%es are@
\mJiLWQP sJ_P lMLIJTX& oJ S XQLTN VpOLKQL lLmIPWLILTX R
WLQSILV.
eKH cfFE QJWL cJOJUXW.
"f. It is t!e mice that are hurr(ing the cat.
It was for our dear sa#e that he did it. D S WVINQZ MIX ULT RVU S
lOJYZR.
It was of !is #indness that I ,as thin)ing. ` S TL_S mOJ sJpJ
MJYOJWP X MP_LIL.
qzL pOLUZS TS_LUWZQZ Z TZUWLQTZTL ULcJMZWTX PmJWOSYISUZS WLQ
ULlhRLS_JpJ TWZIZTWZiSTQJpJ 2ZUMZRZMPLIZlZOPnoSpJ3 dKHK...1 KHK...
fSTWJZ_SUZS R gWJ_ TIPiLS TJJYoLSW US PQLlLWSINUJS lULiSUZS& L
lULiSUZS QLQJs,WJ g_JZJULINUJ mJMiSOQUPWJs ZlRSTWUJTWZ mOSM_SWL& T
ULlRLUZS_ QJWJOJpJ TJpILTPSWTX@
|nYIn RJZUTWRSUUPn ZRJTWN mJWSKUhc _LOTJRhc mJISs...
|JTQPWNX TZc lUL_SU mJYSMUhc. \ZXUZS KLmJQ gWZc _SMUhc& zLTQRJlN
mOJTWOSISUUhc R YJnwr 2PKQZU3
WLQ gWZ TWOLKUhS mZTN_L& gWZ mIL_SUUhS WOSYJRLUZX& gWJ MSOlQJS
PmJOUJS mOSTISMJRLUZS&D RTS gWJ YhIJ US InYJRN. 2PKQZU3
7
Note. 'nstances are not fe$ $hen this kind of e#%hasis is rendered in
Russian and Ukrainian by using such intensifying adverbs as@ IPJGGE$ HTPJ..
7
|. b. ePILcJRTQZs. POT OPTTQJpJ IZWSOLWPOUJpJ XlhQL& W. 7. .& 7=<;& O. 8;<.
;>6
As a #atter of fact structures $ith it is 1it ,as2 co#bine t$o functions@
e+%ressing syntactic reations of subordination and aying ogica e#%hasis
on $hat is %ro#inent in the s%eaker!s #ind by %acing the $ords
e+%ressing the given idea in an unusua %osition.
Si#iar deveo%#ents $i be found in 1rench. Structures $ith H'est$ c'gtait
...;ui$ ;ue are aso kno$n to co#bine their gra##atica vaue $ith si#iar
styistic traits. /atterns of this kind in 1rench are fairy co##on& e. g.@
C'est le pre#ier pas ;ui co~te.
Cf. )er#an@
.eter ,ar es der #ir alles er=lhlt hat.

't is to be noted that %atterns of this kind are often a ogica conse0uence
of a engthy narration deveo%ing in certain se0uence. The styistic as%ect
of the structure is defined by the conte+t $hich is a$ays e+%icit enough
to #ake the #eaning cear.
!uphe#ia Fors(te$ ,ho happened to *e in the roo# D she had co#e
round to *orro, the Rev. Mr. Scoles' last novel <.assion and .aregoric<$
,hich ,as having such a vogue D chi#ed in.
<I sa, Irene (esterda( at the Stores4< she said< and Mr. Cosinne( ,ere
having a nice little chat in the "roceries.<
It ,as thus$ si#pl($ that she recorded a scene ,hich had reall( #ade a
deep and co#plicated i#pression on her. 2)as$orthy3
:ne nice old general$ going to,ards Cigars$ ,as o*liged to step ;uite
out of the ,a($ and chancing to loo) up and see Mrs. Soa#es' face$ he
actuall( too) off his hat$ the old fool7 So li)e a #an7
&ut it was (rs. Soames' eyes that ,orried !uphe#ia. <She never once
loo)ed at Mr. Cosinne( until he #oved on$ and then she loo)ed after hi#.
%nd$ :h$ that loo)7 2)as$orthy3
As B. 'yish very righty %oints out& there are so#e other %oints to be
#ade concerning the the#atic and rhe#atic anaysis.
The the#e need not necessariy be so#ething kno$n in advance. 'n
#any sentences it is& in fact& so#ething aready fa#iiar& as in so#e of our
e+a#%es& es%eciay $ith the definite artice. Ao$ever& that need not
a$ays be the case. There are sentences in $hich the the#e& too& is
so#ething #entioned for the first ti#e and yet it is not the centre of the
%redication. 't is so#ething about $hich a state#ent is to be #ade. The
the#e is here the starting %oint of the sentence& not its concusion. This
$i be found to be the case& for e+a#%e& in the foo$ing sentence@
9ennie leaned for,ard and touched hi# on the )nee. 2-ison3 $hich is the
o%ening sentence of a short story. Nothing in this sentence can be aready
fa#iiar& as nothing has %receded and the reader does not kno$ either $ho
Cennie is or $ho &&he4 is. -hat are $e& then to say about the the#e and the
rhe#e in this sentencev A%%arenty& there are t$o $ays of deaing $ith this
0uestion. Either $e $i say that 9ennie re%resents the the#e and the rest
of the sentence& leaned for,ard and touched hi# on the )nee$ its rhe#e.
5r ese $e $i say that there is no the#e at a here& that the $hoe of
the sentence re%resents the rhe#e& or %erha%s that the $hoe division
207
into the#e and rhe#e cannot be a%%ied here. Though both vie$s are
%ausibe the first see#s %referabe. -e $i %refer to say that 9ennie
re%resents the the#e& and e#%hasise that the the#e in this case is not
so#ething aready fa#iiar but the starting %oint of the sentence.
ONE;MEMBER SENTENCES
The gra##atica organisation of one,#e#ber sentences has its o$n
traits. Such %atterns shoud naturay be distinguished fro# t$o,#e#ber
sentences $ith either the sub.ect or the %redicate o#itted as the case is
$ith ei%sis in sentence,structure.
Synse#antic in character& one,#e#ber sentences cover a $ide and
#ost varied range of #eanings. The conte+t& inguistic or situationa& is
generay e+%icit enough to #ake the gra##atica content of the sentence
cear.
5ne,#e#ber sentences have no se%arate sub.ect and %redicate but one
4#ain4 ony instead.
't see#s reasonabe to #ake distinction bet$een a3 no#ina or
4na#ing4 sentences and b3 infinitiva sentences.
+o#inal sentences na#e a %erson or thing. They are fairy co##on in
direct address& # so,caed 4$ord,re%resentations4 used to ca u% the
i#age of the ob.ect in the #ind of the readers or the %erson s%oken to.
E+a#%es& easiy #uti%ied& are the foo$ing@
<-ave (ou noticed Co0 I D the lad( in ,hite satin ,ith the green lace
sha,l?<
<\es<. Cerenice raised her glasses.
<Mrs$ Fran) %lgernon Co,per,ood$ the ,ife of the Chicago
#illionaire. 2*reiser3
The #oda #eaning of a%%raisa in one,#e#ber sentences is to a
considerabe e+tent connected $ith the use of noun deter#iners& the
definite artice& in %articuar. Both the artice and the de#onstrative
%ronoun have here s%ecia connotation. "onsider the foo$ing e+a#%es@
T!e restless$ inhu#an$ and (et so hu#an$ angr( sadness of the
creature's e(es7 2)as$orthy3
T!at fello, 5agner had ruined ever(thing4 no #elod( left$ not an(
voices to sing it. %h7 the ,onderful singers7 2)as$orthy3
"T!at ,o#an7< said Soa#es. 2)as$orthy3
Aere again& ike in #any other cases& the subte shares of #oda force
and e#otiona coouring are #ade cear by the conte+t& inguistic or
situationa.
The attribute is often e+%ressed by the of,%hrase& e. g.@
5ould Mr. Mont convince hi#? Ton( ,as sharp7 -er head drooped.
T!e unfairness of it all) So#e had ever(thing to their hand$ li)e that
prett( ,ife of Mr. Mont's. 2)as$orthy3
&on't tal) to #e a*out the countr(. The doctor said I ,as to go there
for si0 ,ee)s last su##er. It nearl( )illed #e$ I give (ou #( ,ord. T!e
noise of it7 2Maugha#3
She could thin) of hi# no, ,ith indifference. She loved hi# no longer.
+!, t!e relief and t!e sense of !umiliation) 2Maugha#3
;>?
+!, t!e s!ame of t!is day) \ou'll *e co#in' ho#e ,ith #e no,.
2*reiser3
'f the head,$ord is a concrete noun the atter is very often used
$ithout attributive ad.uncts. Sentences of this ty%e are fairy co##on.
<5hat a picture<$ cried the ladies<. "+!, t!e duc#s) +!, t!e lambs)
+!, t!e sweets) +!, t!e pets)" 2Mansfied3
Such e#otionay cooured sentences are often used $ith inter.ections
or so#e other $ords introducing or concuding the direct s%eech.
Useless for (oung Roger to sa($ <:ld cat7< D for !uphe#ia to hold up
her hands and cr(/ <:h7 those three7< and *rea) into her silent laugh ,ith
the s;uea) at the end. 2)as$orthy3
No#ina sentences #ay foo$ one another in i##ediate succession&
thus #aking u% a string of co,ordinated no#ina sentences& as for instance@
... % *lue suit$ a velour hat$ so#e *ro,n shoes$ three pairs of soc)s ,ith
t,o holes in the#$ four shirts onl( a little gra(ed at the cuffs$ t,o *lac)'
and',hite ties$ si0 collars$ not t,o ne,$ so#e hand)erchiefs$ t,o vests
*eautifull( thic)$ t,o pairs of pants$ and *ro,n overcoat ,ith a *elt and
3ust t,o or three nice little stains. 2)as$orthy3
Anaogous syntactic structures #ay be traced in Russian and
Ukrainian. "o#%are the foo$ing@
fJTQRL... LQ _UJpJ R gWJ_ lRPQS MIX TSOML OPTTQJpJ TIZIJTN...
2PKQZU3
[SiSOUZS TP_SOQZ. OPmUhs _JQOhs TUSp ISUZRJ QOPZWTX JQJIJ
WJINQJ iWJ lLSUUhc JULOSs. 2ScJR3
[lXR MOPp MOPpL lL OPQZ& _h T _ZUPWP TWJXIZ _JIiL. JOJKLX
_ZUPWL. 2dJONQZs3
SOSM JQUJ_ OLYJiZs iSOWSUhs TWJI. {LMZJ. QOLU. yOZ& iSWhOS
QUZpZ. 2fLXQJRTQZs3
dJTWOZs TWOP_VUN _JOJlUJpJ mJRVWOX ... JTXXUV R MJ_Lc RVQUL...
iZTN pJIJTZ... MlRVUQZ lRJoZQL... TWSOSZTNw RVU JmZUZRTX P pIPcVs&
YSlInMUVs RPIZV. 2JnYZUTNQZs3
\WSmZ V TWSmZ... eSlIVTUZs& WOLpViUJ YSllLcZTUZs QOLs&
mSOSmJRUSUZs ULM_VOJ_ TJUX V TRVWIL. 2dJUiLO3
'n )ra##ar books one,#e#ber sentences are often referred to as
ei%tica& $ith so#e ite#s 4understood4 or 4fet as #issing4. This&
ho$ever& #ust be taken $ith #uch reservation& since it is not a$ays
%ossibe to su%%y the #issing %art fro# the i##ediate syntactic
environ#ent& and there is insufficient .ustification for taking ei%sis into
account.
No#ina sentences #ay be coordinated and #ake u% a co#%osite
structure $ith the i#%ication of various adverbia reations& causa or
resutative& in %articuar& signaed by the conte+t& situationa of inguistic&
the e+ica #eaning of $ords& in %articuar& e. g.@
%h7 5ell7 %nother long heartache in the ,orld D .oor &inn(7
2)as$orthy3
Moda #eanings are kno$n to be e+%ressed by structura ee#ents of
different inguistic eves. 'ndicating so#e kind of attitude of the s%eaker
concerning the reaity of $hat is e+%ressed in %redication& #odaity is& in
fact& a reguar structura feature of any sentence.
;>=
The sa#e is true of one,#e#ber sentences. 'n these ter#s $e
distinguish@
2a3 4"assica4 no#ina sentences na#ing an ob.ect of reaity& asserting
or denying its being. This is the sa#e kind of #odaity as $e find in t$o
#e#ber verba sentences $hen %redication is e+%ressed by the verb,for#
of the 'ndicative Mood. "o#%are the foo$ing for iustration@
<% *lac) night<$ #aster.
Cf. It is a *lac) night.
The t$o sentence,%atterns given above are gra##aticay synony#ous@
the for#er is a verbess one,#e#ber sentence& the atter a t$o,#e#ber
one. -e cannot fai to see that both assert a rea fact.
1urther e+a#%es foo$@
%nd Soa#es held out his hand. % distracted s;uee=e$ a heav( sigh$ and
soon after sounds fro# the (oung #an's #otor c(cle called up vision of
fl(ing dust and *ro)en *ones. 2)as$orthy3
% distant flash$ a lo, ru#*le$ and large drops of rain spattered on the
thatch a*ove hi#. 2)as$orthy3
5hat a life7 5hat a life7 ,as her one thought. 2*reiser3
<M( ,ife$ .rofessor<. 2)as$orthy3
She re#e#*ered Sir La,rence's ,ords/ <5ere there not$ #( dear? Most
valua*le fello,s7< 2)as$orthy3
2b3 5ne,#e#ber sentences e+%ressing co##and D styistic
aternatives of the '#%erative Mood@
<Silence ,o#an7< said Mr. [en,igs$ fiercel(...<I ,on't *e silent<$
returned the nurse. <Ce silent (ourself$ (ou ,retch<. 2*reiser3
The t$o sentences 1Silence7 ` Ce silent72 are identica in their gra##atica
content but differ in stye and e#%hatic vaue. "onsider aso the foo$ing
e+a#%e@ <Silence there$ ,ill (ou7< says the beade. 2*ickens3 The addition
of ,ill (ou in the ast e+a#%e intensifies the #eaning of a categorica
co##and as i#%ied by the no#ina sentence.
2c3 5ne,#e#ber $ish,sentences.
The e#otiona coouring of such $ish sentences can be intensified by
inter.ections& e. g.@
:h$ the fine clothes$ the handso#e ho#es$ the ,atches$ rings$ pins that
so#e *o(s sported4 the dandies #an( (ouths of (ears ,ere. 2*reiser3
2d3 5ne,#e#ber sentences of hy%othetica #odaity@
The ano#alous and unprotected nature of a roo# ,here one ,as nut
)no,n. The loo) of it. Su*se;uent e0planation to her #other and sister
#a(*e. 2*reiser3
&i==il($ I lauded #( )nuc)less once #ore again on "avin's *uttons.
&a==ling$ lights$ shouts$ roc)ets$ in the s)(... -ele('s co#et$ perhaps7
2"ronin3
% scandal7 % possi*le scandal7 2)as$orthy3
9ohn... heard a car drive up. The la,(ers again a*out so#e nonsense.
2)as$orthy3
2e3 5ne,#e#ber conditiona sentences. "ondition and conse0uence are
contracted to each other& the for#er is e+%ressed by a no#ina one,
#e#ber sentence and the atter by a t$o,#e#ber one. Reaity or irreaity
$i be indicated by the #ood in $hich the verb of the t$o,#e#ber
sentence is used in the given conte+t.
;7>
INFINITI'AL SENTENCES
'n ter#s of gra##atica organisation infinitiva sentences shoud
reasonaby be subdivided into one,#e#ber and t$o,#e#ber sentences.
The t$o grou%s #ay $e be iustrated by the foo$ing e+a#%es@
2a3 To be unwordly and -uite good) -o, ne,7 -o, e0citing7... To be
one ,ho lived to #a)e people happ(. 2)as$orthy3
2b3 That fello, to tal# of in?uries) 2)as$orthy3
'n t$o,#e#ber sentences the infinitive is %receded by a noun or a
nouna %hrase.
'nfinitiva sentences are fairy co##on in s%oken Engish and iterary
%rose.
(ike other units of %redicative vaue& they can co##unicate not ony
their denotative #eaning but aso the connotative suggestions of various
circu#stances of their use.
The conte+t& inguistic or situationa& and intonation in actua s%eech
$i a$ays be e+%icit enough to #ake the necessary #oda #eaning
cear.
%u*re( "reen thre, up his hands. <%h7 That ,hite #on)e( D to !ae
painted t!at) 2)as$orthy3
There are interrogative infinitiva sentences& e. g.@
5h( ,aste ti#e?
5h( not sta(
here?
A suggestion #ade in such infinitiva sentences #ay be re.ected as
i#%ossibe 2ne+us of de%recation3.
5e surrender? +ever7
'n ter#s of stye and %ur%ose& infinitiva sentences #erit attention as
synony#icay reated to sentences $ith finite verb,for#s. 'dentica in
their gra##atica content& such synony#s differ in styistic vaue& and
#oda force. "o#%are the foo$ing@
Infinitival sentences Sentences ,ith finite ver*'for#s
To have *rought Fleur do,n
openl( D (es7 Cut to snea) her li)e
this7 2)as$orthy3
I could have *rought Fleur
do,n openl( D (es7 Cut ho, can I
snea) her li)e this7
.oor fello,7 5hat a thing to
have !ad hanging over his head all
the ti#e. 2*reiser3
.oor fello,7 5hat a thing had
*een hanging over his head all the
ti#e.
... 5ould he have hesitated
then? +ot a #o#ent7 :perate$
operate7 Ma)e certain of her life7
2)as$orthy3
...The( #ust operate$ #a)e
certain of her life.
% host to snatch food fro# a
guest7 % host to stri)e a guest7 %
gentle#an to stri)e a lad(7
2Bennett3
-o, can a host snatch food
fro# a guest? -o, can a host stri)e
a guest? -o, can a gentle#an
stri)e a lad(?
211
Suc! midgets to !ae made t!is
monstrous pile, lighted it so that it shone in
an enor#ous glittering heap$ ,hose glo,
*lurred the colour of the s)(7 2)as$orthy3
-o, could 'such #idgets have #ade this
#onstrous pile lighted it so that... Cf. S(n.
That such #idgets should have #ade this
#onstrous pile and lighted it so that...7
It see#ed to hi# unfair. To !ae ta#en
t!at ris# M to !ae been t!roug! t!is
agony M and w!at agony) M for a
daug!ter) 2)as$orthy3
It see#ed to hi# unfair. -o, could he have
ta)en that ris)...
ELLIPSIS
Ei%sis in sentence,structure is a natura syntactic %rocess in inguistic
deveo%#ent %resented as nor#a %ractices in #any& if not a& anguages.
Huite a nu#ber of ei%tica %atterns are shortcuts in syntactic usage
fi+ed as a for# of inguistic econo#y by right of ong usage.
'n ter#s of traditiona gra##ar& ei%tica sentences are generay
identified as sentences $ith the sub.ect or %redicate #issing. So#e
gra##arians hod another %oint of vie$ recognising ei%sis aso in
sentences $here the secondary %arts of the sentence are fet as #issing.
Such $as A. M. /eshkovsky! s treat#ent of ei%tica sentences in Russian
7
.
Si#iar state#ents $i be found in (. S. Barkhudarov!s and *. A.
ShteVng!s gra##ar book 27=983.
-hat is fet as i#%icit in ei%tica sentences #ay be su%%ied fro#@
a3 the i##ediate conte+t& e. g.@ <-o,
,as the pla(?< she in;uired.
<Ver( good$< returned -urst,ood. 2*reiser3
<Cold.$ isn't it?< said the earl( guest. <Rather<.
2*reiser3
b3 reevance to a co#%ete gra##atica construction of a given %attern& e.
g.@
<&oing ,ell$ I suppose?<
<!0cellent.<
<"lad to hear it.< 2*reiser3
Ei%sis of a e+e#e or constructions 2or even %arts of constructions3
#ust surey be recognised in the anaysis of sentences.
'n ter#s of structure& distinction $i be #ade bet$een the foo$ing
ty%es of ei%tica sentences@
a3 o#ission of the sub.ect@
Loo)s to #e for all the ,orld li)e an alf'ta#e leopard. 2)as$orthy3
b3 o#ission of the %redicate in %atterns $ith there is$ there are$ e. g.@
7
A. M. S K Q J R T Q Z s . {PTTQZs TZUWLQTZT R ULPiUJ_ JTRSoSUZZ. f.& 7=<6.
See also/ |. \. e L O c P M L O J R . \WOPQWPOL mOJTWJpJ mOSMIJSUZX TJROS_SUUJpJ
LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=66.
;7;
-e shoo) a thic) finger at the roo#/ <Too #an( ,o#en no,ada(s$ and
the( don't )no, ,hat the( ,ant. 2)as$orthy3
Soa#es stole a glance. +o #ove#ent in his ,ife's face. 2)as$orthy3
<+othing li)e dissecting to give one an appetite<$ said Mr. Co*
Sa,e(er.
2*ickens3
c3 o#ission of au+iiary& co%uative and other function verbs& e. g.@
\ou going to ta)e Irene? 2!)as$orthy3
d3 o#ission of the sub.ect and au+iiary verb& e. g.@ Mean to tell #e (ou
didn't )no,?
Re#e#*er that *o(? Sta(ing ,ith #( father? "oing to #arr( hi#? <-allo$
Michael7 I'# rather late. Ceen to the Clu* and ,al)ed ho#e<.
2)as$orthy3
e3 o#ission of the sub.ect and the co%ua,verb& e. g.@ ' don't ,rite. +ot
such a fool. 2)as$orthy3
I don't *elieve I should have done it at (our age D too #uch of a
Fors(te$ I'# afraid. 2)as$orthy3
<-o,'s (our ,ife?< D <Than)s<$ said Soa#es coldl($ <,ell enough<.
2)as$orthy3
So#e of the above given ty%es of ei%tica sentences have beco#e
reguar idio#atic e+%ressions& e. g.@ coo0uia See? for &o (ou see?
That do? 1D ,ill that do?2
See (ou again to#orro, 1D I shall see (ou again to#orro,2.
<I tried it$ *ut it nearl( #ade #e leave.<
<+ot #e. I'# nearl( ten$ see?< -e dre, a half'pound *ar of chocolate
fro# his *ac) poc)et/ <Ta)e a *it. %nd *rea) #e a piece off as ,ell<.
2Siitoe3
But certain restrictions are reasonaby to be %aced on the recognition
of ei%sis& in genera& since there is often the danger that $e #ay base
so#e %art of our anaysis on 4understood4 ite#s in a conte+t $here there is
itte reason for taking ei%sis into account.
'#%erative sentences& for instance& are generay e+%ressed $ith no
sub.ectG and even $hen a sub.ect is e+%ressed in such sentences& the
sub.ect #ay be so#e*od( or an(*od( rather than (ou$ e. g.@
So#e*od( fetch a piece of chal).
To treat co##ands& therefore& as sentences fro# $hich the sub.ect (ou
has been o#itted $oud be erroneous. "o##ands and re0uests see# to be
#ore reasonaby described by stating that they are sub.ectess sentences in
$hich one of a very restricted nu#ber of %ossibe sub.ects #ay on
occasion be inserted.
't $oud be %robaby erroneous to say that $hen a s%eaker induges in
$hat gra##aticay #ay be referred to as ei%sis& he has a$ays a cear
idea of $hat he o#its or negects to e+%ress. 't is #ore ikey that the
s%eaker very often has no definite idea of $hat he is o#itting D indeed&
that he $oud rather not be forced to render the idea or thought too
carefuy and e+acty.
'f& then& in such cases ei%sis shoud be assu#ed& it is because in each
instance the co#%ete gra##atica construction $oud re0uire #oreG it
cannot be assu#ed that the s%eaker $oud necessariy fi out his
construction& even in his o$n #ind.
;78
The first to be #entioned here are sentences %resented by %redicatives
$ithout a verb& e. g.@ Splendid7 Char#ing7 Ceautiful7
't is often said that in a these sentences the ink,verb is 1are$ ,as$
,ere2 is understood& but this %oint of vie$ gives no rea e+%anation of the
%heno#enon. -e #ust& in a %robabiity& ad#it such %atterns as a definite
gra##atica ty%e& fairy co##on not ony in Engish but in other
anguages.
There are ei%tica sentences containing a sub.ect and a %redicative&
$hich #ay be either a noun or an ad.ective e. g.@
Michael not cheerful? 2)as$orthy3
Such structures are co##on in anguages $hich have not deveo%ed a
co%ua& i. e. a verb #eaning to *e$ as $e as in anguages $hich have a
co%ua but do not use it as e+tensivey as& for instance& Engish. 'n Russian
and Ukrainian this is the ordinary sentence,%attern& e. g.@ aU lLUXW. aU
lMJOJR. [JUL oLTIZRL. [VU lMJOJRZs& etc.
By eaving out $hat #ay see# su%erfuous one creates the i#%ression
of hurry or stress of business $hich does not ao$ ti#e enough to round
off one!s sentence in the usua $ay. 't is aso of i#%ortance that %roverbs
and %roverbia sayings shoud be easy to re#e#ber and therefore not too
ong& e. g.@ 5hen angr($ count a hundred. 5hen at Ro#e$ do as Ro#ans
do.
5bserve aso the foo$ing co##on sentence %atterning@
-e ,ill have his o,n ,a($ no #atter ,hat the conse;uences.
-o,ever great the danger$ he is al,a(s fearless.
+ever$ no #atter ,hat the circu#stances$ #ust he dare to do such
things.
Aere $e have reay a doube occurrence of the %heno#enon in
0uestion. +o #atter is a %re%osed %redicative $ithout is& and in the cause
$hich for#s its sub.ect& $hat is aso a %redicative to the conse0uences&
etc.& $hich for#s the sub.ect of the cause.
/ecuiar is the use of isoated %redicatives $ith and$ e. g.@
-e ,as such a success (esterda($ and no ,onder.
-e #a( go and ,elco#e. %nd a good riddance too7
\ou ,ere angr($ and s#all *la#e to (ou.
Not ess characteristic are reduced causes of co#%arison@
The greater the loss$ the #ore persistent the( ,ere.
The #ore haste$ the less speed.
'n a such cases the fact that so#ething is eft out shoud not %revent
us fro# recognising the utterance as sufficienty co#%ete to be caed a
sentence.
-e had gone up and do,n the stairs perhaps a hundred ti#es in those
t,o da(s$ and often fro# the da( nurser($ ,here he slept no,$ had stolen
into his #other's roo#$ loo)ed at ever(thing$ ,ithout touching$ and on into
the dressing'roo#...
Then rapidl( to the door$ do,n the steps$ out into the street and
,ithout loo)ing to right or left into the auto#o*ile. 2)as$orthy3
A feeing of terseness and of vigour is aso %roduced by the o#ission
of verbs in such fi+ed %atterns of usage as@
+eedless to sa($ facts are stu**orn things.
-o, naught( of hi# to sa( so7
;7:
'n the sa#e $ay the sub.ect #ay be e+%ressed by a gerund& e. g.@
+o use cr(ing over spilt #il).
+o good doing such things.
Very often the sub.ect that foo$s the %redicative is a $hoe cause& e.
g.@
S#all ,onder that ,e all li)ed it i##ensel(.
5hat a pit( ,e have #issed the train7
/atterns ike the foo$ing@ +o$ he didn't. 5h($ hasn't he? are referred
by R. (. Aen 4se#i,sentences4.
Such sentence,%atterns sedo# occur as the first utterance in
conversation. They are fairy co##on in 4tag4,0uestions 1\ou don't )no,
Mr. .$ do (ou?2 and in short ans$ers 1+o$ I don't2.
*istinction $i be #ade here bet$een finite and non,finite sentences@
+o$ I don't. 5h($
didn't she? :h$ caught
in the act? :n (our
,a( ho#e? %*out to
go there?
/erha%s the #ost i#%ortant difference bet$een finite se#i,sentences
and non,finite ones is that the for#er sho$ ti#e,orientation& $hereas the
atter do not.
'ERBLESS TWO;MEMBER SENTENCES
Verbess t$o,#e#ber sentences are fairy co##on in #any anguages.
-e do not find here ony %oints of coincidence but aso s%ecific features
characteristic of any given anguage $ith its o$n %atterns of for#ation and
its o$n ty%es of structura units.
The inguistic essence of such sentence,%atterns has been differenty
treated by gra##arians. 'n books devoted to teaching gra##ar they are
often referred to as 4non,sentences4& 4#inor4 sentences or 4%hrases4
functioning as co##unicative units in s%ite of the absence of the finite
for# of the verb.
According to 5. Ces%ersen and R. (ong& here beong aso %atterns $ith
4ne+us of de%recation4.
The fre0uency vaue of such syntactic units in Modern Engish is
rather high. 'n ter#s of '"!s anaysis& they #ay be divided into t$o ty%es@
S/ and /S& each of the# characterised by various structura ee#ents.
T(pe S.. The %redicate 2/3 #ay be e+%ressed by nouns& nouna grou%s&
infinitives or %artici%es& e. g.@
%n(thing the #atter$ Michael? 2)as$orthy3
+e0t stop D the Critish Museu#?
5eather to sta( cold?
\our turn to spea).
Coth engaged?
"one7 The scent of geraniu# fading4 the little dog snuffling.
2)as$orthy3
;7<
% tre#or of insecurit( ,ent through her. The Future$ ho,$ ho,
uncharted7 2)as$orthy3
Co,per,ood$ the liar7 Co,per,ood$ the snea)7 2*reiser3
"uard's van no, D the tail light D alt spread D a cri#son *lue D
setting !ast D going D going D gone7 2)as$orthy3
5a( of the ,orld D one #an's #eat$ another's poison7 2'bid.3
T(pe .S. 'n %atterns of this ty%e %redicate 2/3 #ay be e+%ressed by
nouns& nouna grou%s& and a other non,con.ugated ee#ents of the
%redicate@ 73 %ronouns& ;3 %rono#ina adverbs& 83 %artici%ia %hrases. :3
infinitives& infinitiva %hrases& etc.
Fl(ing a )ite$ (ou$ a gro,n #an?
Fair gone on each other$ those t,o.
9ust to sta( here$ the t,o of us.
Cad to stic)$ sir. Sorr(7 2)as$orthy3
-e hurried along$ al#ost running$ his e(es searching for a ca*. +one
to *e had7 2)as$orthy3
-o, ridiculous to run and feel happ(7
-o, long until dinner?
5hat a*out (our o,n ,ords?
% rather char#ing garden here7
5h( not go?
5h( not?
A %atterns of this ty%e are t$o,#e#ber sentences. The absence of
attributive reations bet$een their adno#ina and no#ina #e#bers #ay
easiy be %roved by their structura and se#antic traits as $e as
#oduation features. The se#antic vaue of the structure is often %roved by
the#atic and rhe#atic anaysis.
'n ter#s of structure& $e distinguish the foo$ing %ecuiarities of
verbess sentences@
73 the %rono#ina #e#ber is not a %ossessive %ronoun. 'ndicating
%ersons or things in actua s%eech& %ronouns are #ost co##ony used as
substitutes for na#es and as such generay do not need attributive
ad.uncts.
-ords characterising %ronouns are therefore %redicative 2not
attributive3 in their function& e. g.@
S/@ \ou loo)ing a *a*( of a thing this #orning7 /S@
5onderful civilit( this7 ^uite serious all this7
;3 the %resence of ee#ents irreevant to attributive reations& such as&
for instance& the adverbia ad.unct ho,$ e. g.@
-o, anno(ing having to stand all the ,a( ho#e in the *us7
83 the %resence or inter%ositiona adverbia ee#ents& #oda $ords or
negative %artices& as in@
Co#plete Lo,'Cost -o#e Training Course no, %vaila*le.
\our cousin$ pro*a*l($ en3o(ing herself7
:3 the use of the artice@ Rot the stuff7
5h( the terrific hurr(7
;76
The attributive or non,attributive character of the adno#ina #e#ber #ay
de%end on its %osition as to the no#ina one. Thus& for instance& in %atterns
ike +o roo# read( the reations bet$een roo# and read( are not
attributive& because read( does not go %atterning as a %ost,%ositiona
attribute.
/atterns ike +ice furs here are aso t$o,#e#ber sentences because the
adverb here #ay be re%aced by the de#onstrative %ronoun.
Verbess t$o,#e#ber sentences abound not ony in iterature but in
s%oken Engish as $e. As coud be seen& they are not necessariy ei%tica
sentences& for very often no une+%ressed %art is i#%ied. -e often find
the# in a aconic& e+ca#atory or other$ise e#%hatic stye.
-riters use the# as a #eans to #ake ideas stand out in vivid& cear
reief.
S&BSTIT&TION AND REPRESENTATION
A recurrent feature of #any anguages is the so,caed ,u-,titution and
r.pr.,.ntation. The reguarities of these syntactic %rocesses as
i##ediatey reevant to the %robe# of sentence,%atterning #erit s%ecia
consideration in the theory of Engish structure $ith its o$n traits different
fro# %ractice in other anguages.
5bservations on the functiona use of the verbs *e$ do$ have$ shall
1should2$ ,ill 1,ould2$ can 1could2$ #a( 1#ight2$ #ust$ ought$ need and
dare$ used to$ %rono#ina $ords such as one$ it$ that$ such$ so$ and the
%artices not and to give sufficient gra##atica evidence to distinguish
bet$een substitution and re%resentation as gra##atica idio#aticity in this
%art of Modern Engish structure.
Syntactic structures $ith substitution are& in fact& fi+ed %atterns of
co#%ete sentences& a$ays ana%horic in character& as distinguished fro#
re%resentation resuting fro# non,ana%horic o#ission or ei%sis.
To avoid the re%etition of a $ord that has aready been used in the
sentence $e often use another $ord $hich readiy suggests the #eaning of
the given one. This is substitution& $hich #ay be $e iustrated& for
instance& by the use of the %ro%,$ord one re%acing a %receding noun in
%atterns ike the foo$ing@ .oor little ra**it7 It ,as such a little one.
"osey reated to substitution is re%resentation& but the t$o %rocesses
of re%acing syntactic structures are not 0uite identica.
Re%resentation see#s to be inter#ediate bet$een ei%sis and
substitution. 'n ei%sis a $hoe syntactic unit is eft off and #ade i#%icit&
in re%resentation ony a %art of the syntactic unit is eft off& the other
re#ains and stands for the $hoe. Re%resentation is syste#atic in character
and as such is i#ited by rather a s#a nu#ber of syntactic %atterns.
Substitution and re%resentation are cosey akin but not absoutey
identica.
'n actua s%eech a sentence #ay be reduced to a singe $ord,for#
$hich $i suffice for co##unication e+%ressing the necessary #eaning in
a given consituation. This #ay be a noun& an ad.ective& a nu#era or
%ronoun& a verb or #oda $ords& an adverb or an inter.ection and $ords of
affir#ation and negation.
;79
Aere is an interesting e+a#%e of a non,a%horistic ei%sis $here the
necessary #eaning is #ade cear by consituation@
<5here to?<
<Class.<
<Math?<
<+o$ Spanish.<
<In a hurr(?<
<Rather.<
<5hat for?<
<%l#ost ten<
<5ell$ as long. Call #e up<
1
.
The true substitute verb is the verb to do.
As a $ord of a #ost generaised sense& do can stand for any verb&
e+ce%t *e and #oda verbs. Used in this function& do $i readiy substitute@
a3 the affir#ative for#s of the /resent and /ast 2"o##on As%ect3& b3 the
anaytica verb,for#s 2/resent /erfect and /ast /erfect3& c3 the '#%erative
Mood.
Most idiosyncratic in its character& do can aso function as an au+iiary,
re%resenting verb. 'n this structura variety its use is restricted to the
negative for#s of the /resent and /ast 2"o##on As%ect3 and the negative
for# of the '#%erative Mood.
The t$o uses of the verb do$ as functionay different& #ay be $e
iustrated by the foo$ing e+a#%es@ Substitution@
<&o (ou #ean that (ou are going to #a)e hi# pa( that to,ards this
hateful house?' D <I do<. 2)as$orthy3
<5ell$ he ta)es good care of hi#self$ I can't afford to ta)e the care of
#(self that he does<. 2)as$orthy3
<Then I shall ta)e steps to #a)e (ou<. D <&o.<. 2)as$orthy3 <&id (ou
thin) I dropped #( hand)erchief on purpose?< D <+o<$ cried 9on$
intensel( shoc)ed.
<5ell$ I did$ of course<. 2)as$orthy3
<\ou sa( so not *ecause (ou care a*out #e or have done since I ca#e
here<. 2Mitche3
Re%resentation@
I ,ish I could travel #ore fre;uentl($ *ut I don't. ...<\ou never sa, Coris
Stru#olovs)(?< ] <+o<.]<5ell$ don't<. 2)as$orthy3
...<%nd (ou did not #eet her pla(ing golf or tennis or out riding<? D 4'
did not<. 2)as$orthy3
Verb,re%resentation is fairy co##on in %atterns $ith the verbs to
have and to *e in any function& e. g.@
<-ave (ou *een through #( flat?< he as)ed$ pointing to the curtain that
divided his sleeping ;uarters fro# the section ,here the( ,ere. <+o$ I
haven't<. 2)ordon3
7
See/ A. A. Marek$ardt. 'ntroduction to the Engish (anguage. Ne$ York& 7=<>& %. 7:6.
;7?
1a#iiar e+a#%es of re%resentation $i be found& for instance& in the use
of an au+iiary or #oda verb instead of an anaytica verb,for# or a #oda
%hrase of $hich it is %art& e. g.@
Mont caught a little cra*$ and ans,ered/ <That ,as a nast( one7<
<.lease ro,7<
<I a#<. 2)as$orthy3
... <Cut ,h( not tell the#? The( can't reall( stop us$ Fleur7< <The( can7
I tell (ou$ the( can<. 2)as$orthy3
1unction verbs beco#e thus se0uence,signas by referring back to
s%ecific fu verbs or verb,headed structures in the %receding sentence.
Soa#es too) so#e deep *reaths$ savouring it$ as one #ight an old
,ine. 2)as$orthy3
<5as 5ilfrid here to'night?<
<\es] no. That is ''''''''''4
-is hands clutched each other4 he sa, her e(es$ fi0 on the#$ and )ept
the# still.
<Fleur$ don't<.
<I'# not. -e ca#e to the ,indo, there...< 2)as$orthy3
The infinitive %artice to and the negator not #ay function si#iary@
She ,as all vitalit(. 5hat a fine catch for so#e (oung fello, so#e da($
and her father ,ould #a)e hi# rich$ no dou*t$ or help to. 2*reiser3
4'f (ou send #e a,a( no,$ I shall go.<
<That's ,hat I ,ant to.<
<:nce I shouldn't have. I should have co#e *ac) and apologised. I
shan't do that no,$ if (ou get rid of #e.< <I don't e0pect (ou to<$ I said.
2"h. Sno$3
...<\ou need at least si0 #onths doing a*solutel( nothing$ and feeding
as ,ell as (ou can D (ou're definitel( undernourished D and ,ithout a
,orr( in (our head.<
<Instead of ,hich$< I said$ <in a #onth's ti#e I ta)e the #ost i#portant
e0a#ination of #( career.<
<I should advise (ou not to.< 2"h. Sno$3
And here is an e+a#%e to iustrate the use of the ana%horic $ord,
substitute so/
So Martin thought$ and so he spo)e ,hen Crissenden urged hi# to give
the# hell. 2(ondon3
.. .5ith her chee) to his she said ;uietl(/
<&o (ou ,ant #e to *e ever(thing to (ou *efore (ou #arr( #e? If so$ I
can<. 2)as$orthy3
-ith reference to the no#ina %art of a %redicate& so is used $ith verbs
ike to *e 2es%eciay in its non,finite for#s3& to re#ain$ to see#4 it #ay
aso occur as a %redicative ad.unct to an ob.ect& and i##ediatey after an
adverb.
-e had *een ,ea) *ut he ,ill *e so no longer.
&rouet's inco#e ,as insufficient$ and li)el( to re#ain so.
So is si#iary used after verbs ike to sa($ to tell$ to thin)$ to hope$ to
suppose$ to *elieve$ etc. 'n this case it refers to the $hoe of a %receding
sentence.
<The ne, #anager is not as good as ,e e0pected<.D <5ell$ I told (ou
so *ut (ou ,ould not *elieve #e<.
;7=
<5ill (our sister *e co#ing to'night?< D 4' thin) so<.
<It ,ould *e nice if the doctor ,ould let #e go out ne0t Sunda(.D Let's
hope so<.
<Is the last train gone?< D <\es$ I'# afraid so<.
"o#%are the foo$ing e+a#%es $ith it and that/
The child is nine (ears old$ though (ou'd hardl( thin) it.
-e thin)s the ,ar ,ill *e over *efore Christ#as.D The( all thin) that.
So occasionay %recedes the sub.ect of one of these verbs.
5e never got on ver( ,ell together.D So she told #e.
'n concusion& attention #ay be caed to the use of so after if.
As in the %revious construction& so here refers to a %receding sentence.
'n the negative its %ace is taken by not.
-e #a( *e innocent$ if so$ ,h( did he give hi#self up? If not$ ,h(
didn't he try to escape?
Si#iary ho, so? ,h( so?
't $i be i#%ortant to observe that syntactic structures $ith
substitution are& in fact& fi+ed %atterns of co#%ete sentences& a$ays
ana%horic in character& as distinguished fro# re%resentation resuting fro#
non,ana%horic o#ission and ei%sis.
INTENSIT( AND EMPHASIS
IN ENGLISH SENTENCE;STR&CT&RE
E+%ressive nuances and intensity of #eaning can be obtained in any
anguage by inguistic devices of different eves@ %honetic& #or%hoogica&
syntactic and %hraseoogica& by $ord,buiding and s%ecia intensive
$ords. A these can function as e+%edients to %roduce e#otive and ogica
intensity of the utterance. So#e of such intensifying for#s& estabished by
ong use in the anguage and recognised by their se#antic vaue and
%ur%ose& are registered in good dictionaries as intensifiers or intensives. 'n
#ost cases they have their neutra synony#ic aternatives.
/honetic #eans are #ost %o$erfu in e+%ressive connotation. The
hu#an voice can a$ays give the necessary %ro#inence to the utterance&
indicating such subte shades of #eaning that %erha%s no other #eans can
actuaise. Moduation features& intonation and stress& %ausation& dra$ing&
$his%ering and other $ays of using the voice are kno$n to be #ost
effective in intensifying the utterance ogicay or e#otionay.
A #a.or ob.ect in stye is to ca the attention of the reader in a forcibe
$ay to the #ost i#%ortant %art of the sub.ect D in other $ords& to give
e#%hasis to $hat is e#%hatic& and to #ake $hat is striking and i#%ortant
strike the eye and #ind of the reader.
The %osition of $ords and syntactic structures reative to one another
%resents 0uite a s%ecia interest. But intensity and e#%hasis can aso be
%roduced in other $ays. The seection of such inguistic devices is a factor
of great significance in the act of co##unication. This %art of synta+ in
any anguage is a source of constant inguistic interest. Syntactic structures
are subte and deicate in their different shades of #eaning& and it is not
a$ays easy to find the ones that e+%ress %recisey $hat $e $ant to say. 't
is ony a #atter of having a good co##and of anguage and a fairy $ide
vocabuaryG it is aso necessary to think hard and to observe accuratey.
220
There is natura tendency in any anguage to deveo% its e#otiona and
affective #eans of e+%ression. -e cannot fai to see that there are not ony
%oints of coincidence here but s%ecific features characteristic of any given
anguage $ith its o$n %atterns of for#ations and its o$n ty%es of
structura units. '#%ortant treat#ents of the sub.ect have been #ade by
#any schoars.
'ntensity and e#%hasis can be e+%ressed& for instance& by functiona
re,evauation and trans%osition of various syntactic structures& by s%ecia
gra##atica idio#s D fi+ed %atterns of usage& by idio#atic sentence,
%atterns.
5bservations on the conte+tua use of various %atterns furnish
nu#erous e+a#%es of re,inter%retation of syntactic structures by $hich
$e #ean styistic trans%ositions resuting in neutraisation of the %ri#ary
gra##atica #eaning of the given inguistic unit. The 4asy##etric
duais# of the inguistic sign4
7
a%%ears to be natura and is fairy co##on
at different eves of any anguage.
The inguistic #echanis#& %rosodic features& in %articuar& $ork
naturay in #any $ays to %revent a#biguity in such %atterns of
gra##atica structure.
A #a.or interest is %resented& for instance& by 4ne+us of de%recation4
$ith the i#%icit e+%ression of negation in sentences $ithout 4negative4
$ords& or the use of negative structures $ith the i#%ication of affir#ative
e#%hatic assertion.
Rhetorica 0uestions are not i#ited by conversationa diaogues. They
are fairy co##on in #onoogues of various genres D %ubicist& iterary
%rose& scientific Engish and oratory $here they are not intended to eicit
an ans$er but are inserted for rhetorica effect to dra$ the attention of the
hearer to$ards the contents of the utterance.
Schoars are not agreed at this %oint of anaysis. So#e gra##arians
hod the vie$ that rhetorica 0uestions i#%y a disguised assertion
;
& others
e#%hasise that a rhetorica 0uestion %resu%%oses a negative ans$er and is
in fact a s%ecia for# of negation. Rhetorica 0uestions are so#eti#es
referred to as structures i#%ying both assertion and negation.
A%%eation to the hearer i#%ied in interrogative sentences& in
genera& #akes the rhetorica 0uestion a #ost effective #eans to e+%ress
intensity of feeing in coourfu ivey s%eech@
4' never see hi# doing an( ,or) there<$ continued -arris$ <,henever I
go in. -e sits *ehind a *it of glass all da($ tr(ing to loo) as if he ,as
doing so#ething. 5hat's the good of a #an *ehind a *it of glass? I have
to ,or) for #( living. 5h( can't he ,or)? 5hat use is he there$ and ,hat
the good of their *an)s?.. 5hat is the good of that? 2Cero#e K. Cero#e3
Could a #an o,n an(thing prettier than this dining'ta*le ,ith its deep
lints$ the starr($ soft'patelled roses$ the ru*('coloured glass$ and ;uaint
1
See/ S. LrTevsQP. *u duais#e asy#tri0ue du signe inguisti0ue. T"(/& 7& 7=;=.
;
See/ . {. dLINmSOZU. aiSOQZ mJ TWZIZTWZQS LUpIZsTQJpJ XlhQL. f.& 7=<?.
;;7
silver furnishing4 could a #an o,n an(thing prettier than the ,o#an
sitting at it? 2)as$orthy3
'n %atterns $ith 4i#%ied4 or non,gra##atica negation the connection
bet$een the t$o sentence ee#ents is brushed aside as i#%ossibeG the
#eaning is thus negative $hich is the sa#e as 0uestions& often in an
e+aggerated for# or not infre0uenty given to the t$o sentence ee#ents
se%aratey& e. g.@
<&arling$ it ,as ver( har#less<.
<-ar#less7 Much (ou )no, ,hat's har#less and ,hat isn't<.
Fleur dropped her ar#s. 2)as$orthy3
<Mr. Copperfield ,as teaching her. Much he )ne, of it hi#self<
2*ickens3
C( the front door the #aid ,as as)ing/
<Shall (ou *e *ac) to dinner$ sir?<
<&inner7< #uttered Soa#es$ and ,as gone. 2)as$orthy3
Cf. q[h _SUX UhUiS TJRTS_ Zl_PiZIZr& D qL_JIiZ OLMZ YJpLr.
2JIZUL3 D qLQ S MJZMLsTX& YPMP X _JIiLWNwr 2z. aTWOJRTQZs3
qL iSpJ Wh OLTTSOMZITX WLQ pJOXiJvr... D qTWN Zl,lL iSpJ
TSOMZWNTXwr 2dJpJIN3
[VU RVM_JRZRTX RVM TRJc TIVRw zS _JP mJRVOZWZw
The i#%ication of affir#ative e#%hatic assertion $i be found in
e+a#%es ike the foo$ing@
Cic)et s,allo,ed violentl( again. <It's all ver( ,ell$< he said sullenl(4
<it asn't appened to (ou7<
Michael ,as afflicted at once. +o7 It hadn't happened to hi#7 %nd all
his dou*ts of Fleur in the da(s of 5ilfred ca#e hitting hi#. 2)as$orthy3
Cf. <.roud? %nd ho,'s she earned it7 .roud7 M( "a,d.< 2)as$orthy3
:h? S,ine that he ,as$ to have thought li)e that D of Vic7 -e turned
his *ac) to her and tried to sleep. Cut once (ou got a thought li)e that D
sleep? +o. 2)as$orthy3
'n coo0uia Engish there are nu#erous standardised ty%es of
rhetorica 0uestions e+%ressing a categoria disagree#ent $ith the o%inion
of the coocutor& e. g.@
5hat *usiness is it of (ours? \ou #ind (our o,n affairs.
&oolittle 1re#ostrating2. +o,$ no,$ loo) here$ "overnor. Is this
reasona*le? Is it fair to ta)e advantage of a #an li)e this? This girl
*elongs to #e. I got her. 2Sha$3
Cf. qzP MIX iSpJ Wh mWLKQP PYZIv D ULiLI JU& pIXMX _US mOX_J R
IZJ.D qLQ MIX iSpJw ... JOJTWSIN D gWJ MZiN@ SpJ STWN _JUJr.D
qzS MIX WJpJ Wh PYZI SpJ& YLOZU@ TWLUSKN Wh SpJ STWNwr 2yPOpSUSR3
qWJ JUZ Z _LlPW RSTN PRSlIZvr D USMJRSOiZRJ TmOJTZI QOZRJs
P_LQJR.D qb Wh MP_LI& MSM& WSYS JTWLRZIZv aiSUN Wh Z_ UPSU& QLQ
Z RSTN WOPMXoZsTX ULOJMr 2JIJcJR3.
1rench@ Moi faire a?
)er#an@ !rf So ,as sagen7
'ntensity of #eaning can be %roduced by such s%ecia syntactic
%atterns as@
a3 %atterns $ith so,caed 4a%%ended state#ent4& e. g.@
-e li)es a lo, death'rate and a gravel soil for hi#self$ he does. 2Sha$3
\ou're the sort that #a)es dut( a pleasure$ (ou are. 2Sha$3
222
-e used to ,olf do,n a lot in those da(s$ did &ad. 2Sha$3
b3 %eonastic %atterns ike the foo$ing@
Cic)et had a thought. This ,as poetr( D this ,as. 2)as$orthy3
c3 the use of the verb go functioning as an e#%hatic au+iiary in
idio#atic %attern go and V
fin
$here there is no idea of rea #otion attached
to the verb go.
/resent Tense
+on'e#phatic !#phatic
5h( do (ou sa( such things? 5h( do (ou go and sa( such
things?
/ast 'ndefinite
-e did it. -e ,ent and did it.
/resent /erfect
-e has caught it. -e has gone and caught it. /ast
/erfect
-e had caught it. -e had gone and caught it.
-is gre( e(es ,ould *rood over the gre( ,ater under the gre( s)(4 and
in his #ind the #ar) ,ould fall. It fell ,ith a *u#p on the eleventh of
9anuar( ,hen the French ,ent and occupied the Ruhr. 2)as$orthy3
15ent and occupied ` occupied2
<If (ou're Master Murdstone<$ said the lad($ <,h( do (ou go and gie
another na#e$ first?< 2)as$orthy3
15h( do (ou go and give... ` 5h( do (ou give...2
<-e #ustn't catch cold D the doctor had declared$ and he !ad gone
and caught it. 2)as$orthy3
1She had gone and caught it D he had caught it2
Verb,%hrases of this ty%e i#%y disa%%rova of the action& its
irreevance or une+%ectedness $ith different shades of sub.ective #oda
force de%ending on the conte+t& inguistic or situationa.
...-is grand#other turned fro# the fire/ <5hat !ae you gone and
done no,$ (ou sill( lad?<
<I fell into a *ush$< he told her. 2Siitoe3
'ntensity of #eaning #ay be %roduced by %atterns $ith the ing'for#
foo$ing the verb go $hen the atter is aso se#anticay de%eted and is
used idio#aticay to intensify the #eaning of the notiona verb& e. g.@
-e goes frig!tening people ,ith his stories.
<I shall see (ou again *efore long$ #( *o(7< he said. &on't (ou go
paying an( attention to ,hat I've *een sa(ing a*out (oung Cosinne( ] I
don't *elieve a ,ord of it7< 2)as$orthy3
9a#es ,as alar#ed. <:h<$ he said$ don't go sa(ing I said it ,as to
co#e do,n7 I )no, nothing a*out it. 2)as$orthy3
\ou'll go *urning (ou fingers D investing (our #one( in li#e$ and
things (ou )no, nothing a*out. 2)as$orthy3
/on't go putting on an( airs ,ith #e. 2Mitche3
"o#%are the use of the Russian verb RlXWN functioning as an e#%hatic
au+iiary in idio#atic %atterns $ith %artices of e#%hatic %recision@
223
RJlN_Z Z OLTTQLZ 2RJlN_Z ML OLTTQLZ3G RlXI Z OLTTQLlLI 2RlXI ML
OLTTQLlLI3G RJlN_SW Z OLTTQLSW 2RJlN_SW ML OLTTQLSW3G RlXI Yh Z
OLTTQLlLI 2RlXI Yh ML OLTTQLlLI3& etc.
zS lULn& iS_ X lLTIPZI MJRSOSUUJTWN _JSpJ UJRJpJ mOZXWSIX&D
WJINQJ JU& UZ T WJpJ& UZ T TSpJ& QLQ pJRJOZWTX& RlXI ML Z OLTTQLlLI
_US MJRJINUJ lL_SiLWSINUhs TIPiLs... 2yPOpSUSR3
Most forcefu and e+%ressive are idio#atic %atterns $here the
deter#ining and the deter#ined ee#ents of the denotation #utuay
e+change their res%ective %arts& e. g.@ a 3e,el of a nature$ a devil of a
3ourne($ etc.
'n co##on use the bearer of a 0uaity is reguary denoted by the basic
noun& $hie the 0uaity attributed to this bearer is e+%ressed by an ee#ent
deveo%ing that basic noun. 'n %atterns ike a 3e,el of a picture the 0uaity
is e+%ressed by the basic noun& $hie its bearer is denoted by the of ,%hrase
deveo%ing that noun. This construction is not kno$n in 5d Engish. 't has
co#e into the anguage fro# 1rench.
1urther e+a#%es are@ a slip of a *o($ a slip of a girl$ a love of a child$
a peach of a girl$ a devil of a fello,$ a 3e,el of a cup$ a doll of a *a*($ a
*rute of horse$ a scre, of a horse$ the deuce of a noise$ a deuce of a
3ourne($ a devil of a toothache$ a devil of a hurr($ her pet of a *a*($ a
*east of a cold$ the ghost of a voice$ the ghost of a s#ile$ a rascal of a
landlord$ etc. Such gra##atica idio#s are generay used to e+%ress either
deight or ad#iration& scorn& irony or anger.
The idio#atic character of these forcibe and e+%ressive %hrases offers
certain difficuties in transation. The absence of anaogous for#ations in a
reci%ient anguage suggests the choice of other #eans to render a given
idea in each case& such as& for instance& a%%ositive use of nouns& e%ithet
ad.uncts or descri%tive transation. "o#%are the foo$ing in Russian and
Ukrainian@
a3 giant of a #an 2 iSIJRSQ,RSIZQLU
]InMZUL,RSISWSUN
b3 a hell of a noise X LMTQZs KP_
TWOLKSUUZs KP_
c3 a love of a child mOSISTWUJS MZWX
iPMJRL MZWZUL
d3 a devil of a fello, JWiLXUUhs _LIhs
KLISUZs cIJmSN
e3 the deuce of a price YSKSUhS MSUNpZ
KLISUV pOJKV
f3 a devil of a hurr( PLTULX TmSKQL
KLISUZs mJTmVc
g3 a 3e,el of a nature OSMQJTWULX ULWPOL
OVMQVTUL ULWPOL
h3 a doll of a girl zS MSRJiQL& L QPQIL
zS MVRiZUL& L IXINQL
|XINQL& US MVRiZUL
i3 a 3e,el of a girl zS MSRJiQL& L lJIJWJ
JIJWJ& US MVRiZUL
224
"onsider aso the foo$ing@
<.erhaps (ou )no, that lad(<$ "ats*( indicated a gorgeous$ scarcel(
hu#an orchid of a ,o#an ,ho sat in state under a ,hite'plu# tree. 21.
1itEgerad3
5hat a 3oll( little duc) of a house7 2)as$orthy3
-is o,n life as (et such a *a*( of a thing$ hopelessl( ignorant and
innocent. 2)as$orthy3
IDIOMATIC SENTENCES
Syntactic idio#aticity is a universa feature of anguage deveo%#ent
observed in #ost if not in a anguages.
By idio#atic sentences $e #ean sentences $ith a %urey idio#atic
gra##atica arrange#ent. The #eaning of such sentences cannot be
readiy anaysed into the severa distinct co#%onents $hich $oud be
e+%ressed by the $ords #aking u% an ordinary sentence.
Syntactic idio#s #erit s%ecia inguistic consideration as reevant to
gra##atica as%ects of stye and synony#y in gra##ar.
Accurate studies of syntactic idio#s have not yet been #ade. Many
0uestions about their gra##atica status go unans$ered and& indeed&
unasked. '#%ortant treat#ents of the sub.ect in the Russian anguage have
been #ade by N. U. S h v e d J v a and *. A. Sh#eyov
7
.
'nteresting observations in this %art of )er#an synta+ have been #ade
by 5. '. Moskaskaya
;
. Sentence,%atterns $ith a %urey idio#atic
gra##atica arrange#ent in %resent,day Engish have naturay their o$n
traits of for#ation and conventiona %ractices. But so#eti#es $e find here
cose %araes to certain fi+ed ty%es of syntactic idio#aticity observed in
other anguages $hich shoud not esca%e the notice of the student.
Syntactic idio#s transcend the ordinary syntactic constructions and are&
in fact& sha%ed and arranged according to s%ecia %atterns. The $ords that
#ake the# u% are variabe& but their ty%es see# to be fi+ed.
Syntactic idio#aticity is far too big a sub.ect to be treated ade0uatey
in our short course& $here reasons of s%ace #ake it %ossibe to #ention
ony its essentia features.
Syntactic idio#s have rather a high fre0uency vaue in s%oken and
$ritten Engish. They are styisticay #arked units $ith sub.ective #oda
force and as such add #uch to the e#otive vaue of the utterance. Most of
the# function as e+%edients to %roduce intensity or e#%hasis of #eaning
in e+%ressive anguage. 'n idio#atic sentences $e generay find s%ecia
for#ative ee#ents of their ty%ification. 'n these ter#s& at east to a
$orkabe degree& $e sha distinguish the foo$ing %atterns@
7. 1i+ed stereoty%ed idio#atic sentences i#%ying confir#ation or
negation. The necessary #eaning is a$ays signaed by the consituation&
e. g.@
7
A. . R S M J R L . aiSOQZ mJ TZUWLQTZTP OPTTQJs OLlpJRJOUJs OSiZ. f.&
7=66G . z. _ S I R . a TRXlLUUhc TZUWLQTZiSTQZc QJUTWOPQZXc R OPTTQJ_ XlhQS&
q[JmOJTh XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=6>& <.
;
a. '. Moskaskaya. )ra##atik der deutschen )egen$artss%rache. M.& 7=97.
;;<
It ,as a s,ell part($ and$ ho,7
Cf. oS Yhw
Si#iary in Ukrainian@ S Y mLQw bXQSw
'n )er#an@ Und ,ie7 Und o*7
Und ,as f>r einer7
5ell$ I never7
5ell$ to *e sure7 5ell$ of all things7 ' 5ell$ of all things$< replied her friend$
<5onders never cease$ do the( %ileen?< 2*reiser3 Cf. [JW WLQ WLQw [JW
WSYS ULw Ukrainian@ aW WLQ OLlw
Reated to these are e+%ressive inter.ectiona %atterns i#%ying
confir#ation or negation& such as@
&ear #e7
:h$ dear7
C(
heaven7
;. 'dio#atic sentence,%atterns $ith i#%icit negation& e. g.@
a3 N2%3 N2%3 -e a co,ard7
b3 N2%3 and N2%3 She and a failure7
c3 N2%3 and V
inf
%n actor and refuse to help
us7
d3 N2%3 and A Michael and 3o(less7
e3 N% and %N She and in trou*le7
f3 N% A -e arrogant and cruel7
g3 N%V
inf
Me dance7
8. 'dio#atic %seudo,subcauses@
a3 %atterns $ith the ty%ifying not that$ e. g.@
Soa#es shoo) his head. <I#prove his health D ver( li)el(. -as he ever
*een in prison<? <+ot that I )no, of<. 2)as$orthy3
1+ot that I )no, of D ULTQVINQZ _SUV RVMJ_J3.
<\our father in to,n?< <I *elieve so$ sir<. <"ood7< +ot that he felt
relief. 2)as$orthy3
1+ot that he felt relief D RVU US RVMiPR JTJYIZRJpJ mJISpKSUUX3.
Cut there$ thin)ing's no good to an(one D is it #ada#? Thin)ing ,on't
help. +ot that I do it often. 2Mansfied3
1+ot that I do it often D X OJYIn S US iLTWJ3.
+ot that he ever #entioned it D one did not use such a ,ord7
2)as$orthy3
1+ot that he ever #entioned it D RVU UVQJIZ US RZTIJRInRLR NJpJ
RpJIJT&D mOJ S US pJRJOXWN3.
Cf. )er#an@ +icht dass er ,usste7
1rench@ C'est ne pas ;u'il soit content.
'dio#atic sentence,%atterns of the given ty%e seen to have their
transfor#ationa origin in idio#atic structures $ith it is... that$ it ,as...
that$ to $hich they are& no doubt& reated as styistic variants
226
b3 e+ca#atory %seudo,subcauses& e. g.@
That he should have #ade such a #ista)e7
Cf. ULMJ S YhIJ S_P TMSILWN WLQPn JKZYQPw
Ukrainian@ WOSYL sJ_P YPIJ lOJYZWZ WLQP mJ_ZIQPw
Cf. )er#an@ &ass ih# das passieren #usste7
1rench@ Fallait'il ;u'il soit venu7
c3 %atterns $ith %seudo,subcauses of condition intensifying the
#eaning of so#e 0uaity as e+%ressed in a given #essage& e. g.@
Freddie gashed/ <\ou're a luc)( devil$ if ever I #et' one. Such a nice
thing<. -e grinned enviousl(. 2"ronin3
I )no, (our #otives are al,a(s a*ove reproach. -o,ever 9ohnnie
"allegher is a cold little *ull($ if ever I sa, one. 2Mitche3
Cf. If ever there ,as dressiness$ it ,as here. It ,as personification of
the old ter# spic) and span. 2*reiser3
If ever the girl loo)ed li)e a leopardess$ it ,as no,4 her strange$ deep
set e(es )ept sliding fro# her 'cu*' to hi# ,ho threatened to deprive her of
it. 2)as$orthy3
/atterns of this ty%e are syntactic idio#s obviousy distinct fro# units
of the for#ua character ike -o, do (ou do?4 the atter is for a %ractica
%ur%oses one unchanged and unchangeabe for#ua the #eaning of $hich
is reay inde%endent of that of the se%arate $ords into $hich it #ay be
anaysed. But %atterns ike If ever I #et one are of a totay different order.
The ty%e is fi+ed but aterations can be #ade here& so#e $ords are
variabe& e. g.@ if ever there ,as one4 if ever there can *e one4 if ever there
could *e one$ etc.
Si#iary@ Sit still$ all (ou can. 1%ll (ou can k as still as (ou can2.
I hurried all I could$ #u#$ soon as I seen that cloud$ the girl puffed
,ith the air of one ,ho is so seriousl( than)ful to have escaped a great
disaster. 2Bennett3
It ,as hard to thin) a*out$ *ut onl( #ade her #ore than ever
deter#ined to cling to hi#$ ,hatever happened$ and to help all she could.
2*reiser3
d3 stereoty%ed inter.ectiona %hrase@ there is a good fello, 1*o($ etc.3.
Cf. D [JW gWJ cJOJKJ& lL gWJ TmLTZYJ.
D aW MJYOS& lL S MXQPn.
'ntensification of the gra##atica #eaning is often e+%ressed by such
idio#atic %atterns $here e#%hasis is %roduced by the use of the so,caed
4e#%hatic ,ould<$ e. g.@
There it goes. That ,ould *e. That ,ould happen to #e. I haven't got
enough trou*le. -ere for the evening at the foul part( ,here I don't )no,
a soul. %nd no, #( garter has to go and *rea). 2/arker3
!h$ I'd right #iss (ou if (ou vent$ I ,ould and all.
-e ,ould co#e D 3ust ,hen I ,anted to go out7 '-o, anno(ing that
he has co#e72
\ou ,ould and (ou ,ouldn't can *e used to e0press indignation in
situations li)e the follo,ing/
DI'# afraid I don't )no, ,hen the train leaves.
D:h$ (ou ,ouldn't 1] \ou never )no, an(thing72
The reevance of conte+t to the significance of such units #ust never
be overooked. (ike in a other cases of syntactic a#bivaence& the
#eaning of the sentence is #ade cear by conte+tua indicators.
;;9
Variants in their use %roducing subte shades of sub.ective #oda
#eaning and e#otiona vaue %resent rather a co#%icated sub.ect $hich
inguists have by no #eans fuy $orked out. The e+%ressive ee#ents
cannot be studied outside of their reation to the distinctive ob.ective
ee#ents of anguage $hich are e#otionay neutra. And this eads us to
synony#y in gra##ar $hich is the %rinci%a concern in discussing the
styistic as%ects of synta+.
CONSTR&CTIONAL HOMON(MIT(
The theory of sentence,structure #ust do #ore than ony describe the
$e,for#ed sentences of a natura anguage. There are #any other facts
about the sentences of a anguage that #ust be e+%ained by a inguistic
theory.
So#e sentences are se#anticay %arae to other sentences of a
different structure. So#e sentences are reated in a definite $ay to certain
sentences. So#e sentences are a#biguous and so on.
)ra##ar #ust %rovide an e+%icit basis for e+%aining the native
s%eaker!s understanding of the reationshi%s bet$een the sentences. 't #ust
aso sho$ the difference bet$een overty %arae sentences& the sentences
$hich have the sa#e structure at an a%%ro%riate eve of abstraction.
Sentences #ust a$ays be .udged in their conte+ts.
Various i#%ortant reations bet$een sentences and ty%es of
constructions can be ade0uatey e+%ained by transfor#ationa anaysis.
A#biguity is an i#%ortant feature of a natura anguage.
There are naturay different kinds of a#biguity. The sentence <The
ta*le ,as here< is a#biguous because ta*le has severa e+ica #eanings&
e. g. <a ta*le of contents<$ <#athe#atical ta*le.<
Si#iary& the sentence <The train ,as long< is a#biguous because of
the e+ica #eaning of the noun train/ 4that $hich runs on the rairoad4&
and 4that $hich is attached to a brida go$n4. This kind of a#biguity is
e+ica& not gra##atica.
The sentence Mar( told her sister that she had acted foolishl( is an
e+a#%e of gra##atica a#biguity. The reference of the %ronoun is not
cear. -e do not kno$ $hether she refers to Mar( or her sister. Si#iary&
the sentence The *o( loo)ed fast. -e don!t kno$ $hether fast is an
ad.ective 1speed(2 or an adverb 1speedil(2. The %hrase the #en ,ith the
*o(s ,ho ,ere laughing is a gra##atica a#biguity of a different sortG $e
can identify the $ord casses& but $e do not kno$ $hat goes $ith $hat D
i. e.& $hat the i##ediate constituents are.
1urther e+a#%es are given beo$.
"onsider the %hrase 273 $hich can be understood a#biguousy $ith the
hunters as the sub.ect& anaogousy to 2;3& or as the ob.ect& anaogousy to
283@
112 the shooting of the hunters4
1@2 the singing of *irds4
1h2 the raising of the cattle.
5n the eve of %hrase structure there is no good to e+%ain this
a#biguity@ a of these %atterns are re%resented as the V
ing
j of,%hrase.
228
'n transfor#ationa ter#s& ho$ever& there is a cear and auto#atic
e+%anation@ the shooting of the hunters has t$o distinct transfor#ationa
origins@ the hunters shoot and the( shoot the hunters$ $hich are both
kerne sentences. The a#biguity of the gra##atica reation resuts fro#
the fact that the reation of shoot to hunters differs in the t$o underying
sentences. (e+ica i#%robabiity e+cudes the %ossibiity of <the( sing
*irds< or <cattle raise<& $hich are not gra##atica kerne sentences.
"overt 2dee% structure3 reations do not #anifest the#seves in the
surface structure. "o#%are the foo$ing@
1a2 She #ade hi# a good ,ife.
1*2 She #ade hi# a good hus*and.
The surface structures of the t$o sentences 2a3 and 2b3 are identica but
their syntactic #eanings differ essentiay. Through transfor#ation the
covert syntactic reations are #ade e+%icit@
1a2 She *eca#e a good ,ife to hi#.
1*2 -e *eca#e a good hus*and *ecause she #ade hi# good.
The vaidity of the theory of surface and dee% structure as a%%ied to
the e+%anation of syntactic ho#ony#ity in any anguage can hardy be
doubted.
A anguages have ho#ony#y at severa eves. 5bservations on
syntactic structures of various ty%es furnish nu#erous e+a#%es of
ho#ony#ic %atterns& i. e. such syntactic units as are identica in their
gra##atica arrange#ent but differ in #eaning. Nu#erous situations #ay
be %ointed out in $hich structura a#biguities co##ony occur. 'n such
instances $e #ay easiy observe that a#biguity is resoved by so#e other
ee#ent& inguistic or situationa& or intonation.
A descri%tive anaysis of the structura signas of Engish $i a$ays
be he%fu to #ake cear the %aces $here such a#biguities are ikey to
occur and the %recise nature of the distinctive features invoved. Students
of Engish& #ust be a$are of the co##on sources of structura a#biguity&
as $e as the %recise devices for resoving the#.
The foo$ing e+a#%es $i furnish good iustration of the state#ent.
The Engish verb is usuay foo$ed by a noun& $ith or $ithout
deter#iner. Ao$ever& if both the noun deter#iner and the initia function
$ord are #issing& such structures #ay beco#e a#biguous& ike the
foo$ing@
love *losso#s in spring $here a#biguity is avoided by
intonationa differences. "o#%are@
112 Love *losso#s in spring.
1@2 Love *losso#s in spring7
love is a noun in 273 and a verb in 2;3.
A#biguity is 0uite %ossibe at bast in $ritten Engish and ra%id s%eechG
$hen& for instance& the t$o %arts of a se%arabe verb are not se%arated@
112 She loo)ed' over (our papers.
1@2 She 'loo)ed over (our 'papers.
229
'f these t$o sentences are read aoud it $i beco#e a%%arent that in 273 the
sub.ect $as ins%ecting the %a%er itsef& $hie in 2;3 he is ooking at
so#ething on the other side. Therefore ony 273 can be re%aced by he
loo)ed.
'ustrative e+a#%es of a#biguity $i be found in %atterns $ith the
so,caed 4danging %artici%es4. 'n %atterns of this ty%e the %artici%e is& in
fact& a sentence,#odifier& though it #ay occu%y the %osition at the
beginning of the sentence $hich can aso be occu%ied by a %artici%ia
#odifier or the sub.ect. This gives a structure that is a$ays structuray
a#biguous. (e+ica incongruity bet$een the %artici%e and the foo$ing
sub.ect resoves a#biguity. A#biguous e+a#%es are often unintentionay
co#ic or ridicuous.
.roceeding do,n the road a s#all village ca#e in sight.
Many a#biguities are never noticed because the various %ossibe
0.anin", are narro$ed do$n by conte+t.
'n the( have *us( lives ,ithout visiting relatives ony conte+t can
indicate $hether visiting relatives is e0uivaent in #eaning to pa(ing visits
to relatives or to relatives ,ho are visiting the#$ and in I loo)ed up the
nu#*er and I loo)ed up the chi#ne( ony the #eanings of nu#*er and
chi#ne( #ake it cear that up is syntacticay a second co#%e#ent in the
first sentence and a %re%osition foo$ed by its ob.ect in the second.
Structura a#biguity often occurs $ith %re%ositiona %hrases $hich are
fairy co##on #odifiers of various ty%es of heads. This is often the case
$hen the %re%ositiona %hrase a%%ears #ediay or finay. Ao$ever the
characteristic intonation contour of the sentence,#odifier& fre0uenty
su%%orted by e+ica indicators& serves to recognise %re%ositiona %hrases
as such& e. g.@
-is faith in her ,ords ,as unsha)a*le.
As $ritten above& the sentence is surey a#biguous. The distinction
bet$een the t$o %ossibe #eanings $oud be %reserved by setting off in
her ,ords $ith co##as.
A#biguity occurs #ore fre0uenty in connection $ith constructions
a%%earing in co#%e#ent& %redicate,#odifier& or end,adverbia %ositions
than $ith constructions a%%earing in front,adverbia sub.ect& or verba
%ositions. This is %ri#ariy due to the fact that there are #ore %ositions in
the ast haf of a sentence $hich #ay be fied by si#iar constructions
than there are in the first haf. The reci%ient of a #essage usuay has itte
difficuty in recognising the boundary ine bet$een a sub.ect and a
foo$ing verb,custer because of the change fro# 4no#ina #ateria4 to
4verba #ateria4. 'n the co#%e#ent and the foo$ing sectors& ho$ever&
there are no such cear,cut ines of de#arcation bet$een one kind of
#ateria and another@ a %hrase& for e+a#%e& #ay occur as a %ost,nucear
#odifier in a noun,custer in "
o
%osition& or as an ad.unctiona in "
;
%osition& or as a %redicate,#odifier in A %osition& or as an adverbia in any
one of the three end %ositions.
Most& if not a& of the cases of structura a#biguity discussed by "h.
1ries in the Structure of !nglish$ as $e as of those discussed by N.
"ho#sky in S(ntactic Structures$ can %robaby be e+%ained in ter#s of
230
uncertainties about %ositions. Thus& to borro$ an e+a#%e fro# "h.
1ries& the sentence The ne, train appeared faster #ay be assigned to sectors
in either of these t$o $ays@
112 The ne, train appeared faster.
1@2 The ne, train appeared... faster.
'n 273 faster is anaysed as an ad.uncta $ord occurring i n "
7
%ositionG in 2;3 it is anaysed as a %redicate,#odifier.
But the fact sti re#ains that our abiity to anayse the sentence
in t$o different $ays does not resove the a#biguity. The sentence as
it stands D $ithout any arger conte+t that #ight indicate $hich of
the t$o anayses is the correct one D re#ains a#biguous.
'f a sentence such as <fl(ing planes can *e dangerous<
7
is %resented
in an a%%ro%riatey constructed conte+t& the istener $i inter%ret it
i##ediatey in a uni0ue $ay& and $i fai to detect the a#biguity.
'n fact& $e #ay re.ect the second inter%retation& $hen this is %ointed
out to hi#& as forced or unnatura 2inde%endenty of $hich
inter%retation $e originay seected under conte+tua %ressure3.
Nevertheess the intuitive kno$edge of the anguage is ceary such that
both of the inter%retations 2corres%onding to <fl(ing planes are dangerous<
and <fl(ing planes is dangerous<2 are assigned to the sentence by the
gra##ar internaised in so#e for#. 'n the case .ust #entioned& the
a#biguity #ay be fairy trans%arent. But in such a sentence& for
instance& as -e had a *oo) stolen gra##ar %rovides at east three
structura descri%tions@
a3 -e had a *oo) stolen fro# his car ,hen he left the ,indo, open$ that
is So#eone stole a *oo) fro# his car4
b3 -e had a *oo) stolen fro# the li*rar( *( a professional thief ,ho#
he hired to do the 3o*$ that is -e had so#eone steal a *oo)4
c3 -e al#ost had a *oo) stolen$ *ut the( caught hi# leaving the li*rar(
,ith it$ that is -e had al#ost succeeded in stealing a *oo).
Resoving this tri%e a#biguity in this $ay $e arrange #atters in
such a $ay that the inguistic intuition& %reviousy obscured& beco#es
evident.
To borro$ an e+a#%e fro# N. "ho#sky& $e sha consider the
foo$ing sentences@
273 persuaded 9ohn to leave.
2;3 e0pected 9ohn to leave.
The first i#%ression of the hearer #ay be that these sentences receive
the sa#e structura anaysis. Even fairy carefu thought #ay fai
to sho$ hi# that gra##ar assigns very different syntactic descri%tions
to these sentences. Ao$ever& it is cear that the sentences 273 and 2;3 are
not %arae in structure. The difference can be brought out by
consideration of the sentences@
283 persuaded a specialist to e0a#ine 9ohn.
2:3 persuaded 9ohn to *e e0a#ined *( a specialist.
2<3 e0pected a specialist to e0a#ine 9ohn.
263 I e0pected 9ohn to *e e0a#ined *( a specialist.
7
See/ N. " h o # s k y . As%ects of the Theory of Synta+. "a#bridge&
Massachusetts& 7=6<& %%. ;7,;:
;87
The sentences 2<3 and 263 are cognitivey synony#ous@ one is true if&
and ony if& the other is true.
But no variety of even $eak %ara%hrase hods bet$een 283 and 2:3.
Thus 283 can be true or fase 0uite inde%endenty of the truth or fasity of
2:3. -hatever difference of connotation or 4to%ic4 or e#%hasis one #ay
find bet$een 2<3 and 263 is .ust the difference that e+ists bet$een the active
sentence a specialist ,ill e0a#ine 9ohn and its %assive counter%art 9ohn
,ill *e e0a#ined *( a specialist. This is not at a the case $ith res%ect to
283 ho$ever. 'n fact& the underying dee% structure for 273 and 2:3 #ust
sho$ that 9ohn is the direct ob.ect of the verb,%hrase as $e as the
gra##atica sub.ect of the e#bedded sentence.
Not ess characteristic are %atterns $ith adverbs as sentence,#odifiers
$hich are rare in fina %osition& and $hen they do occur there& a#biguity
$i be resoved by intonation.
"onsider the foo$ing e+a#%es $hich $i re#ind you that a change
in intonation #ay change the structura #eaning of adverbs@
The student is clearl( spea)ing of his o,n i#pression.
-e is apparentl( ,illing to 3oin us.
The above e+a#%es $i suffice to sho$ that intonation #ay indicate
rather i#%ortant differences in structura #eaning of the %hrases.
"o,ordinators are not a$ays used bet$een #e#bers of structures of
co,ordination and such sentences #ay fre0uenty be structuray
a#biguous& or at east %otentiay so. 'n s%eech& ho$ever& there are
%rosodic %atterns $hich ceary distinguish the various ty%es of
construction. "onsider the foo$ing sentence@
Let #e introduce #( friend a doctor and a scientist.
'f $e disregard %rosody 2and %unctuation3 this has at east three
%ossibe #eanings.
An utterance does not necessariy beco#e understandabe even $hen
a its vo$es& consonants& and stress %atterns have been recognised. 't is
sti necessary to recognise $here the boundaries fa. A ty%ica %air of
sentences is <-e ,ill act$ roughl( in the sa#e #anner<$ and -e ,ill act
roughl($ in the sa#e #anner. 'n %resenting these t$o sentences in $riting&
roughl( is assigned to $hat foo$s or $hat %recedes by the %osition of the
co##a. 'n s%eech& the t$o are e0uay distinct and in no danger of
confusion. The %osition of the boundary is signaed by ee#ents in the
sound syste#& $hich are i#%erfecty re%resented in $riting by %unctuation
#arks. These boundary signas are generay caed .unctures.
7
There is a cose %arae to such deveo%#ents in other anguages.
Aere are a fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es of structura a#biguity in noun,
%hrases $ith the %ossessive case in Russian and Ukrainian@ JWJpOLZX
SWOJRL& for instance& has three %ossibe conte+tua #eanings@
2a3 the %hoto beongs to /etrovG
2b3 /etrov has taken the %hoto2gra%h3 of s#b.G
2c3 /etrov is %ortrayed on the %hoto.
7
See/ -. N. 1rancis. The Structure of A#erican Engish. Ne$ York& 7=<?. ;8;
Structura ho#ony#y of %re%ositiona noun,%hrases is aso a co##on
occurrence.
aU TMSILSW gWJ R MRL iLTL #ay #ean either 273 at ; o!cock or 2;3 in
t$o hours
7
.
/hrases $ith the %re%osition mOJ #ay e+%ress ob.ect and adverbia
reations& e. g. Ae mOJ ULT mZTLUJ #ay #ean@
273 Ae J ULT mZTLUJ.
2;3 Ae MIX ULT mZTLUJ.
Ukrainian@
273 ZWLsWS WVINQZ mOJ TSYS 2US RpJIJT3.
2;3 ZWLsWS WVINQZ mOJ TSYS 2L US mOJ QJpJTN VUKJpJ3.
PRKZU T RSWL_Z #ay #ean@ 2L3 QPRKZU Z RSWhG 2b3 QPRKZU& UL
QJWJOJ_ ULOZTJRLUh RSWhG 2T3 R QPRKZUS ULcJMXWTX RSWh.
"o#%are for iustration the )er#an sentence &as ist nat>rlich genug
$hich #ay be an instance of t$o different structures@
2a3 that!s natura enoughG
2b3 that!s naturay enough.
Revision Materia
7. The syntactic structure of any anguage is a syste# constituted by
organicay reated eves. "o##ent on the hierarchica intra,eve
reationshi% of syntactic units.
;. Be ready to discuss different a%%roaches to the study of synta+@
a3 traditiona syntactic theoryG
b3 structura syntactic theoriesG
c3 transfor#ationa synta+.
8. "o##ent on o%%ositiona reationshi% of syntactic units.
:. )ive co##ents on %aradig#atic and syntag#atic reations in
synta+.
<. 5n $hat assu#%tions can syntactic %aradig#s be buitv
6. Be ready to discuss the state#ent that the division into %arts of
s%eech and the division into %arts of the sentence are organicay reated.
9. "o##ent on t$o #ain ty%es of sub.ect that are o%%osed to each
other in ter#s of content.
?. "o##ent on %redication as a structure $ith the verb or verb, %hrase
at its core.
=. )ive co##ents on o%%ositiona reations bet$een the %rinci%a and
secondary %arts of the sentence.
7>. -hat do $e #ean by te+tinguisticsv
77. )ive co##ents on discourse anaysis of su%ra,%hrasa unities.
7>. *istinguish bet$een 4#entaistic4 and 4#echanistic4 a%%roaches to
syntactic anaysis.
7;. -hat do $e #ean by 4dee% gra##ar4 anaysisv
77. Be ready to discuss gra##atica a#biguity. )ive a fe$ e+a#%es
of constructiona ho#ony#ity. Make co#%arison $ith other anguages.
7;. 'ustrate the state#ent that #any a#biguities are never noticed
because the various %ossibe #eanings are narro$ed do$n by conte+t.
7
See/ A. M. S K Q J R T Q Z s . {PTTQZs TZUWLQTZT R ULPiUJ_ JTRSoSUZZ. f.&
7=<6& O. 8>6.
233
Capt.r >I
PHRASE;STR&CT&RE
The $ays in $hich $ord,co#binations 2%hrases3 as non,
co##unicative units are constituted #ay be described as 4Minor4 Synta+
in contrast to 4Ma.or4 Synta+ deaing $ith inguistic units of
co##unicative vaue.
The syntactica descri%tion of any anguage is faciitated by isoating
certain recurrent units of e+%ression and e+a#ining their distribution in
conte+ts.
Engish synta+ is a #any,ayered organisation of reativey fe$ ty%es
of its basic units. A t$ofod or binary structure is one of the #ost striking
things about its gra##atica organisation.
According to the $ays in $hich %hrases are used and constituted& t$o
#ain ty%es of Engish %hrases can be distinguished@ .ad.d 2endocentric3
and non;.ad.d 2e+ocentric3.
The ter#s 4endocentric4 and 4e+ocentric4 for syntactic constructions
$ere introduced by (. Boo#fied.
4Every syntactic construction sho$s us t$o 2or so#eti#es #ore3 free
for#s co#bined in a %hrase& $hich $e #ay ca the resutant %hrase. The
resutant %hrase #ay beong to a for#,cass other than that of any
constituent. 1or instance& 9ohn ran is neither a no#inative e+%ression 2ike
9ohn2 nor a finite verb e+%ression 2ike ran2. Therefore $e say that
Engish actor,action construction is e+ocentric@ the resutant %hrase
beongs to the for#,cass of no i##ediate constituent. 5n the other hand&
the resutant %hrase #ay beong to the sa#e for#,cass as one 2or #ore3 of
the constituents. 1or instance& poor 9ohn is a %ro%er,noun e+%ression& and
so is the constituent 9ohn4 the for#s 9ohn and poor have& on the $hoe&
the sa#e functions. Accordingy $e say that the Engish character,
substance construction 2as in poor 9ohn$ fresh #il) and the ike3 is an
endocentric construction4
7
.
Aeaded %hrases have this %ecuiarity@ a the gra##atica functions
o%en to the# as %hrases can aso be e+ercised by one e+%ression $ithin
the#. They #ay be regarded as e+%ansions of this e+%ression& caed the
head of the grou% and it is %ossibe to substitute the head for the grou% or
the grou% for the head $ithin the sa#e gra##atica %hrase 2i. e. in the
sa#e conte+t3 $ithout causing any for#a disocation of the overa
gra##atica structure. 1or instance& in fresh fruit is good the headed
7
(. Boo#fied. (anguage. Ne$ York& 7=6=& %. 7=:.
;8:
$ord,grou% fresh fruit serves as sub.ectG in I li)e fresh fruit$ it serves as
ob.ective co#%e#ent. 'f $e substitute the head e+%ression fruit for fresh
fruit in either case& the gra##atica fra#e sub.ect& verb& co#%e#ent $i
re#ain for#ay undisturbed.
Fresh fruit is good. Fruit is good.
I li)e fresh fruit. Si#iary/ I li)e
fruit.
%ll this nice fresh fruit is good.
Fruit is good. Singing songs is
fun. Singing is fun. I li)e singing
songs. I li)e singing.
'n these sets of e+a#%es& the head e+%ression fruit and singing are
freey substitutabe gra##aticay for the $ord,grou%s of $hich they are
constituents. 'n both cases& then& the itaicised $ord,grou%s are headed
grou%s.
Syntactic reations #ay be signaed by the foo$ing devices@
a3 -ord,order& i. e. the %osition of $ords reative to each other in the
utterance.
b3 /rosody,co#binations of %atterns of %itch& stress and .uncture.
/atterns of %itches and ter#ina .unctures are caed intonation %atternsG
%atterns of stresses and interna .unctures are often referred to as su%er,
fi+es.
c3 1unction $ords D $ords $ith itte or no e+ica #eaning $hich are
used in co#bining $ords into arger structures 2%re%ositions& con,
.unctions&reative %ronouns3.
d3 'nfections $hich ada%t $ords to fit varying structura %ositions
$ithout changing their e+ica #eaning or %art of s%eech.
e3 /unctuation in $riting.
't see#s %ractica to cassify %hrases according to the character of their
syntactica arrange#ent. -e sha thus distinguish@ 73 subordinate %hrases&
;3 co,ordinate %hrases and 83 %redicative 2or 4ne+us43 %hrases. Every
structure #ay be divided into its i##ediate constituents@
73 'n ter#s of gra##atica organisation& ,u-ordinat. pra,., are
binary structures in $hich one of the #e#bers is syntacticay the eading
ee#ent of the %hrase. No #atter ho$ co#%icated this t$ofod or binary
structure #ay be& it can a$ays be divided into t$o i##ediate
constituents& one functioning as head and the other as #odifier.
Ad.uncts serve to describe& to 0uaify& to seect& to co#%ete& to e+tend
or in so#e other $ay to affect the #eaning of the head& e. g.@ fresh air$
stone ,all$ ,riting a letter$ perfectl( right$ a,full( tired$ etc.
6/ Co;ordinat. pra,., consist of t$o or #ore syntacticay
e0uivaent units .oined in a custer $hich functions as a singe unit. The
units so .oined #ay be any of the %arts of s%eech or #ore co#%e+
structures taking %art in gra##atica organisation. The .oining #ay be
acco#%ished
235
by $ord order and %rosody aone& or $ith the he% of con.unctions& e. g.@
girls and *o(s$ pins and needles$ sooner or later$ no, and then$ etc. 83
/redicative 2or 4ne+us43 %hrases are such structures in $hich the syntactic
functions of the co#%onent! %arts differ fro# the function of the %hrase& as
a $hoe & e. g.@ the lesson over$ circu#stances per#itting$ this done$ for
the# to co#e$ on hi# to do$ etc.
S&BORDINATE PHRASES
Subordinate %hrases #ay be best enu#erated $hen $e arrange the#
according to their eading #e#ber@ noun %hrases& ad.ectiva %hrases& verb
%hrases& adverbia %hrases& %rono#ina %hrases 2%rono#ina %hrases are
#ost suitaby incuded in the noun or ad.ective grou%s to $hich they are
evident %araes3. As has been %ointed out& their i##ediate constituents
are head $ord and #odifier 2ad.unct3. The ter# head $ord 2head3 #eans
the $ord that is #odified.
+oun'.hrases
'n ter#s of %osition of the attributive ad.unct& noun,%hrases #ay be
cassified intoG 73 %hrases $ith %re%osed #odifierG ;3 %hrases $ith
%ost%osed #odifier.
.hrases ,ith .reposed Modifier
'n noun,%hrases $ith %re%osed #odifiers $e generay find ad.ectives&
%ronouns& nu#eras& %artici%es& gerunds and nouns in the %ossessive case.
Aere beongs aso %re#odification of nouns by nouns 2so,caed noun,
ad.unct,grou%s3.
5ith his o,n hands he put flo,ers a*out his little house'*oat and
e;uipped the punt in ,hich$ after lunch$ he proposed to ta)e the# on the
river. 2)as$orthy3
Man( a ti#e had he tried to thin) that in old da(s of th,arted #errier
life4 and he al,a(s failed. 2)as$orthy3
Val had 3ust changed out of riding clothes and ,as on his ,a( to the
fire D a *oo)#a)er's in Corn#ar)et. 2)as$orthy3
9oll( Fors(te ,as strolling do,n -igh Street$ :0ford$ on a +ove#*er
afternoon. 2)as$orthy3
%fter a fe, #orning consultations$ ,ith the pleasant prospect of no
surger( in the evening %ndre, ,ent on his round. 2"ronin3
%nd *eneath it la( the fa#il('s Christ#as treat D three s#all oranges$
2"ronin3
A %re%osed deter#inant #ay be e+tended ony by an adverb& e. g.@
That ,as a t(picall( French ,a( to furnish a roo#. !
'n %re#odification of nouns by nouns the noun,ad.unct #ay be
e+tended by $ords of different %arts of s%eech& e. g.@ long pla(ing #icro'
groove full fre;uenc( range recording.
The 's is a%%ended to a grou% of $ords if it for#s a sense,unit& e. g.@
the #an of propert('s daughter$ Ceau#ont and Fletcher's pla(s$ the [ing
of &en#ar)'s court.
236
The division into i##ediate constituents in cases ike the #an of
propert('s daughter is not the #an of propert('s$ but the #an of
propert('s.
/ost%osition of ad.ectives occurs in so#e fi+ed %hrases& e. g.@
#other dear the universit( proper
the president elect a *attle ro(al
ti#e i##e#orial the first person singular
/ost%ositive %osition is often natura for ad.ectiva units $hich
the#seves contain %ost%ositive #odifiers of their o$n and even for so#e
$hich contain ony %ost%ositive #odifiers
applicants desirous of personal intervie,s a
,all si0 feet high roo#s large enough
2oun4*d?unct Groups
Engish no#inas %resented by + j + structures are one of the #ost
striking features about the gra##atica organisation of Engish.
Noun,ad.unct grou%s consisting of 4nouna #odifier4 %us 4no#ina
head4 resut fro# different kind of transfor#ationa shifts.
/re#odification of nouns by nouns can signa a striking variety of
#eanings. The gra##ar of Engish no#inaisations %resents here a #a.or
%oint of inguistic interest.
'n order to a%%reciate ho$ very $ide the variety of gra##atica
#eaning in no#ina co#%ounds #ay be& consider the foo$ing
#isceaneous e+a#%es@
,orld peace 2` peace all over the ,orld2
ta*le la#p 2` a la#p for ta*les2
sheep dog 1D a dog ,hich herds sheep2
prairie dog 1D a dog ,hich inha*its the
prairie2
silver *o0 1D a *o0 #ade of silver2
field ,or)er 2` a ,or)er ,or)s in the field2
chair legs 1D the legs of the chair2
night o,l 1D an o,l ,hich flies at night2
river sand 2` sand fro# the river2
soap sales#an 1D the sales#an sells soap2
school child 1D the child goes to school2
Noun,grou%s of this ty%e are fairy co##on and ne$ s%eci#ens are
constanty being for#ed.
Since no#ina co#%ounds usuay consist of ony t$o constituents and
incor%orate the #ost genera gra##atica reations in the anguage& there
are unusuay great o%%ortunities for gra##atica a#biguity in this kind
of binary structures.
To #ake our %oint cear& $e sha give a nu#ber of interesting
a#biguities and variations in inter%reting the#.
Thus& for instance& in its ordinary use the noun,%hrase sna)e poison
is inter%reted to have the sa#e structure as that of sna)e oil$ sna)e trac)$
;89
etc.& V. e. it is derived fro# so#e e+%ression ike poison fro# a sna)e$ or
uti#atey %erha%s fro# so#e kerne,sentence such as@ The sna)e gives
poison. Ao$ever it coud aso be inter%reted to be the sa#e in structure as
sna)e veno#$ sna)ehead$ sna)e*lood$ etc.& i. e. to be #ore ike sna)e's
poison or poison of a sna)e$ say fro# so#e sentence as@ The sna)e has the
poison.
7
But these do not e+haust the %ossibiities& though the atter t$o are
%robaby the $ay the e+%ression is co##ony used& the first $hen
#eaning <poisonous su*stance #ade fro# sna)e veno#<.
Notice aso the %ossibe contrast a#ong sna)e flesh$ sna)e #eat$ and
sna)e food/ <flesh of a sna)e<$<#eat fro# a sna)e<$ and <food for a
sna)e<. The for#a characteristics $ithin the structure of various noun,
ad.unct grou%s %rovide significant contrast to distinguish certain of the
#eaning that attach to q#odifierr reation.
Noun,ad.unct grou%s are often derived fro# aready generated %ost,
no#ina %artici%ia or gerundive #odifiers& e. g&@
The ,ell (ields oil
...,ell ,hich (ields oil...
...,ell (ielding oil...
...oil'(ielding ,ell...
...oil ,ell...
5bserve the significant contrast in the foo$ing %airs of noun,ad.unct
grou%s@
a *a*( sister a #other countr(
a *a*( sitter a #other co#ple0
a ,o#an la,(er a to( cup*oard
a ,o#an hater a to( cup*oard a
cand( cane a cand( store
Each of these units contains a #odifying noun and a head noun& and
the #odifying noun %recedes its head. -hen the #odifying noun has the
essentiay descri%tive force of an ad.ective& the head noun nor#ay has
%hrase stress. 'n a *a*( sister the sister is a *a*($ in a cand( cane the cane
is cand(. -hen the #odifying noun has reationshi% to its head& the
#odifying noun rather than the head nor#ay has %hrase stress. Thus in a
*a*( sitter the sitter is not a *a*( but a sitter ,ith *a*ies$ and in a cand(
store the store is not cand( but sells cand(. -hen it is used of a cup*oard
that is itsef a toy& a to( cup*oard has %hrase stress on cup*oard4 $hen it is
used of a cup*oard $hich is not itsef a to( but is used as a %ace for toys&
the sa#e se0uence has %hrase stress on to(.
The %attern of stress nor#ay indicates the nature of the 4#odifier4
reationshi%. "o#%are aso the foo$ing@
gro,ing children D gro,ing pains
a living soul D living conditions
the ,aiting #other D the ,aiting roo#
7
See/ R. B. (ees. The )ra##ar of Engish No#inaisations. <th Ed. the Aague& 7=6?& %.
7;;.
238
"ro,ing children are children that are gro,ing$ but gro,ing pains are
the pains of gro,ing.
'nstances are not fe$ $hen the no#inaised verb a%%ears as head of the
structure the transfor# #ay be generated directy fro# the genitive case or
the of,%hrase %eri%hrasis& e. g.@
The population gro,s ...
population's gro,th ...
gro,th of the population ...
population gro,th
The deetion of a %ost,no#ina #odifier aong $ith the %re%osition
gives such derivations as& for instance@
The o,l flies at night ... o,l
,hich flies at night ... o,l
fl(ing at night ... night o,l
An atte#%t to tabuate the underying gra##atica reations observed
in noun,ad.unct grou%s $i he% to distinguish significant contrasts in
their #eaning@
73 Sub.ect,%redicate reations@ graduate'student$ class struggle$
student failure$ te#perature change$ ,eather change$ *lood pressure$ etc.
"osey reated to such no#inas are for#ations ike ;ueen *ee$ #other
earth$ girl drafts#an$ lad( 3ournalist$ #an friend$ ,o#an author$ ,o#an
scientist$ ,o#an ,riter$ etc. $here the reation bet$een the t$o nouns is
essentiay different. Vie$ed in their co#bination& the t$o ee#ents in such
%atterns are syntacticay e0ua& each of the t$o nouns can function to
na#e a %erson or thing denoted by a $hoe %attern. This is #ade
abundanty cear by the si#%est transfor#ationa anaysis@ the girl
drafts#an k the girl is a drafts#an4 the ,o#an scientist B B the ,o#an
is a scientist.
;3 5b.ect reations@
a3 *od( nourish#ent$ coal production$ che#istr( student$ carpet
s,eeper$ health service$ in) transfer$ #one( econo#($ pac)age deliver($
product control$ potato peeler$ rug sale$ safet( feeling$ truc) driver$ ,ar
tal)$ ,o#an hater$ etc.G
*2 <,ith<,no#inas 2the #odifying noun denotes instru#enta
reations3& e. g.@ acid treat#ent$ e(e vie,$ oil painting$ etc.G
c2 the 0uaitative genitive or the of,%hrase %eri%hrasis& e. g.@ child
ps(cholog($ fello, feeling$ #other ,it$ #other heart$ science degree$ etc.
1Cf. S(n./ child ps(cholog( D child's ps(cholog( D the ps(cholog( of a
child D childish ps(cholog(24
d2 the of,%hrase %eri%hrasis 2the #odifying noun denotes the #ateria
of $hich a thing is #ade3& e. g.@
*ric) house$ gold ,atch$ iron *ridge$ oa) ta*le$ paper *ag$ ru**er
coat$ silver *o0$ stone ,all$ etc.
83 Adverbia reations of ti#e@ da( shift$ night shift$ #orning star$
#orning e0ercises$ spring ti#e$ spring ter#$ su##er vacation$ su##er
sunshine$ Septe#*er sun$ ,inter vacation$ ,inter afternoon$ etc.
239
:3 Adverbia reations of %ace@ ,orld peace$ countr( air$ chi#ne(
s,allo,s$ !ngland tour$ nurser( door$ river house$ stud( ,indo,$ ground
,ater$ etc.
<3 Adverbia reations of co#%arison@ *utton e(es$ eagle e(e$ ha,)
nose$ iron nerves$ lost dog loo)$ s,allo, dive$ etc.
63 Adverbia reations of %ur%ose@ *ath ro*e$ e0port products$ peace
#ove#ent$ resistance fighters$ tooth *rush$ ,riting ta*le$ ,al)ing stic)$
etc.
't is i#%ortant to re#e#ber that the #odifying noun is usuay #arked
by a stronger stress than the head.
The se#antic reations $hich underie such no#inas %resent certain
difficuties of anaysis.
The #eaning of the #odifying noun is often signaed by the e+ica
#eaning of the head $ord. "o#%are the foo$ing@ river house$ river
#argin$ river sand4 cotton dress$ cotton production$ cotton prices4 ,ar
production$ ,ar tal)$ ,ar (ears4 oa) leaves$ oa) ta*les4 #edicine s#ell$
#edicine *ottle.
A cue concerning the #eaning of the #odifier #ay aso be found in the
gra##atica nature of the noun #odified. Thus& for instance& $hen the
second ee#ent is a verba noun #ade fro# an intransitive verb& the first
ee#ent $i often denote the doer of the action& e. g.@ class struggle$
student failure$ etc. 'f the second ee#ent is a verba noun #ade fro# a
transitive verb 2$hich is fairy co##on3& the first ee#ent $i generay
denote the ob.ect of the action& e. g.@ product control$ production increase$
safet( feeling$ rug sale$ coal production$ etc.
'f the second ee#ent denotes a %erson or an ani#a& the first ee#ent
#ay denote gender& e. g.@ ,o#an ,riter$ #an servant$ *ull elephant$ co,
elephant.
'n cases $hen the e+ica #eaning of the $ords ad#its either
inter%retation $ithout e+ico,gra##atica incongruity& a#biguity is
%revented in actua s%eech by contrast in intonation %atterns. Thus& for
instance& a dancing girl $ith rise of %itch and %ri#ary stress both on the
head$ord girl #arks dancing as a %resent %artici%e@ 4a gir %erfor#ing the
act of dancing4. But a dancing girl$ $ith %ri#ary stress and rise in %itch
both on the #odifier dancing$ identifies dancing as a verba noun and
signas the #eaning 4a dancer4 D WLUVRUZX.
The contrast of #eaning as tied to a %articuar intonation %attern is
fairy co##on and is a good e+a#%e of the roe that %rosody %ays in
gra##ar. 5ther e+a#%es are@
a 'dust '#op 2a #o% co#%osed a'dust #op 2a #o% used for dust,
of dust3 ing3
a '#ad 'doctor 2a doctor $ho a '#ad doctor 2a %sychiatrist3 is
#ad3
a 'French 'teacher 2a teacher a 'French teacher 2a teacher of
1rench by nationaity3 the 1rench anguage3.
'n so#e instances it is %ossibe to carry the variation in stress %atterns
through a series of three& a correated $ith differences in #eaning@
240
a '*lac)*ird's nest 2` nest of a backbird3
a *lac) '*ird's nest 1D bird!s nest $hich is back3
a *lac) *ird's 'nest 2` nest of a back,cooured bird3
/re#odification is $idey current in %resent,day scientific usage
$here& $e can say $ith itte fear of e+aggeration& such %atterns have not
got their e0uas.
The #utifarious use of no#inas in scientific Engish %resents s%ecia
difficuties. 't is in this area of Engish gra##ar that the student!s
inguistic kno$edge is often severey %ut to the test.
*ifferent correations of nouns and arrange#ents of their order %resent
s%ecia interest in cases $here such no#inas consist not of t$o but three&
four and even five ee#ents.
E+a#ine the foo$ing@
h(draulic ,or) carriage traverse speed regulating valve D QILmLU&
oJ OSpPInt KRZMQVTWN pVMOLRIViUJpJ mSOS_VoSUUX OJYJiJ QLOSWQZG
a high grade paraffin *ase straight #ineral lu*ricating oil D
RZTJQJTJOWUS mOX_J QJUQZ _VUSOLINUS _LTWZIJ UL mLOLVUJRVs
JTUJRVG
roo# te#perature neutron *o#*ard#ent effects D XRZoL& RZQIZQLUV
YJ_YLOMPRLUUX_ USsWOJUL_Z mOZ QV_ULWUVs WS_mSOLWPOVG
long'pla(ing #icrogroove full fre;uenc( range recording D
_VQOJlLmZT MJRpJpOLniZc mILTWZUJQ l mJRUZ_ MVLmLlJUJ_ iLTWJWG
ca*in'pressure regulator air valve lever D RLVIN mUSR_LWZiUJpJ
QILmLUL OSpPIXWJOL WZTQP 2mJRVWOX3 R QLYVUV.
The high fre0uency vaue of such no#inas in the anguage of science
is cear $ithout s%ecia fre0uency counts.
-hen a head noun incudes severa #odifiers of different sorts& the
resut is often rather a co#%e+ thing. But in %oint of fact& it is a$ays
organised aong strict and %recise ines. The #ost i#%ortant thing about
such an ad.unct,grou% is that uness it contains structures of coordination&
it consists not of a series of %arae #odifiers but of a series of structures
of #odification one $ithin the other& e. g.@
h(draulic ,or) carriage traverse speed regulating valve D QILmLU oJ
OSpPInt KRZMQVTWN pVMOLRIViUJpJ mSOS_VoSUUX OJYJiJ QLOSWQZ.
Engish no#inaisation has given arge nu#bers of such for#ations as
a%%roach co#%ounding $hen the t$o nouns e+%ress a singe idea& #aking
u% a s%ecia ter# in ter#inoogy or a stock,%hrase in %rofessiona
vocabuary@ The United +ations :rganisation$ Securit( Council$ La*our
part($ la*our #ove#ent$ face value$ horse po,er$ coal #ine$ #other oil$
Trade Union$ trade *alance$ etc.
'n %hraseoogy@ #other earth$ s,an song$ Vanit( Fair$ vanit( *ag$
*rain stor#$ *rain ,ave$ chair da(s 1<old age<2$ traged( )ing 1<an actor
pla(ing the part of the )ing in a traged(< 2$ to( dog1'
l
a little dog<$
YJIJUQL3.
So#e no#inas fuctuate in s%eing and #ay be $ritten soid&
hy%hened or se%arate& e. g.@
apple tree D apple'tree D appletree *rain
stor# D *rain'stor# D *rainstor# *rain
,ave D *rain',ave
;:7
The direction of #odification structures can have a s%ecia styistic
vaue. 'nvoving different casses of nouns into #odification structures of
that ty%e has ong beco#e effective for styistic %ur%oses. 't is fairy
co##on in Shakes%earean anguage $here nu#erous $ord,grou%s of this
kind furnish vivid e+a#%es of the #eta%horic use of the %re#odifying
noun& as in@ Fro# Fortune ,ith her 9uor( hand to her 24Ti#on of Athen43G
... t,o siluer currents ,hen the( 3o(ne 24King Cohn43
7
.
'n Modern Engish unusua %re#odification structures are often created
by the author ane$ to achieve hu#orous effect& e. g.@ The u#*rella o,ner
slo,ed his steps. Soap( did li)e,ise$ ,ith a presenti#ent that luc) ,ould
again run against hi#. The police#an loo)ed at the t,o curiousl(. <:f
course<$ said the u#*rella #an <that is D ,ell$ (ou )no, ho, these
#ista)es occur ] I ] if it's (our u#*rella I hope (ou'll e0cuse #e ] I
pic)ed it up this #orning in a restaurant D if (ou recognise it as (ours$
,h( ] I hope (ou'll D <.<:f course$ it's #ine<$ said Soap($ viciousl(. The
e0'u#*rella #an retreated. 2Aenry3
No#ina grou%s incor%orate& in fact& the #ost genera gra##atica
reations in the anguage& such as sub.ect,%redicate& verb,ob.ect and verb,
%re%ositiona ob.ect& etc. This #akes great o%%ortunities for gra##atica
a#biguities in this kind of %hrase,structure.
Transfor#ation as a #eans to for#aise the i#%icit structura
#eanings of the %hrase is a$ays he%fu.
To #ake our %oint cear et us take a fe$ e+a#%es of interesting
a#biguities and variant inter%retations of no#inas in cases ike the
foo$ing@
pontoon *ridge$ .udged by the conte+t can #ean@
2a3 bridge su%%orted by %ontoonsG
2b3 bridge foating on %ontoonsG
2c3 bridge #ade of %ontoonsG
2d3 %ontoons in the for# of a bridge
;
.
<erb4;!rases
*ifferent $ays in $hich verbs go %atterning in structures of
%redication $i engage our attention ne+t.
Verb,%hrases are of greater co#%e+ity than other sentence ee#ents.
They can contain #uti%e verb,for#s& ike 5e ,ant to get started
to#orro, #orning4 they can contain #uti%e non,verba ee#ents ike
She did not thin) she ,ould *e invited to the conference4 verb,%hrases can
be discontinuous& interru%ted by no#ina ee#ents& e. g.@ -e ,anted to
have his photo ta)en. Yet& in s%ite of this great co#%e+ity& $e find verb,
%hrases in a fe$ reativey si#%e %atterns& $hich are then co#bined to
buid u% co#%icated series of various ty%es.
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich verbs #ay be co#bined in actua
usage %er#its a striking variety of %atterns to be buit in %resent,day
Engish. 't is i#%ortant to see the# in contrast $ith each other as used in
different gra##atica fra#es& arger units& in %articuar.
7
^uoted *c B.z. O S R L . SQTmZO Z ZTWJOZiSTQLX TWZIZTWZQL.
qZIJIJpZiSTQZS ULPQZr& 7=68& No.7& %. :<.
;
For further reading see/ R. [. (ees. The )ra##ar of Engish No#inaisations. <th
Ed.& the Aague& 7=6?.
;:=
Verbs e+%ress #eanings of occurrence D action& event& or state of
affairs. "o#%atibiity of e+ica #eaning naturay sets bounds on the
deveo%#ent of a their syntactic reationshi%s.
The %atterning of %articuar verbs $ith res%ect to co#%e#ents re0uires
notice because of its i#%ortance to other %arts of s%eech. Meaning
reationshi%s are very co#%e+& as has been said. Many verbs are used
$ith varied turns of #eaning $hich $ith varied co#%e#ent %atterns are
nor#a. So#e verbs are used in %atterns of e+tre#ey restricted ty%e.
A verba idea #ay be e+tended by@
a3 adverbs or adverbia %hrasesG
b3 ad.ectives or ad.ectiva %hrasesG
c3 %re%ositiona grou%sG
d3 infinitivesG
e3 %artici%es ' and ''G
f3 con.unctiona grou%sG
g3 subcauses.
a3 V* D spea)ing fluentl(4
V*/ D ans,er at once.
Soa#es regarded hi# fi0edl(. 2)as$orthy3
Cut (ou )no, ,hat the Fors(tes are$ he said al#ost viciousl(.
2)as$orthy3
... the( *oth felt that the( had gone ;uite far enough in the e0pression
of feeling. 2)as$orthy3
Adverbs generay foo$ the verb. But instances are not fe$ $hen for
the sake of e#%hasis they take %re,%osition@
+ever has the Soviet Union deviated fro# its polic( of peace and
friendship a#ong nations.
%,a( ran the children.
'n co#%ound tense,for#s adverbia ad.uncts are %aced after the
au+iiary verb@
Cut D (ou're D never going to *ring out that a*out the pearls7
2)as$orthy3
b3 VA D ca#e in happ(4
VA/ D ca#e in$ pale ,ith fear.
Val regarded hi# round e(ed$ never having )no,n his uncle e0press
an( sort of feeling. 2)as$orthy3
Rec)less of the cold$ he thre, his ,indo, up and gased out across the
.ar). 2)as$orthy3
-e had co#e *ac) uneas($ sa(ing .aris ,as overrated. 2)as$orthy3
c3 The use of %re%ositiona grou%s to e+tend the verba idea is fairy
co##on@ .
V%NT D sta( in London4
V*/ D do in half an hour4
V%' D go to the#4
V%* D co#e fro# there4
V%Ving* D enter ,ithout loo)ing *ac).
d3 'nfinitiva #odifiers in verb,%hrases can be structuray a#biguous.
*istinction $i be #ade bet$een a3 adverbia reations e+%ressed by
infinitiva %hrases and b3 4succession of actions4. The for#er
;:8
can be transfor#ed into %atterns $ith in order to$ so as j V
inf
& and causes
of %ur%ose or ti#e& the atter D into co,ordinated finite verb,for#s.
E+a#%es are@
73 %nd he paused to see ,hether the *o( understood his #eaning 2k
in order to see...2 2)as$orthy3
-e turned at the gate to loo) *ac) at that russet #ound$ then ,ent
slo,l( to,ards the house$ ver( cho)( in the throat 1B in order to
loo) *ac)...2 2)as$orthy3
Crian laughed to thin) of it 2k Crian laughed ,hen he thought of it
D a subcause of ti#e3 2Siitoe3
;3 S,eat *eca#e #ud on his face$ ran to his #outh to *e *lo,n a,a(
,hen it chafed$ or ,iped if he had a free hand. 2Siitoe3
and ,as *lo,n a,a( ,hen it chafed... D 4succession of actions4& a
coordinated infinitiva %hrase.
She a,o)e to find that she ,as atone $i a$ays #ean@ She a,o)e and
found that she ,as alone 2the e+ica #eaning of the sentence,ee#ents
does not %er#it any other i#%ication D the so,caed e+ica incongruity
or i#%robabiity.
e3 VV
ing
D ,ent a,a($ s#iling4 VV
ing
N
D sat ,riting a letter4 VV
en
D
ca#e in enchanted4 VV
en
* D
returned surprised greatl(.
-e ,al)ed over to the piano$ and stood loo)ing at his #ap ,hile the(
all gathered round. 2)as$orthy3
<&on't read it<. :n his ,a( to the door he )issed her$ s#iling. 4Thin)
a*out #e.< 2"ronin3
f3 /atterns $ith the con.unctions@ as$ as if$ as though$ so as$ etc.@
V A/ D got up as usual4
V V/ D stopped so as to see all4
V V
ing
/ D stood as though hesitating4
V
ing
V
en
/ D loo)ing as if e0cited4
V
ing
*/ D running as if in alar#.
COP&LATI'E 'ERBS
The co%ua,verb in so,caed no#ina %redicate has no inde%endent
#eaning and functions to connect the sub.ect $ith the %redicative co#%e,
#ent e+%ressing the categories of the finite verb@ %erson& nu#ber& #ood&
as%ect& tense and voice.
)ra##arians esti#ate that there are about si+ty co%uative verbs in
Engish. The odest and #ost co##on co%ua is the verb to *e$ $hich in
this use is %racticay devoid of se#antic significance and serves to
connect the %redicative $ith the sub.ect.
A arge nu#ber of other verbs used in no#ina %redicates do not suffer
such se#antic decine as the true co%ua *e. These #ay reasonaby be
caed se#i,co%uative verbs. 'n #odern Engish they are in various stages
of deveo%#ent to$ards co%ua,state& a containing #ore or ess of their
origina concrete #eaning and as such differentiated one fro# another and
fro# the co%ua *e.
;::
-hen a verb is used as a ink,verb& it $eakens its %ri#ary e+ica
#eaning and ac0uires the abstract #eaning of *eing in a certain state 2Ae
is ha%%y3& of %assing into a ne$ state 2Ae *eca#e a teacher3 or of
re#aining in a certain state 2The $eather continued fine3. There are in the
#ain three kinds of co#%ound no#ina %redicates@ co#%ound no#ina
%redicates of *eing$ *eco#ing and re#aining.
Entrance into a state #ay ca attention to the first %oint or the fina
%oint in a deveo%#ent.
Cf. -e *eca#e 1or got2 sic). -e
*eca#e a great #aster.
A the verbs doing duty as co%uas are naturay intransitive. Severa of
the# $ere originay transitive and are sti fre0uenty used as transitives in
so#e of their a%%ications. Their assu#ing the character of co%uas often
originated in thro$ing off the refe+ive %ronoun and thus beco#ing
intransitive& e. g.@ -e felt #uch depressed$ originay -e felt hi#self #uch
depressed.
5n the other hand the transitive verb #a)e often retains its ob.ect but
oses so #uch of its concrete force that it is fet as a co%ua $ith the
#eaning *eco#e$ turn out$ to *e$ e. g.@
She ,ill #a)e hi# a good ,ife.
't is to be observed that the cassification of so#e of the co#binations
#ay a%%ear #ore or ess arbitrary or even o%en to e+ce%tion. Besides the
verbs $hich #ay be regarded as genuine co%uas& there are not a fe$
$hich serve this function ony in so#e s%ecia sense. Such are& for
instance& verbs of see#ing and a%%earing 0uite different fro# the rea
co%uas and the verbs $hich #ay be considered to do duty as such. The
fact is that as regards their function they a%%roach #oda verbs and such
adverbia ad.uncts as see#ingl( and apparentl($ e+%ressing as they do
so#e attitude on the %art of the s%eaker to$ards the fufi#ent of the action
or state referred to the sub.ect. They have this #oda force irres%ective of
the nature of the %redicate& e. g.@ -e see#s to )no, (ou4 he see#s to *e
happ(4 he see#s happ(.
But in $hatever connection the verbs to see# and to appear are used&
they naturay %reserve their fu #eaning. This distinguishes the# fro#
co%uas and the verbs doing duty as such $hose outstanding feature& as has
aready been observed& is that their #eaning is a #ore or ess $eakened
refe+ of that $hich they have in other functions.
Not ess characteristic is the use of the so,caed <#ove and change<
cass of verbs $hose %attern vaue in Modern Engish is #ost
idiosyncratic.
1oo$ed by 0uaitative ad.ectives verbs of this cass give such %atterns
as& for instance& to go dr($ to go ,rong$ to go ,et$ to co#e right$ to go sour$
to co#e eas($ to co#e true$ to gro, *ald$ to gro, old$ to get old$ to gro,
dar)$ to get dar)$ to gro, pale$ to gro, short$ to gro, cal#$ to fall asleep$
to fall dar)$ to fall ill$ to fall silent$ to fall short$ to run dr($ to run short$ to
turn cold$ to ,ear thin$ to taste s,eet$ etc.
The first ee#ent in such verb,%hrases is virtuay drained of its
%ri#ary se#antic vaue and #ade to %erfor# the function of a
gra##atica
;:<
order& assu#ing the character of the ink,verb to *e or& #uch #ore often&
to *eco#e$ e. g.@ to go hungr( ` to *e hungr(4 to go pale ] to *eco#e
pale$ to gro, dar) D to *eco#e dar)$ etc.
"o%uative verbs differ significanty in the range of their coocation&
$hich is naturay conditioned by the degree of their se#antic decine and
gra##aticaisation.
The %redicative co#%e#ent can be e+%ressed by such #or%hoogica
casses of $ords as@
73 nouns in co##on case@ She is an actress4
;3 ad.ectives@ She is so (oung4
83 %ossessive %ronouns 2absoute use3@ This is (ours4
:3 infinitives@ -e see#ed to *e surprised4
<3 %artici%es '@ This ,as rather anno(ing4
63 %artici%es ''@ She loo)ed surprised4
93 gerund@ Seeing is *elieving4
73 %re%ositiona noun %hrases@ It is of interest. 5e are of the sa#e age.
This #atter is of considera*le i#portance.
?3 ordina nu#eras@ -e ,as the first to help #e.
7>3$ords of the category of state@ She ,as not alone.
The verb to *e in its co%uative function #ay be used $ith a kinds of
co#%e#ents tabuated above.
The verb to *eco#e #ay be used $ith any kind of co#%e#ent e+ce%t
the infinitive and gerund& e. g.@ to *eco#e fa#ous$ *eco#e interested$
*eco#e ,orth( of so#ething$ etc.
The co%uative use of such verbs as to appear$ to sound$ to s#ell$ to
taste and others is #ore i#ited.
The co%uative verbs to co#e$ to go$ to fall$ to )eep$ to turn are fairy
co##on in %atterns $ith ad.ectives and occasiona $ith nouns as in@ I'#
9enn( Clanchard and I a# going to )eep 9enn( Clanchard. 2/outs#a3.
The verb to rest is used in such standardised %hrases as rest assured$
rest satisfied.
To get and to gro, functioning as co%ua,verbs are #ost co##on $ith
ad.ectives and %artici%es ''@ to get surprised$ to get (ounger$ to gro, old$
to gro, (oung$ to gro, co#forted$ to get e0cited$ etc.
The verb to get %resents a striking variety of its uses in Modern Engish
and deserves s%ecia consideration. 'ts distributiona vaue #ay be briefy
characterised as foo$s@
get j V
en
to get #arried 2the so,caed 4%assive,au+iiary4
7
3
get A A
to get angr(
to get ill 1Cf. to fall ill2 2a 4co%ua,ty%e verb43
to get cool
1
The %assive for#ed $ith get as au+iiary and the %ast %artici%e see#s to be
increasing in fre0uency& though gra##arians are at %resent not a agreed as to its status. 't
$i be re#e#bered that the activo,%assive use of get j Ven #ay %resent so#e difficuty in
gra##atica anaysis. "o#%are the foo$ing@ 2a3 ' li)e the ga#e to get started *efore I
*ust into it. 2b3 ' can get started on a #onograph if there is a des) I can hope up at4 or@ \ou
don't )no, ho, )een I a# to get started.
;:6
to get dar)
have got j V
inf
I've got to go to the li*rar( 2a #oda verb& i#%ying obi,
2gra##atica %eonas#G s(n./ gation& a styistic aternative
I have to go2 to #ust2
get A s#b 2s#th3 j V
inf
I'll get her to repeat the tas) 2causative #eaning3
get A s#b 2s#th3 j V
ing
Can (ou get the cloc) going? 2causative #eaning3
get A s#b 2s#th3 j V
en
"et the car started7 (causative #eaning3
Note. /atterns $ith get are #ore ivey and suggestive and #ay aso
i#%y so#e difficuty overco#e or effort #ade. "o#%are such synony#ic
%hrases as/ I have #( shoes #ade to order and I get #( shoes #ade to
order.
get A V
ing
-e got thin)ing.
get j % j V
ing
2a se#i,au+iiary verb of
-e got to thin)ing. the inchoative as%ect3
-e got to shivering.
get A V
inf
-e got to thin).
The distributiona #eaning of the verbs to co#e and to go used as
function,verbs #ay be briefy characterised as foo$s@
co#e j A
Things ,ill co#e right. 2a 4co%ua,ty%e4 verb3
co#e j V
ing
She ca#e running. 2a %hrasa verb3
co#e A V
en
The )not ca#e untied.
The string has co#e undone. 2a 4co%ua,ty%e4 verb3
The door ca#e unhinged.
The sea# ca#e unstitched 1unse,n2
1
.
go A A
go red
go ,et 2a 4co%ua,ty%e4 verb3
go pale
go ,rong
go A V
inf
So ur( and I ,ent to ,or)
,ith hi#. 2a se#i,au+iiary verb of
go A % j V
ing
as%ect denoting the inchoa,
The( ,ent to dancing. tive character of the actionG
7
The verb to co#e as a co%uative verb #ay be associated $ith the change for the
$orse& in co#bination $ith ad.ectivised %artici%es $ith the negative %refi+ un'. 'n other
cases the change for the $orse $i be denoted by %atterns $ith the verb to go$ e. g.@ The
#eat has gone *ad. %ll has gone ,rong. The #il) ,ent sour$ etc. Cf./ Things have co#e all
right.
247
go j V
ing
often associated $ith the
go hunting iterative character of the
go ro,ing action3
*ee%,rooted in Engish idio# is the use of the versatie verb to do
$hich #ay a%%ear in si+ different functions@
a3 a notiona verb& e. g.@ -e does a great deal for other people4 5hat is
done cannot *e undone.
b3 an au+iiary verb& e. g.@ &o (ou often go to the #ovies? -e didn't
,ant to argue.
c3 a haf,au+iiary of as%ect& as in@ to do lecturing$ to do shopping$ to
do tal)ing$ e. g.@ 5ill (ou do lecturing this (ear?
d3 a verb,substituteG in this function do #ay be used in %ace of any
notiona verb that has aready a%%eared in the i##ediate inguistic conte+t&
e. g.@ 273 -e ,or)s harder than I do. 2;3 The #usic sounds *etter than it
did (esterda(. 283 -e has acco#plished #ore in a ,ee) than she has done
in a (ear. 2:3 .lease #end #( shirt at once. I'# alread( doing it.
'n cases ike the ast t$o& invoving anaytica verb for#s& the Engish
anguage in A#erica is incined to use an au+iiary rather than a substitute
verb do$ and these t$o $oud #ore co##ony a%%ear as@ -e has
acco#plished #ore in a ,ee) than she has in a (ear. .lease #end #( shirt
at once. I alread( a#.
e3 an e#%hatic au+iiary& e. g.@ &o *e careful7 Fleur$ (ou do loo)
splendid7 5ell did I re#e#*er that da(.
/atterns $ith the e#%hatic do #ay be used to e+%ress various
e#otions& such as@ insistence& assurance& affir#ation of a re%y to a
0uestion in the affir#ative or agree#ent $ith $hat has been said&
sy#%athy& sur%rise& indignation& irony& #id re%roach& ad#onition& etc.
These subte shades of sub.ective #oda #eaning are a$ays signaed by
the s%eech conte+t or situation.
Rendering the %recise effect of the e#%hatic au+iiary do in a the
variety of its idiosyncratic use is not a$ays easy for a foreign student to
#aster. 'nstances are not fe$ $hen in the %rocess of transation our
inguistic kno$edge is severey %ut to the test. *e%ending on the situation&
the e0uivaents of this Engish idio# $i vary. *ifferent kind of #oda
$ords or %hrases $i generay serve this %ur%ose in other anguages.
"onsider the e+a#%es 0uoted in St(listi;ue Co#parge du Franais et
de l'%nglais by C. /. V V n a y and C. *arbenet@
Engish 1rench
&o *e careful7 Surtout faites *ien attention7
&o co#e7 Vene= donc7
-e did ans,er #( letter *ut
he evaded the point.
Il a *ien repondu a #a lettre$
#ais il a gludg la ;uestion.
I did chec) the oil. Mais si$ 3'ai vgrifig l'huile.
-e did do it 1as he said he
,ould2. -e had decided not
to 3oin us *ut he did co#e.
Mais il a fait cela. Il avait
dgcidg de ne pas se 3oindre
nous$ #ais il est tout de ##e
venu.
248
Infinitial, Gerundial and ;articipial ;!rases
Ne+t $e co#e to %redicative %hrases $ith verbids $hich can
reasonaby be %araeed $ith %redication e+%ressed by finite for#s of
the verb. These are@
a3 infinitiva ne+us %hrasesG
b3 gerundia ne+us %hrasesG
c3 %artici%ia ne+us %hrases.
(ike sentences& %redicative %hrases are binary in their structure&
but differ essentiay fro# the atter as to their gra##atica
organisation and %atterning.
A sentence is an inde%endent ne+us $hich for#s a co#%ete %iece
of co##unication.
A %redicative %hrase is a de%endent ne+us $hich for#s a %art of a
sentence.
The i##ediate constituents of a sentence are sub.ect and %redicate&
those of a %redicative %hrase are inguisticay different@ the referent of
the sub.ective ee#ent of the %hrase does not coincide $ith the referent
of the sub.ect of the sentence.
;articipial ;redicatie ;!rases
/artici%ia %redicative %hrases differ in their structure.
The( filed in$ Mr. Cell*( going first, and Soa#es escorting %inifred
after an interval of one #inute *( his ,atch. 2)as$orthy3
-is )no,ledge of their language being deried from !is public sc!ool,
he did not understand the# ,hen the( spo)e. 2)as$orthy3
%ndre, la( ,ith half'closed e(es !is !ead resting near !er. 2"ronin3
/artici%ia %hrases are so#eti#es incuded by #eans of the
%re%osition ,ith or ,ithout$ the atter function on anaogy $ith the
%re%ositions incuding infinitiva %redicative %hrases.
So#eone else ,as a,a)e$ sitting wit! !ands clasped around !is
#nees nearby. +Si!!ito./
%it! fenders spread li#e wings ,e scattered light through all %storia...
21itEgerad3
0f. %it! no doors to !old it bac#, he nearl( curled up and died at the
shoc). 2Siitoe3
And here are a fe$ e+a#%es of absoute %redicative %hrases $ith
the 4non,verba4 eading ee#ent@
Captain +ichols dragged Stric)land$ *leeding fro# a ,ound in !is ar#$
!is clot!es in rags, into the street. 2Maugha#3
COORDINATE PHRASES
'n a coordinate %hrase a the co#%onent %arts are identica in their
syntactic vaue. The nu#ber of its i##ediate constituents is naturay
not i#ited. 'n ter#s of their gra##atica organisation& %hrases of this
ty%e #ay be subdivided into t$o grou%s@ syndetic and asyndetic.
;:=
Syndetic 0oordinate ;!rases
'n syndetic coordinate %hrases the co#%onents are .oined by function
$ords& so caed& con.unctive $ords or coordinators.
't see#s %ractica to distinguish the foo$ing a#ong the#@
I and II as ,ell as A' *oth ... and *ut
rather than either . . . or
nor together ,ith neither ... nor
not along ,ith not 1onl(2 ... *ut 1also2
or
Those in the first cou#n are generay %aced bet$een the ee#ents
they .oin& those in the #idde cou#n #ay a%%ear in that %osition and
#ay aso be found in s%it structures. Those in the third cou#n are in
t$o %arts and as such are generay caed correativesG the first %art
a%%ears at the beginning of the structure and the second bet$een its
ast t$o co#%onents.
E+a#%es of syndetic coordinate %hrases are not far to seek.
In the w!ite and blac# at#osphere stood Macgregor$ a rather
sha#efaced loo)ing Macgregor$ ,ithout !at or coat$ a da#p and sole#n
Macgregor. 2Adridge3
* dull commiseration, toget!er wit! a ague sense of in?ury
crept a*out Soa#es' heart. 2)as$orthy3
't is to be noted that in #ost cases the '"!s of a coordinate %hrase
beong to one and the sa#e #or%hoogica cass of $ords. But instances
are not fe$ $hen the coordinate %hrase is #ade u% of $ords beonging
to different %arts of s%eech& as in@
+utraged and on edge$ Soa#es recoiled. 2)as$orthy3
The re%etition of the con.unction in coordinate syndetic %hrases
is often acco#%ished for styistic %ur%oses. "onsider the foo$ing
e+a#%e@
\our uncle Soa#es is a #atch for ever(*od(. -e's a ery cleer man,
and good4loo#ing, and wealt!y, and most considerate and careful,
and not at all old$ considering ever(thing. 2)as$orthy3
*syndetic 0oordinate ;!rases
Asyndetic coordinate %hrases consist of t$o or #ore syntacticay
e0uivaent units.
The units so .oined #ay be any of the %arts of s%eech& function $ords&
or #ore co#%e+ structures taking %art in gra##atica organisation.
The .oining #ay be acco#%ished by $ord order and %rosody aone&
indicated in $riting by a co##a or dash.
A#ong asyndetic coordinate %hrases $e often find structures $ith
#ore than t$o constituents. E+a#%es are@
%nd Soa#es ,as alone again. The spidery, dirty$ ridiculous *usiness7
2)as$orthy3
She ,as un)no,n in .aris$ and he *ut little )no,n$ so that discretion
see#ed unnecessar( in those wal#s, tal#s, isits to concerts, picture4
;<>
galleries, t!eatres, little dinners, e5peditions to <ersailles, St.
0loud, een .ountainebleau. 2'bid.3
The( ,ere peeis!, crusty, silent, eyeing not!ing in particular
and moing t!eir feet 2*reiser3
'nstances are not fe$ $hen the .oining of the units in a %hrase is
acco#%ished by both syndeton and asyndeton.
"a=ing at hi#$ so old, t!in, w!ite, and spotless$ %nnette #ur#ured
so#ething in French ,hich 9a#es did not understand 2)as$orthy3
She also noticed that he ,as smoot!4s!aen, good4loo#ing and
young$ *ut nothing #ore. 2*reiser3
-is #aster$ big, surly and forbidding and ,ith a po,erful #oustache$
glared #ercilessl(. 2)ordon3
The co#*ination of her treac!ery, defiance, and impudence ,as too
#uch for hi#. 2'bid.3
"osey reated to coordinate %hrases are the so,caed a%%ositives.
'n #ost cases a%%ositive %hrases are #ade u% of t$o ee#ents $hich #ay
be@ nouns& noun,%ronouns and substantivised grou%s.
Ter#ina .uncture in such %hrases is o%tiona. 'f there is a .uncture
it is indicated in $riting by a co##a or a dash. E+a#%es are@
N
co#
N
co#
D the *ird heron
the #a##al ,hale
Nco# N%ro% D .rofessor xro,n
The river Tha#es
N
%ro%
N D Cradle($ the le0icographer N N/ D
Soa#es$ the #an of propert( The Repu*lic of
France
The of,%hrase is added to a noun& not to define its #eaning #ore
accuratey& but to indicate a cass to $hich a thing or %erson that has
.ust been characterised as an individua by the governing noun beongs.
This %attern is not kno$n in 5d Engish. 't has co#e into the anguage
fro# (atin through 1rench.
'n Modern Engish a feeing for its origin has been ost for the
co##on cass noun after of can no$ be re%aced by a %ro%er na#e.
Re v i s i o n Ma t e r i a
7. Be ready to discuss the binary structure of Engish described as
Minor and Ma.or Synta+.
;. "o##ent on different $ays of e+%ressing syntactic reations in
Modern Engish.
8. Revie$ your kno$edge of the gra##atica organisation of noun,
%hrases& verb,%hrases and ad.ectiva %hrases.
:. "o##ent on ob.ect,%redicate reations as e+%ressed in structures
of %redication.
<. Account for structura a#biguity in verb,%hrases.
6. Be ready to discuss structura a#biguity in %re#odification of
nouns by nouns.
6*)C
Capt.r >II
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE
In co#bination of sentences into arger units $e #ay observe t$o
different ty%es of gra##atica reationshi% based u%on reative %osition
and interaction of sentences. These are co,ordination and subordination.
This cassification re#ains the %revaent sche#e of the structura
cassification of sentences in the gra##ars of a ty%es in various
anguages. A very i#%ortant syntactic conce%t deveo%ed aong $ith this
cassification is the conce%t of syndeton and asyndeton.
Sentences .oined together by #eans of s%ecia function $ords designed
for this %ur%ose are syndetic& those .oined $ithout function $ords are
a,#nd.tic 2or contact,causes3.
'n ter#s of #odern inguistics& the %robe# of the co#%ound sentence
has been treated in different $ays. So#e gra##arians retain the traditiona
trichoto#y& though the ter#s e#%oyed are so#eti#es non,traditiona. "h.
1ries re.ects the traditiona cassification and ter#s. Such atte#%ts $ere
aready #ade by 5. Ces%ersen in his theory of the three ranks. 1oo$ing
Boo#fied!s ideas of the incuded %osition of a gra##atica for#& "h.
1ries substitutes for the traditiona doctrine his theory of incuded
sentences and se0uences of sentencesG the atter conce%t see#s to coincide
$ith $hat $e find in S$eet!s gra##ar
7
.
"h. 1ries! treat#ent of the co#%ound sentence does not see# fuy
convincing. According to 1ries& the so,caed 4co#%ound4 sentence
a%%ears to be %ri#ariy a #atter of the %unctuation of $ritten te+ts& as in
his #echanica recordings of s%eech ony very fe$ instances occurred $ith
a cear 8D;D8 intonation before the $ords isted as se0uence signas& i. e.
signas of an inde%endent sentence. This does not see# to agree $ith his
cassification of a so,caed se0uence signas and co,ordinating
con.unctions together $ith subordination con.unctions as function $ords
of the grou% C& i. e. as signas of incusion& though $ith a re#ark that it has
been done tentativey.
The atte#%ts of the authors of the oder scientific gra##ars to re.ect
the conce%t of the cause as it $as identified by so#e gra##arians and
introduce such notions as 4haf,causes& 4abridged4,causes& 4infinitive4&
4gerund4& 4%artici%e4 causes #ay be observed in Bryant!s
;
gra##ar&
treating verbid causes. This trend has been su%%orted by so#e structura
inguists& $ho do not recognise the structura distinction bet$een si#%e
and co#%e+ sentences.
7
See/ A. S$eet. A Ne$ Engish )ra##ar. 5+ford& 7=<<& %%. 76>,79>.
;
See/ M. M. Bryant. A 1unctiona Engish )ra##ar. Boston& 7=:<& %%. 779, 7;<.
252
Co0pound ,.nt.nc., are structures of co,ordination $ith t$o or #ore
i##ediate constituents $hich are syntacticay e0uivaent& i. e. none of
the# is beo$ the other in rank.
Co0p!.% ,.nt.nc., are structures of subordination $ith t$o or #ore
i##ediate constituents $hich are not syntacticay e0uivaent. 'n the
si#%est case& that of binary structure& one of the# is the %rinci%a cause
to $hich the other is .oined as a subordinate. The atter stands in the
reation of ad.unct to the %rinci%a cause and is beneath the %rinci%a
cause in rank. The de%endent cause #ay be either coordinate or
subordinate.
The constituents of a co#%osite sentence are organicay interreated
and as such are not inde%endent ee#ents of a singe syntactic unit
7
.
5ur starting %oint in describing the #uti%icity of $ays in $hich
Engish sentences #ay ogicay be co#bined in actua usage $i be to
distinguish on.;0.0-.r and t4o;0.0-.r co#%osite sentences.
This distinction is a reaity in both& s%eech and $riting& but it often has
no for#a #arkings other than intonation in the one case and %unctuation
in the other.
The inguistic essence of these t$o ty%es of co#%osite syntactic units is
best understood $hen vie$ed in ter#s of their #eaning and structura
%ecuiarities.
As $e sha further see& a #a.or %oint of inguistic interest is %resented
aso by the correation of the verb,for#s in the co#%onent %arts of a
co#%osite sentence and its functioning in different conte+ts of
co##unication.
't is note$orthy that $hen t$o sentences occur together as constituents
of an utterance& their reationshi% is indicated by at east one and
so#eti#es ai of the foo$ing features@
73 the fact that one i##ediatey foo$s the other in ti#e suggests their
natura reationshi% in both e+ica and gra##atica #eaningG
;3 the use of certain inguistic devices in the first sentence #ay aso
suggest that another sentence sha foo$G
83 the use of so#e $ords in the second sentence #ay reca certain
ee#ents of the first and set u% retros%ective structura inks $ith the atter.
(et us co0par. the foo$ing co#%ound sentences $hich differ ony
in the order of their constituents@
2a3 +o, she is #( colleague$ t,o (ears ago she ,as #( student.
2b3 T,o (ears ago she was #( student$ no, she is #( colleague.
The tota #eaning of 2a3 is not absoutey the sa#e as that of 2b3.
-e cannot fai to see that t$o sentences 2a3 and 2b3 differ in e#%hasis&
$hich is due to reative %osition of the given utterances.
The sa#e is true of a other ty%es of co#%osite sentences in
coordination and subordination.
7
See6 A. \. J T m S I J R . a pOL__LWZiSTQJs mOZOJMS TIJUJpJ mOSMIJSUZX.
q[JmOJTh TZUWLQTZTL AHDGJcJ[[HgH XlhQLr. f.D |.& 7=6>.
253
-e have seen throughout our %revious discussion that the %osition of
$ords in syntactic structures reative to one another is a #ost i#%ortant
%art of Engish synta+. Reative %osition see#s to bear reation to the
#eaning of sentences as $e. That gra##ar #ust take account of
4sentence,order4 as $e as $ord,order can hardy eave any doubt.
The si#%est cases of t$o,#e#ber co#%osite sentences are those of
co,ordination D %arata+is 2)reek@ para j tasseinD<to %ace beside43.
A singe idea e+%ressed in t$o,#e#ber sentences of co,ordination
#akes itsef #ost evident in the ogica .oining of %redications $ith
different sub.ects. Si#iarity or contrast of te#%ora reations is generay
consoidated by con.unctions. E+a#%es are not far to seek.
It ,as full late for the river$ *ut the ,eather ,as lovel($ and su##er
lingered *elo, the (ello,ing leaves. 2)as$orthy3
%nd she *ent for,ard$ and her fine light hair fell over her chee).
2Mansfied3
% ,ind had cleared the #ist$ the autu#n leaves ,ere rustling$ and the
stars ,ere shining. 2Mansfied3.
The train gave a gentle lurch$ the( ,ere off. 2Mansfied3
Cf. Ukrainian@ OJsKIL pOJlL& V UVi mOJ_iLIL& V lUJRP MSUN KP_ZWN
QOPpJ_. 2\JTnOL3
Russian@ S_IX JTRSZILTN& Z YPOX mOJ_iLILTN. 2PKQZU3
\ iPMSTUJs YhTWOJWJs& USlL_SWUJ TWSmN mJQOhILTN nUJs UJiNn&
UL mJWS_USRKS_ USYS RTmhcUPI pPTWJs mJTSR lRSlM. 2dJONQZs3
"o#%osite sentences of subordinationDhy%ota+is 1h(po ] 4under4 A
j tassein ` 4to %ut in order43 are different in their ogica and gra##atica
organisation& characterised by subordinative e+%ression of the syntactic
reation bet$een #ain and 0uaifying ee#ents.
'nstead of serving as co#%ete sentences& 0uaifying ee#ents are
incuded in arger structures $ithin the i#its of sentences. Athough they
#ay be structuray rather co#%icated $ithin the#seves& they act as units
on a higher eve of structure.
By far the greater nu#ber of sub,causes begin $ith a function $ord
$hich signas the fact the structure to foo$ is an incuded ee#ent. There
are t$o kinds of such function $ords 2so#eti#es caed incuders3@
73 si#%e con.unctive $ords& $hose soe function is to #ark a structure
as a certain ty%e of sub,causeG
;3 reative %ronouns& $hich& in addition to this function& have a further
function $ithin the structura %attern of the sub,cause.
't see#s %erfecty reasonabe to distinguish here t$o ines of inguistic
deveo%#ent@ 73 one,#e#ber co#%e+ sentences and ;3 t$o,#e#ber
co#%e+ sentences $ith subordinate causes
7
2further abbreviated as 4sub,
causes43 of cause or resut& %ur%ose and ti#e& conditiona and concessive
sub,causes. (ogicay interreated& $ith one idea or subordinated to
another& the constituents of such sentences #ake u% a singe co#%e+
syntactic unit.
7
The traditiona ter#s used in o%%osition to #ain cause and inde%endent cause are
subordinate cause and de%endent cause& but students of anguage shoud be %re%ared to
#eet the# under such na#es as incuded sentence 21ries3 or incuded cause 21rancis3
ado%ted to e#%hasise the structura %osition of causes of this sort.
;<:
E+a#%es are@
Cut she'd had heard his na#e until s!e saw it on t!e t!eatres.
2Mansfied3
%s soon as he had *eco#e a director$ 5inifred and others of his fa#il(
had *egun to ac;uire shares to neutralise their inco#e'ta0. 2)as$orthy3
5hat can (ou do if you are t!irty and, turning t!e corner of your own
street, you are oercome, suddenly by a feeling of bliss D absolute bliss)
2Mansfied3
If 3aurie agreed wit! t!e ot!ers, then it ,as *ound to *e all right.
2Mansfied3
It ,as so *ig t!at t!e carter and ;at carried it into t!e courtyard.
2Mansfied3
*lt!oug! &ert!a Young was t!irty she still had #o#ents li)e this
,hen she ,anted to run instead of ,al). 2Mansfied3
Cf. Ukrainian@
\CahZE i ? j@KE& WLQ VUQL YVIX UZc 2mOJSQWVR TLMZY
QJIpJTmUZQVR3& XQ YVIX MlSOQLIL& RSOWZWNTX V TRJ MJmJRUSUUX
RZMP_Pt. 2\WSIN_Lc3
bJj@k ClJ ?Ec@& LIS X iPn& iPn R TUVpLc QRVWJQ TJIJMQZs LOJ_LW.
2\JTnOL3
[SiJOZ R OJWV& iZlH AHa^@KE [J kFaE GEKE KG@[FJm C KigKE
FB@aE& mOJcJMZIZ R MJRpZc& VUWZ_UZc OJl_JRLc. 2dJUiLO3
[TV mJ,YJsJRJ_P ULTWOJtUV& IH ABG@D@ n IHkHD@. 2{ZINTNQZs3
Russian@ o@Z KHahZH i BGH dKH YAafF@a& X WJWiLT S
OLTmJOXMZITX JYJ RTS_.
pAaE ^J^ YjH^Ea E? ^Hc@1 YLYPKQL PTWOLZRLIL R QPcUS
ZUWSOSTUSsKZS TJYOLUZX. 2dJONQZs3
qYAZ@k i Aa@I1 _Js _Si TZISU. 2PQJRTQZs3
Aere beong sentences $ith such descri%tive reative subordination that
give ony so#e additiona infor#ation about $hat has aready been
sufficienty defined. E+a#%es are@
The sun$ w!ic! !ad been !idden all day, no, ca#e out in all its
splendour.
%ll *ecause her heritage ,as that tragic opti#is#$ w!ic! is all too
often t!e only in!eritance of yout!, still !alf asleep, she s#iled ,ith a
little nervous tre#or round her #outh. 2Mansfied3
Cf. aYILiQJ JYOLWZIJTN R YSIPn WPiP& ZHKHG@i BH^[Ec@a@Ah1
GHAa@ E HIaJg@a@ [JIH. 2PKQZU3
-e aso incude here such borderine cases $ith sub,causes $here a
co#%e+ sentence a%%roaches co,ordination@
She is #ost attentive at the lesson$ w!ic! you seldom are.
She did it li)e the clever girl, w!ic! s!e undoubtedly is.
-e said no ,ord$ w!ic! surprised me.
Cf. [VU US TQLlLR UV TIJRL& oJ _SUS lMZRPRLIJ.
!ver( #orning *efore going to *usiness he ca#e into the nurser( and
gave her a perfunctor( )iss$ to w!ic! s!e responded wit! "Goodbye,
father<. 2Mansfied3
Cf. aYS MSRZh ULMSIZ SIWhS KIXmQZ Z QOLTUhS YLK_LQZ& `KH
IfD@aH Y [Ej KHahZH D WJOSTWRSUUhS TIPiLZ. 2PKQZU3
;<<
Aw the above given ty%es of t$o,#e#ber sentences in subordination
stand in contrast to their o%%osites D one,#e#ber co#%e+ sentences
$here a subordinate cause goes %atterning ony as a deveo%ed %art of the
#ain cause.
The first to be #entioned here are co#%e+ sentences $ith reative sub,
causes& attributive in their #eaning. 'n such sentences %rono#ina,
de#onstrative ee#ents are organicay indis%ensabe and are readiy
reinstated in the %rinci%a cause. E+a#%es are@
It ,as the sa#e ship as that in w!ic! my wife and t!e correspondent
came to $ngland. 2)as$orthy3
The fello,$ ,ith his *eard and his cursed a#used ,a( of spea)ing D
son of the old #an w!o !ad gien !im t!e nic#name @(an of ;roperty<.
2)as$orthy3
Cut at night in his leisure #o#ents he ,as ravaged *( the thought that
time was always flying and money flowing in, and !is own future as
muc! @in irons" as eer. 2)as$orthy3
%ndre, too) advantage of the #o#ent to launch one of those lectures$
rare (et odious$ w!ic! made !im sound li#e a deacon of a
nonconformist c!apel. 2"ronin3
So she slept and drea#ed$ and s#iled in her sleep$ and once thre, out
her ar# to feel so#ething ,hich ,as not there$ drea#ing still. 2Mansfied3
"f. WJ YhI mJIQ& R QJWJOhs mJmLI \SOSQL. 2LMSSR3
UZpZ& R QJWJOhc YhIZ XOQJ JmZTLUh _PSTWRSUUhS& TZINUhS
MPcJ_ Z RJISs OSRJInZJUSOh& JTWLRIXIZ RJ _US USZlpILMZ_JS
RmSiLWISUZS. 2z. aTWOJRTQZs3
[ZTJQZs& XTUZs RSiVO YPR TmJRUSUZs WZc iLO mOJTWJOP& WJpJ lLmLcP
YSl_SUJTWV& XQZs RILTWZRZs WVINQZ RSiJOL_ Vt mVMc_LOUJ QOLUZ.
2dJUiLO3
S YPR _LISUNQZs YJIJWXUZs mWLKJQ& XQV R ULKVs mVMpVOTNQVs
JQJIZV mJQLlPRLIZTX MPS OVMQJ. 2OLUQJ3
1urther e+a#%es of one,#e#ber co#%e+ sentences are those in
$hich a sub,cause e+%resses the ob.ect or the sub.ect fet as #issing in
the %rinci%a cause& e. g.@
%unt 9ule( ,as sure that dear Val ,as ver( clever. 2)as$orthy3
&id not 5inifred thin) t!at it was muc! better for t!e young people to
be secure and not run any ris# at t!eir age' 2)as$orthy3
%!at's done cannot *e undone 2/roverb3
Cf. Ukrainian@
[TV lULnWN& lH qa@KHF@ aJgZC C AJGJ^[C HBJG@rCm GHIEKh
IJ?^Hg@[[H. 2JOUVsiPQ3
fVINsJUZ OLMXUTNQZc InMSs UV UL TSQPUMP US lLYPRLIZ& lH mj
nEKKi [@aJnEKh KCahZE GC^[HcY ZG@sDC K@ c@kIYK[hHcY at^AKD@.
2fLIZKQJ3
Russian@
\WLUP MP_LWN& `KH AZY`@JFh Kf D GH^[Hc ZG@t.
"ontact causes consisting of a finite %redication $ithout connectives
are #ore co##on in s%oken than in $ritten Engish& %robaby
;<6
because the %otentia structura a#biguities #ay be resoved #ore easiy
by intonation than by %unctuation. There is every reason to say& in genera&
that the #ore for#a the conte+t& inguistic or non,inguistic& the #ore
ikey it is that a con.unction or a reative %ronoun $i be %resent.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
The trou*le is he can't help The trou*le is that he cannot
(ou. help (ou.
-ere is the #an he told his -ere is the #an to ,ho#
stor( to. he told his stor(.
Aere beong aso sub,causes $hich e+tend so#e %art of the %rinci%a
cause@ sub.ect& %redicative& attribute& ob.ect or adverbias $ith
de#onstrative %ronouns& %resent or readiy understood& e. g.@
%ll is ,ell that ends ,ell. -e is the one (ou ,anted to see.
COORDINATION
The %rocess of coordination& si#%y stated& invoves the inking of
structures of e0ua gra##atica rank D singe $ords and %hrases in
ee#entary co#%ound grou%s or inde%endent causes in co#%ound
sentences. The coordinative con.unctions and the correatives serve to
%roduce this coordination by .oining the gra##aticay e0uivaent
ee#ents in 0uestion. T$o or #ore causes e0ua in rank can together be
given the status of a singe sentence. Such co,ordinated units #ake u% a
co#%ound sentence.
't is overty si#%e to describe the con.unctions as coordinators
$ithout certain 0uaifications. Even and is not %urey a coordinator.
-hatever the units it co#bines& and usuay indicates an additive
reationshi%& and so#eti#es it intensifies& or indicates continuous and
re%eated action& as in@ She ,aited and ,aited. She tal)ed and tal)ed and
tal)ed. The( ,ent around and around. The $ords *ut and (et indicate
contrast& o%%osition& or negationG so and for sho$ severa reationshi%s&
a#ong the# %ur%ose& cause& resut& or inference or and nor indicate $hat
#ight be described as aternation& choice or o%%osition. 5bviousy
con.unctions cannot be considered as e#%ty connecting $ords& and there
is a$ays seection in their use in ter#s of stye and %ur%ose.
There is usuay a sense of gra##atica baance that characterises
coordination& even if there is a ogica ine0uaity bet$een the coordinated
ee#ents.
As a #atter of fact& the ony situations in $hich the %rocess of
coordination see#s to co#bine ee#ents of both gra##aticay and
ogicay e0ua rank $ith significant fre0uency is at the eve of singe
$ords and short %hrases.
The traditiona trichoto#y D the cassification of sentences into
si#%e& co#%ound and co#%e+ D arose in Engish %rescri%tive gra##ar
in the #idde of the nineteenth century on the basis of a si#%e,co#%ound
dichoto#y& $hich can be traced to at east t$o non,gra##atica sources.
The first $as the conce%t of the %eriod 2as a rhetorica unit e+%ressing
;<9
co#%ete sense3 and its %arts& coons and co##as& evoved by cassica and
#edieva rhetoric. This conce%t $as the guiding %rinci%e of Engish
%unctuation not ony in the si+teenth century& before the a%%earance of the
eariest Engish gra##ars& but aso ater& $hen the notion of the sentence
ca#e to be incuded into synta+ %ro%er 2since the beginning of the
eighteenth century3.
The second non,gra##atica source of this cassification $as the
ogica conce%t of si#%e and co#%ound a+io#s or %ro%ositions& $hich
furnished the basis for cassifying %unctuation units 2%eriods3 into si#%e
and co#%ound sentences& according to the nu#ber of 4nouns4 and 4verbs4&
that is& sub.ects and %redicates& contained $ithin these %unctuation units
2in the gra##ars of the eighteenth and the first haf of the nineteenth
century3.
So#e Engish gra##arians have abandoned the trichoto#ic
cassification introducing ne$ descri%tive ter#s such as 4doube4 and
4#uti%e4 sentences 2beginning $ith N e s f V e 7 d! s gra##ar in 7=;:3&
or ater D the 4du%ication4 and 4co#bination4 of the %atterns 2by C. Aook
and Mathe$s and /. Roberts3.
The conce%t of the trichoto#ic cassification $as aso re.ected in \. a
n V J n! s and E. Kruisinga!s scientific gra##ars. 'n 5. Ces%ersen!s $orks
such syntactic structures are treated in ter#s of his theory of three ranks.
1oo$ing "h. 1ries& so#e structura gra##arians introduce the ter#s
4incuded sentences4 and 4se0uence sentences4.
'nteresting observations in this %art of synta+ have been #ade by
Soviet inguists. 'n (. J f V Q! s #onogra%h
7
$e find a stricty for#a
anaysis $ith a ne$ dichoto#ic structura cassification based on %urey
gra##atica criteria of the syntactic reations bet$een the %redicative
constituents of Eary Modern Engish te+ts of the %re,Shakes%earian
%eriod 2co#%ared $ith the corres%onding constructions in %resent,day
Engish3. 5ur investigation& in $hich $e have not foo$ed traditiona
conce%ts and %unctuation too cosey& has ed to the foo$ing resuts@ of
the four syntactic #odes of connecting sub.ect,%redicate units 2or causes3
in Engish 'Dcoordination& '' D reative anne+ation 1cf. the )er#an ter#
4reativische Anknu%fung43& ''' D subordination and 'V D insertion
2%arenthesis3& t$o are %redo#inant in for#ing #uti,cause sentences
2$hich are o%%osed to singe,cause sentences& according to the ne$
dichoto#ic cassification of sentences advanced by the author3. These are
subordination and insertion. These syntactic devices are %articuary
i#%ortant because they serve to introduce causes functioning ony as %arts
of other sentences 2unabe to 4standaone43& $hich is a reevant factor for a
#uti,cause sentence.
"oordination $ithin a #uti,cause sentence is a #eans of .oining a
series of %arae subordinate causes in .oint de%endence u%on a
subordination centre in the eading cause& or a #eans of connecting t$o
or #ore inde%endent #ain causes& $hich .ointy subordinate& a co##on
7
See/ |. |. J Z Q. \IJUJS mOSMIJSUZS R UJRJ,LUpIZsTQJ_ XlhQS. |.& 7=6?.
;<?
#e#ber& #osty e+%ressed by a de%endent cause. 'n other $ords&
coordination in this #onogra%h is recognised as a syntactic #eans of
connecting the constituent %arts of #uti,cause sentences ony $hen it is
#ade use of in the sa#e $ay as in singe,cause sentences& $hich contain a
#e#ber in co##on subordinating or subordinated by coordinated
syntactic ee#ents. 'n a other cases inde%endent coordinated sub.ect
%redicate units are vie$ed as syntacticay inde%endent though
conte+tuay reated sentences& regardess of the #arks of %unctuation
$hich divide the#.
Reative anne+ation is described by (. 'ofik as a #ode of connection
$hich has no %arae in the singe,cause sentence. Such connectives
introduce sentences $hich are not subordinated to any %art of the
%receding sentence and are therefore vie$ed as se#i,de%endent
conte+tuay reated sentences.
The %atterns of #uti,cause sentences containing #ore than t$o
causes 2fro# three to t$eve or thirteen3 are based u%on t$o funda#enta
%rinci%es of connection. The first is the %rinci%e of consecutive 2ste%,
$ise3 subordination& according to $hich in each cause 2e+ce%t the ast
one3 there is a singe subordination centre& no#ina or verba. 't
subordinates ony one de%endent cause. According to (. 'ofik the
resuting sentence,%attern #ay be described as a chain of causes& in $hich
there is one absoute %rinci%a cause& one absoute de%endent cause 2the
ast in the chain3 and one or #ore causes both subordinating and
subordinated. The nu#ber of causes corres%onds to the nu#ber of
syntactic eves in the #uti,cause sentence.
The second %rinci%e is that of %arae 2or ho#ogeneous3 and non,
%arae con,subordination 2i. e. de%endence of t$o or #ore %arae or
non,%arae causes u%on one& t$o or #ore subordination centres $ithin
the #ain cause3. 'n the second sentence,%attern 2re%resented by severa
variant %atterns3 there are ony t$o syntactic eves as a de%endent
causes are of the sa#e eve of subordination.
-hen both these %rinci%es are co#bined $ithin one and the sa#e
sentence& the #ost co#%icated structures of #uti,cause sentences arise.
These structures re%resent co#bined or 4#i+ed4 %atterns dis%aying
features characteristic of both basic %atterns D they contain #ore than t$o
syntactic eves& $ith t$o or #ore subordinate causes on different eves
of subordination.
There is a certain interde%endence bet$een the nu#ber of causes in a
#ut,cause sentence and the %atterns e#%oyed to arrange these causes
$ithin the sentence. These t$o basic %atterns described arise on the eve
of three,cause sentences. 5n the eve of four,cause sentences& the
si#%est co#bination& of t$o basic %atterns& beco#es %ossibe. -hen the
%atterns are co#bined& there is a$ays a co##on ink bet$een the# D a
cause beonging to both %atterns.
The ne$ assu#%tions and acute observations #ade in (. 'ofik!s
investigation are of considerabe inguistic interest as a distinctivey
%rogressive ste% in the deveo%#ent of syntactic theory. So#e %oints of
her significant and origina argu#entation are ho$ever o%en to thought
and 0uestioning. This concerns %ri#ariy the vie$ advocated by the
;<=
author in discussing the inguistic status of co#%ound sentences& the
e+istence of $hich in Engish can hardy be denied.
't see#s #ore in accord $ith the nature of anguage to recognise
coordination as a gra##atica category organised as a co#%e+ syste#
$ith #any variant and borderine cases& $here the roe of con.unctions
serving to unite certain syntactic units into a arger $hoe is e+tre#ey
i#%ortant and #ust never be ost sight of.
There is aso itte .ustification to dis%ense $ith the ter#s 4%rinci%a4
and 4subordinate4 cause introducing the ter# 4%redicative unit4 instead.
The atter see#s to be a#biguous as co##ony used $ith reference to the
so,caed secondary %redication as $e. (itte is gained by this.
The for#ative $ords inking the %arts of a co#%ound sentence fa into
ceary distinct ty%es@ )/ coordinati=. con2unction,1 6/ con2uncti=.
ad=.r-,1 P/ :i%.d pr.po,itiona! pra,.,.
't is i#%ortant to re#e#ber that so#eti#es there is no for#a ink
binding the #e#bers together since the ogica connection for#s a
sufficient tie and #akes it abundanty cear. U%on cose investigation&
ho$ever& it $i beco#e cear that such a%%arenty inde%endent sentences
are not absoutey inde%endent and one of the# i#%icity stands in so#e
gra##atica reation to the other.
't $i be he%fu to identify inking $ords in co,ordination as foo$s@
a3 "o%uative& connecting t$o #e#bers and their #eanings& the
second #e#ber indicating an addition of e0ua i#%ortance& or& on the other
hand& an advance in ti#e and s%ace& or an intensification& often co#ing in
%airs& then caed correatives@ and, *oth... and4 e;uall(... and4 ali)e... and4
at once... and4 not... nor for neither$ or and neither24 not 1or never2... not
2or nor2... either4 neither... nor, etc.
b3 *is.unctive& connecting t$o #e#bers but disconnecting their
#eaning& the #eaning in the second #e#ber e+cuding that in the first@ or$
in oder Engish aso eit!er or out!erA4or) and in 0uestions ,hether... or
$ith the force of si#%e or, or... eit!er, eit!er... or& etc.& the dis.unctive
adverbs else, ot!erwise, or... or, or... else$ in oder Engish ot!er else.
c3 Adversative& connecting t$o #e#bers& but contrasting their
#eaning@ *ut$ *ut then$ onl($ still$ (et$ and (et$ ho,ever$ on the other hand$
again$ on the contrar($ etc.
d3 "ausa& adding an inde%endent %ro%osition e+%aining the %receding
state#ent& re%resented ony by the singe con.unction for6 The *roo) ,as
ver( high$ for a great deal of rain had fallen over night.
e3 'ative& introducing an inference& concusion& conse0uence& resut@
na#el($ therefore$ on that account$ conse;uentl($ accordingl($ for that
reason$ so$ then$ hence$ etc.
f3 E+%anatory& connecting $ords& %hrases or sentences and
introducing an e+%anation or a %articuarisation@ namely, to wit$ t!at is,
t!at is to say, or, suc! as, as, li#e, for e5ample, for instance, say, let us
say, etc.
260
"oordinative con.unctions are rather fe$ in nu#ber@ and, but, or$ yet$
for.
Sentence,inking $ords& caed con.unctive advebs are@ conse-uently$
furt!ermore, !ence, !oweer, moreoer$ neert!eless, t!erefore.
So#e ty%ica fi+ed %re%ositiona %hrases functioning as sentence
inkers are@ at least, as a result, after a w!ile, in addition, in contrast, in
t!e ne5t place, on t!e ot!er !and, for e5ample, for instance.
't co#es 0uite natura that the se#antic reations bet$een the
coordinate causes de%end to a considerabe degree on the e+ica #eaning
of the inking $ords.
The functiona #eaning of so#e of the# is 0uite definite and
una#biguous. Such is& for instance& the con.unction but i#%ying contrast
or dissociation bet$een the reated ite#sG its #eaning is so distinct that
there can hardy be any ite# in the sentence to change the adversative
signification as #ade e+%icit by this inking $ord.
Things are different ho$ever $ith co%uative con.unctions& $hich are
kno$n to be synse#antic in character and #ay ead to structura a#biguity
if the necessary #eaning is not signaed by the #eaning of other $ords in
the sentence. This #ay be $e iustrated by the functiona use of the
con.unction and $hich #ay i#%y various shades of #eaning& such as
resut or conse0uence& cause or contrast.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
2a3 The( reall( fitted hi#$ D it ,as his first #ade'to'order suit$] and
he see#ed sli##er and *etter #odelled. 2(ondon3
2b3 Cut he$ ,ho for the first ti#e ,as *eco#ing conscious of hi#self$
,as in no condition to 3udge$ and he *urned ,ith sha#e as he stared at the
vision of his infa#(. 2(ondon3
2c3 The act ,as done ;uietl($ and the a,),ard (oung #an appreciated
it. 2(ondon3
2d3 She thought she ,as #erel( interested in hi# as an unusual t(pe
possessing various potential e0cellences and she even felt philanthropic
a*out it. 2(ondon3
'n e+a#%es 2a3& 2b3& 2c3& 2d3 the co,ordinated sentences are suggestive
of causa or resutative #eaning.
A %ro#inent suggestion of contrast or adversative #eaning #ay be
observed in cases ike the foo$ing@
-e frightened her$ and at the sa#e ti#e it ,as strangel( pleasant to *e
loo)ed upon. 2(ondon3
As a #atter of fact #ost sentences are de%endent on the conte+t of
%receding sentences or of situation for so#e of their #eaning.
S&BORDINATION
The cassification of subordinate causes offers s%ecia difficuties and
re#ains the area of synta+ $here $e find different inguistic a%%roaches
$ith so#e i#%ortant dis%utabe %oints o%en to thought and discussion.
Much sti re#ains to be done in this fied of gra##ar earning. This is
one of #any ranges of inguistic structure in $hich $e find borderine
cases $here the e+ico,gra##atica organisation of co#%e+ syntactic
units %resents s%ecia difficuties.
;67
"onte+ts are of e+tre#e i#%ortance in understanding synta+.
Various kinds of conte+tua indication& inguistic or situationa& and
intonation in actua s%eech resove structura a#biguity in ho#ony#ic
%atterns on the syntactic eve.
As $e sha further see& the significant order of sentence ee#ents& as
an i#%ortant factor of synta+& $i aso #erit due consideration in
describing the distributiona vaue of various kind of subordinate causes.
't is to be noted that disagree#ent over the cassification of sub,causes
is based not on conficting observations in anguage earning but rather on
different inguistic a%%roaches to the study of synta+.
There are obvious reasons for describing sub,causes %roceeding fro#
the si#iarity of their functions $ith those of %arts of the sentence.
Anaysis of cause %atterns fro# this ange of vie$ see#s #ost he%fu and
instructive.
The traditiona distinction bet$een the #ain and the subordinate cause
is fa#iiar in gra##ar earning& but students of anguage shoud be
%re%ared to #eet it under other na#es. E#%hasising the structura %osition
of sub,causes& "h. 1ries& for instance& ado%ted the ter# inc!ud.d ,.nt.nc.
as a co#%ro#ise bet$een "h. 1ries!s incuded sentence and the ter# of
traditiona gra##ar& -. N. 1rancis offered the na#e inc!ud.d c!au,..
(ogicay& the ter# clause itsef $oud be a sufficienty distinct ter#&
because it is not used here for any arger cass of for#s of $hich incuded
causes are a subcass.
To e+%ress subordination of one syntactic unit to another in a co#%e+
sentence Engish uses the foo$ing #eans@ a3 con2unction,T -/
con2uncti=. 4ord,T c/ a,#nd.tonT d/ ,.nt.nc.;ord.r1 i. e. the %osition of
syntactic structures reative to one anotherG e3 corr.!ati=. 4ord,.
Sub?ect and ;redicate 0lauses
There are t$o ty%es of sub,causes that function as one of the essentia
ee#ents of a t$o,#e#ber sentence@ ,u-2.ct c!au,., and pr.dicat.
c!au,.,.
A sub.ect cause #ay contain either a state#ent or a 0uestion. 'n the
for#er case it is %receded by that/ in the atter it is introduced by the sa#e
$ords as interrogative ob.ect causes.
2a3 T!at !e will !elp us leaves no dou*t.
T!at !e !ad not receied your letter ,as true.
2b3 %!at you say is true.
%!et!er !e will stay !ere is another ;uestion.
"o##oner that the %atterns $ith the initia that are sentences
introduced by it$ $ith the that'clause in end,%osition. This ty%e aso
occurs in interrogative co#%osite sentences.
It see#ed utterl( grotes;ue to hi# t!at !e s!ould be standing t!ere
facing a c!arge of murder in a court ,here the register$ the shorthand
,riter and other officials ,ere all )no,n personall( to hi#. 2)ordon3
It ,as true t!at !e !ad assisted /r. (unro at t!e operation. 2)ordon3
;6;
%nd it suddenl( sprang into 9a#es' #ind t!at !e oug!t to go and
see for !imself. 2)as$orthy3
It is #anifest to #e t!at in !is letter of (ay BC !e assented to a
ery clear proposition. 2)as$orthy3
Sub.ect sub,causes at the given ty%e are& in fact& used as deayed
a%%ositives to the initia it. Sentence %atterning of this kind %er#its
%ost%one#ent of the subordinate cause $hie it re%resents the# in the
%ositions $hich $oud other$ise be nor#a for the#.
So#e gra##arians %refer another ange of vie$& according to $hich
the %ronoun it at the beginning of the #ain cause is referred to as a
4for#a sub.ect4 2so#eti#es caed a 4sha# sub.ect43& and the sub,cause
foo$ing the #ain cause D the rea sub.ect.
The choice of either aternative re#ains& in fact& a #atter of sub.ective
ange of vie$.
Not.. It is to be noted& in %assing& that it can re%resent not ony this ty%e of sub,
causes& but is si#iary used $ith great fre0uency in other ty%es of co#%osite sentences.
1a#iiar e+a#%es are@
I' ll leave it to (ou ,hich route ,e ta)e.
'n #ain interrogatives this it is so#eti#es inserted directy in front of
causa a%%ositives& as in 5h( is it that ,e can't get together?
So#eti#es even in decaratives it %recedes decarative,cause
a%%ositives directy& and acts as a kind of buffer for the# D after
%redicators and %re%ositions that do not acce%t the# as co#%eters.
I resent it that such a thing is done.
I'll see to it that a good t(pe,riter is availa*le.
\ou can rel( on it that he ,ill do this ,or) ,ithout dela(.
't often re%resents subordinate causes& or nuceuses of subordinate
causes& $hich are hardy in a%%osition $ith it.
-e sa(s he's *een #istreated$ *ut he shouldn't ta)e it out on (ou.
It #ight help if ,e did it.
-e can't help it if he li)es co#pan(.
It #a)es hi# unhapp( ,hen people thin) he's unfriendl(.
't is to be noted that the gra##atica organisation of sub.ect,
causes so#eti#es offers certain difficuties of anaysis.
'f& for instance& the order of the t$o #e#bers of a co#%osite sentence
is inverted they do not ony change %aces but functions as $e. "o#%are
the foo$ing@
2a3 T!at !e did not come to spea# wit! you ,as ,hat surprised
#e #ost. 2a sub.ect sub,cause3
2b3 5hat surprised #e #ost ,as t!at !e did not come to spea#
,ith (ou. 2a %redicate sub,cause3
'n other cases sub.ect sub,causes $i hardy offer any difficuties of
syntactic anaysis& e. g.@
+ot her fault t!at s!e !ad loed t!is boy, t!at s!e couldn't get
!im out of !er !ead D no #ore her fault t!at it !ad been !is
own for loing t!at boy's mot!er. 2)as$orthy3
+o satisfaction to Fleur no,$ t!at t!e young man and !is wife,
too$ ver( li#ely, were suffering as well. 2)as$orthy3
/redicate sub,causes function as the no#ina %redicate of a
co#%osite sentence. They are introduced by the sa#e $ords as
sub.ect
263
causesG they #ay aso be introduced by as. Variation in their
gra##atica organisation #ay be iustrated by the foo$ing
e+a#%es@
This ,as w!at !ad !appened to !imself) 2)as$orthy3
The chief hope ,as t!at t!e defence would not find it necessary to
subpoena =ean. That ,ould *e too #uch. 2)as$orthy3.
The ;uestion for #e to decide is w!et!er or not t!e defendant
is liable to refund to t!e plaintiff t!is sum. 2)as$orthy3.
The principle of this house<$ said the architect$ ,as that you s!ould
!ae room to breat!e M li#e a gentleman". 2)as$orthy3
So#e gra##arians are incined to incude here %atterns $ith it
is... that of the foo$ing ty%e@
It's *ecause that he's *us( that he can't help (ou.
There are such %atterns of co#%e+ sentences as consist of a sub.ect
cause and a %redicative& the ony ee#ent outside these causes being
the ink verb& e. g.@
5hat I prefer no, is that (ou should not leave at all.
/redicative sub,causes have so#eti#es a #i+ed or overa%%ing
#eaning. 'n so#e cases there is a cear suggestion of te#%ora reations&
in others the #eaning of co#%arison.
Reations of ti#e& for instance& are generay observed in causes
introduced by ,hen. This is often the case $hen the sub.ect of the
%rinci%a cause is e+%ressed by nouns denoting ti#e& e. g.@
Ti#e had *een w!en !e !ad seen !er wearing not!ing. +Ga!,4ort#/
/redicative sub,causes introduced by as if and as are suggestive of &
the secondary #eaning of co#%arison& e. g.@
M( horses are (oung$ and ,hen the( get on the grass the( are as if t!ey
,ere #ad. 2Thackeray3
+b?ect 0lauses
5b.ect causes %resent a great variety of %atterns but ess difficuty on
the %oint of their gra##atica anaysis.
The si#%est case of such causes are %atterns in $hich a sub,cause
can be re%aced by a noun $hich coud be then an ob.ect in a si#%e
sentence. 1a#iiar e+a#%es are@
5e could *u( w!at s!e li#ed.
\ou #a( do w!ateer you c!oose.
&id the accused #ention w!o t!is girl friend of !is was... +Gordon/
-e suggested t!at &osnian seemed unduly 1ealous in calling for
paper for t!e statement to be ta#en down. 2)ordon3
-e ,as an0ious t!at t!ey s!ould realise !e was an
$nglis!man. 2)ordon3
%nton( ,ondered w!et!er t!ey would eer meet again. 2)ordon3
-e re#e#*ered t!at t!e walt1 was in t!ree4time, re#e#*ered the ,alt=
of olden da(s D too ,ell D That dance at Rodger's$ and Irene$ his o,n ,ife$
,alt=ing in the ar#s of (oung Cosinne(. 2)as$orthy3
%nd later$ on a sleepless pillo,$ she pu==led$ as she had pu==led of late$
as to !ow it ,as that she loved so strange a #an$ and loved hi# despite
t!e disapproval of her people. 2(ondon3
;6:
Synony#ic aternatives of ob.ect causes are@
a3 )erundive no#inas@
The( all approed of !is not being beaten by t!at cousin of his$
2)as$orthy3
Soa#es had ever resented !aing !ad to sell t!e !ouse at 9obin
Hill, never forgiven !is uncle for !aing boug!t it, or !is cousin
for liing in it. 2)as$orthy3
-e's going to *egin far#ing$ (ou )no,$ he' ll #a)e an e0cuse. (en !ate
being painted. 2)as$orthy3
...he could not see Irene s!iering, as though so#e gar#ent had *een
torn fro# her$ nor her e(es$ *lac) and #ournful li)e the e(es of a *eaten child.
-e could not hear &osinney entreating, entreating, always entreating,
could not hear her sudden$ soft ,eeping$ nor see that poor$ hungr( loo)ing
devil$ a,ed and tre#*ling$ hu#*l( touching her hand. 2)as$orthy3
I loo)ed in the door of the *ig roo# and sa, t!e ma?or sitting at t!e
des#, and t!e window open and t!e sunlig!t coming into t!e roo#.
2Ae#ing$ay3
b3 'nfinitiva no#inas@
-e sa, the s;uirrel's e(es$ s#all and *right and watc!ed !is tail 3er)
in e5citement. +H.0in"4a#/
The &arties sa, &osinney spring out, and Irene follow, and
!asten up t!e steps wit! bent !ead. 2)as$orthy3
'nstances are not fe$ $hen infinitiva and gerundive no#inas go in
one sentence in cose %ro+i#ity& e. g.@
:nl( vaguel( did he see t!e ?udge s!a#e !is !ead in
disagreement and !ear Turner mumbling somet!ing. +Gordon/
*ttributie 0lauses
(ike attributive ad.uncts in a si#%e sentence& attributive causes
0uaify the thing denoted by its head $ord through so#e actions& state or
situation in $hich the thing is invoved.
't has been custo#ary to #ake distinction bet$een t$o ty%es of
attributive sub,causes@ restrictive and continuative or a#%ifying
causes
7
. This division is ho$ever too absoute to cover a %atterns.
Restrictive clauses are subordinate in #eaning to the cause
containing the antecedentG continuative clauses are #ore inde%endent@
their contents #ight often be e+%ressed by an inde%endent state#ent
giving so#e additiona infor#ation about the antecedent that is aready
sufficienty defined. "ontinuative causes #ay be o#itted $ithout
affecting the %recise understanding of the sentence as a $hoe. This is
#arked by a different intonation& and by a cear break %receding the
continuative cause& no such break se%arating a restrictive cause fro# its
antecedent. The %resence or absence of such a %ause is indicated in
$riting and in %rint by the %resence or absence of a co##a before as $e
as after the sub,cause.
't #ay aso be %ointed out that a sentence $ith a restrictive cause
contains a singe state#ent& and a sentence $ith a continuative cause
contains t$o state#ents.
7
The t$o ty%es of causes are aso kno$n as 4defining4 and 4non,defining4.
;6<
"o#%are the foo$ing@
I. a3 There ,as a #achine in the )itchen w!ic! could e5tract t!e ?uice
of two !undred oranges in !alf an !our. 21itEgerad3
b3 The roo# ,as long ,ith ,indo,s on the right'hand side and a door
at the far end t!at went into t!e dressing4room. 2Ae#ing$ay3
c3 -e #ade fre;uent references to the plan t!at !ad already been
put in. 2)ordon3
d3 %nd to thin) of it$ I drea#ed in #( innocence that the persons w!o
sat in t!e !ig! places, w!o lied in fine !ouses and !ad
educations and ban# accounts, were wort! w!ile) 2(ondon3
''. a3 % sensation of co#fort ,ould pass through 5inton$ w!ic! would last
-uite twenty minutes after t!e crunc!ing of t!e w!eels and the
#ingled perfu#es had died a,a(. 2)as$orthy3
b3 Soa#es$ w!o !ad neer studied t!e -uestion and was
!ampered by not #nowing w!et!er !e wanted an
$nglis!man to do it, ,as hesitating. 2)as$orthy3
c3 %nd he onl( stared at Michael$ w!o was ga1ing out of t!e
,indo,. 2)as$orthy3
d3 Up on the la,n a*ove the ferner( he could see his old dog Caltha=ar.
The ani#al$ w!ose dim eyes too# !is master for a stranger,
,as ,arning the ,orld against hi#. 2)as$orthy3
"ontinuative causes #ay $e iustrate the state#ent that it is
i#%ossibe to dra$ a rigid ine of de#arcation bet$een subordination
and coordination. The reative ,hich #ay refer to a %receding sentence
or %art of a sentence.
The conference ,as postponed$ w!ic! was e5actly w!at we wanted.
A $ord shoud be said about attributive causes introduced by
reative adverbs functioning as con.unctions@ ,hen$ ,here$ ,h(. This is
the case $hen the antecedent #eaning ti#e& %ace& reason.
%e #et w!ere t!e roads crossed.
I re#e#*er the da( w!en t!e war bro#e out.
5e understand the reason w!y you did not want to come.
These causes are co##ony referred to as attributive 0uaifying a
noun in the #ain cause.
-e cannot fai to see& ho$ever& that the above sentences are suggestive
of adverbia reations. This is es%eciay %ro#inent $hen the cause is
,continuative@
In those da(s$ w!en s!e lied wit! us...
5vera%%ing reations $i be observed in causes introduced by as$
after an antecedent 0uaified by sa#e or such/
5e found such things as you neer saw.
'n iterary Engish a noun in a negative sentence #ay be defined
by a cause introduced by *ut/ -hen a *ut'cause has a sub.ect of its
o$n& adverbia reations are 0uite %ro#inent& e. g.@
+ot a da( ,ent *( but some news came from our correspondent.
Synony#ic aternatives of attributive causes are foo$ing.
;66
a3 'nfinitiva no#inas@
Co,per,ood ,as not the #an to loose a c!ance of t!is #ind.
2*reiser3
There is nothing to preent you from ma#ing as great a
success as (r. &utler !as made. 2(ondon3
Cut I had no thought. I didn't even have the ,ords wit! w!ic! to t!in#.
2(ondon3
Crian ,ished the( could eat *rea)fast there$ *ut sa, nothing on the
ta*le e0cept a$ #ug of tea to be drun# by his fat!er. 2Siitoe3
b3 )erundive no#inas@
The idea of its being barbarous to confine ,ild ani#als had pro*a*l(
never ever occurred to his father$ for instance. 2)as$orthy3
-e doesn't )no, ver( #uch a*out To#$ though he sa(s he's read a
Chicago paper for (ears ?ust on t!e c!ance of catc!ing a glimpse of
&ais('s na#e. 21itEgerad3
c3 /artici%ia no#inas@
% loo) of effort #ar)ed ever(one/ the( ca#e do,n wit! #u#ris no longer
used, and loads bearing no resemblance to t!e neat s!ape of a
pac). 2Siitoe3
It ,as ,ar#$ and frightening if he thought too #uch$ *ut he ,ent on a
fe, feet until reaching drifts of !ot dust piled almost to t!e top
bric#s. 2Siitoe3
0lauses of 0ause
'ntroduced by the con.unction *ecause sub,causes of cause indicate
%urey causa reations.
%nd because t!ey were all laug!ing it see#ed to Leila that the(
,ere all lovel(. 2Mansfied3
... \ou re#e#*er the other ti#e I ,as here I said I couldn't tal) a*out
*oo)s and things because I didn't #now !ow' 2(ondon3
"auses introduced by as and since have so#eti#es overa%%ing
reationshi%s of cause and ti#e. The necessary #eaning is signaed by the
conte+t.
.ouring out a pot he dran) it neat and$ as its warm glow spread
t!roug! !im, he felt he could face the evening #ore easil(. 2)ordon3
Later ,hen the( had #anaged to co#pose the#selves the( ,ent to the
theatre. Since !e gae !er free c!oice she selected 4Saint Coan4.
2"ronin3
I could not sta( as it was late.
"ausa reations #ay find their e+%ression in causes introduced by the
con.unction for. /atterns of this kind are on the borderine bet$een co,
ordination and subordination. 5ny in so#e conte+ts of their use for'
causes co#e to be synony#ous and go 0uite %arae $ith causa causes
incuded by because.
-e had to *e cautious$ for !e was so rapidly coming to be
influential and a distinguis!ed man. 2*reiser3
Soa#es ,as alone again. -o, long$ alone$ he didn't )no, for !e was
tired, and in spite of his concern$ he do=ed. 2)as$orthy3
267
'n #ost cases cause,%atterns $ith for differ essentiay fro# causes
introduced by *ecause. They generay give an additiona thought to the
co#%eted %art of sentence to e+tend the #eaning of the utteranceG they
often co#e after a fu sto% and see# to function as se%arate sentences
having #uch in co##on $ith causes introduced by the con.unctions *ut
and and.
Subordinate causes of cause have their synony#ic aternatives@
a3 'nfinitiva no#inas@
She ,as angr( no, to t!in# !er fat!er would ma#e a public spectacle
of !er. Co,per,ood started to follo,. 2*reiser3
-e ,as proud to have been priileged to publis! a poem ,hich in
ps(chological content$ ;ualit( of ,or)#anship$ and direct hu#an interest$
,as *( far the #ost stri)ing of this generation. 2)as$orthy3
b3 )erundive no#inas@
Cursed ,as the da( he had #et her$ and his e(es for seeing in !er
anyt!ing but t!e cruel <enus s!e ,as. 2)as$orthy3
c3 /artici%ia no#inas@
T!e afternoon being grey and cold, ,e did not go an(,here. T!is
being t!e case, the( had to change their plan.
d3 reduced sub,causes of cause 2verbess %redicatives3@
... The lines at the sides of the e(es ,ere deepened. 2aturally dar# of
s#in, gloo# #ade hi# loo) slightl( sinister. 2*reiser3
5ould the( li)e hi#? The( ,ould not D too uns!ac#led, too fitful,
and too bitter, all that ,as *est in hi# he hid a,a($ as if asha#ed of it4
and his (earning for *eaut( the( ,ould not understand7 2)as$orthy3
+ot #uch give and ta)e a*out &esert restless, dis!armonic, and a
poet) *nd proud M wit! t!at inner self4depreciatie pride w!ic! neer
let upon a man) 2)as$orthy3
0lauses of ;lace
"auses of %ace do not offer any difficuties of gra##atica anaysisG
they are generay introduced by the reative adverb ,here or by the
pra,. fro# ,here$ to ,here$ e. g.@
The( passed alongside the Ro(al !nclosure w!ere boo#4ma#ers did
not seem to be admitted. 2)as$orthy3
The sun'*linds ,ere do,n$ for the sun ,as strea#ing on its front$ past
the old oa)$ w!ere was now no swing. 2)as$orthy3
%!ere t!ere's a will, there's a ,a(. 2/roverb3
... Sho, #e<$ he said$ and #oved in the tail'light of the car to w!ere
t!e c!auffeur stood pointing. 2)as$orthy3
(ike in other ty%es of co#%e+ sentences& causes introduced by the
adverb ,here are so#eti#es on the borderine bet$een subordination and
co,ordination& #eant to continue the narrative associated $ith the %revious
state#ent rather than indicate the %ace $here action took %ace& e. g.@
... %nd a so* that shoo) hi# fro# head to foot *urst fro# Soa#es'
chest. Then all ,as still in the dar)$ w!ere t!e !ouses seemed to stare at
!im, eac! to eac! wit! a master and mistress of its own, and a secret
story of !appiness or sorrow. 2)as$orthy3
;6?
Temporal 0lauses
Te#%ora causes cover a $ide and varied range of #eanings.
Reations of ti#e bet$een the action of the #ain cause and that of the
subordinate #ay differ@ the t$o actions or states #ay be si#utaneous& one
#ay %recede or foo$ the other& or& say& one #ay ast unti the other
begins& etc.
%!en s!e moed to put a c!air for !im, she s,a(ed in a curious$
su*tle ,a($ as if she had *een$ put together *( so#e one ,ith a special
secret s)ill. 2)as$orthy3
%s !e passed t!roug! t!e stray groups of couples, he ,as conscious of
a pair of pale gre( e(es peering at hi# through a cloud of *lue to*acco
s#o)e. 2)ordon3
Sit do,n$ w!en I'e ta#en off my t!ings ,e shall go into the ne0t roo#
and have tea and *e cos(. 2Mansfied3
%!en !e !ad finis!ed !is tea %ndre, ,ithdre,. 2"ronin3
Reduced sub,causes of ti#e $i be iustrated by such %atterns as@
%!en at 9ome, do as the Ro#ans do. 2/roverb3
%!en angry count a hundred. 2/roverb3
&ac# in !is stud($ he sat in thought. 2)as$orthy3
&ac# wit! !er accounts, she could not settle to the#$ and pushing
the# into a dra,er$ ,ent to find her hus*and. 2)as$orthy3
Synse#antic in their character& te#%ora causes have often a #i+ed
#eaning. 'n so#e %atterns there is ony a suggestion of the secondary
#eaning& in others it is fairy %ro#inent.
'n different conte+ts of their use sub,causes of ti#e #ay change their
%ri#ary #eaning. 'n so#e %atterns there is a suggestion of conditiona
reations& as in@
5o#en did strange things w!en t!ey were drien into corners.
2)as$orthy3
%!en t!e pinc! co#es$ (ou re#e#*er the old shoe. 2/roverb3
'nstances are not fe$ $hen te#%ora causes are suggestive of causa
reations& e. g.@
She #ade a little curts( as !e bowed. 2Mitche3
't is to be noted that secondary #eanings are generay signaed not so
#uch by the gra##atica organisation of the sentence as by the e+ica
conte+t $hich is the first to be considered reevant.
Studying synta+ in reation to vocabuary %resents here its o$n %oint of
interest.
Not ess characteristic are the secondary #eanings i#%ied in a sub,
cause of ti#e in such conte+ts $hen it co#es to indicate an action or state
as contrasted to that of the #ain cause.
E+a#%es of such sentences #ay be found in nu#bers.
She neared her father's house$ driven this ,a( and that$ w!ile all t!e
time t!e .orsyte undertow was drawing !er to deep conclusion t!at after
all !e was !er property. 2)as$orthy3
<So (ou ca#e$ didn't (ou?< he ,ent on$ loo)ing at her steadil($ w!ile
s!e fronted !is ga1e boldly for a moment, onl( to loo) evasivel( do,n.
2*reiser3
;6=
%!ile (ac#enty meditated as to !ow in two years !e s!ould be able
to undo t!is temporary ictory, and 0owperwood was deciding t!at
conciliation was t!e best policy for !im, Schr(hart$ -and and %rneel$
3oining hands ,ith (oung Macdonald$ ,ere ,ondering ho, the( could
#a)e sure that this part( victor( ,ould cripple Co,per,ood and
per#anentl( prevent hi# fro# returning to po,er. 2*reiser3
5h( should he *e put to the shifts and the sordid disgraces and the
lur)ing defeats of the &ivorce Court$ w!en t!ere was s!e li#e an empty
!ouse only waiting to be reta#en into use and possession by !im w!o
legally owned her. 2)as$orthy3
-e turned a*out again$ and there stood ,ith his *ac) against the door$
as !ers was against t!e wall opposite, -uite unconscious of anyt!ing
ridiculous in t!is separation by t!e w!ole widt! of t!e room.
The i#%ication of contrast is often cear in reduced causes of ti#e& e.
g.@
-is #anner$ w!ile warmly generous at times, ,as also easil( distant
e0cept ,hen he ,ished it to *e other,ise. 2*reiser3
Synony#ic aternatives of sub,causes of ti#e@
a3 )erundive No#inas@
&artie$ on being told, ,as pleased enough. 2)as$orthy3
The cri#e see#s to have *een co##itted late in the evening$ and the
*od( ,as found *( a ga#e)eeper a*out eleven o'cloc)$ ,hen it ,as
e0a#ined
*( the police and *( a doctor before being carried up to t!e !ouse.
2*oye3
Then after !aing Dat!leen tig!ten !er corsets a little more,
she gathered the train over her ar# *( its train'*and and loo)ed again.
2*reiser3
b3 'nfinitiva No#inas@
The door ,as not fastened ,ithin$ and (ielded s#oothl( to her
hesitating hand. She ,as surprised to find a brig!t lig!t burning, still
#ore surprised$ on loo)ing in$ to see that her Ma#a$ *ut partiall(
undressed ,as sitting near... 2*ickens3
-is head$ no, gre($ ,as encircled *( her ar#$ and he fro,ned to thin)
that never$ never had it rested so *efore. 2*ickens3
c3 /artici%ia No#inas@
%rrived$ ho,ever$ at t!is other ,hite !ouse, also desira*le$ situated on
the slope a*ove the river$ he al#ost had a fit ,hile ,aiting for the# in the
car. 2)as$orthy3
&eing released$ his face discovered to *e ver( hot$ and red$ and da#p4
and Miss To0 too) hi# on her lap$ #uch e0hausted. 2)as$orthy3
0lauses of 0ondition
"onditiona sentences can e+%ress either a rea condition 24o%en
condition43 or an unrea condition@
If (ou as) hi# he ,ill sta( here$ 2rea condition3
If (ou as)ed hi#$ he ,ould sta( here$ 2unrea condition3
270
'n rea condition& both the #ain cause and the de%endent cause are
truth,neutraG in If (ou as) hi#$ he ,ill sta( here$ $e cannot .udge $hether
either the re0uest or his staying here $i take %ace.
Athough the #ost co##on ty%e of rea condition refers to the future&
there are no s%ecia restrictions on the ti#e reference of conditions or on
the tense for#s used to e+%ress the#. The foo$ing e+a#%es #ay
iustrate the variety of ti#e reations and tense for#s e+%ressing the#@
If (ou re happ($ (ou #a)e others happ(.
2Si#%e /resent j Si#%e /resent3
If he told (ou that (esterda($ he ,as l(ing.
2Si#%e /ast j Si#%e /ast3
If she left so earl($ she ,ill certainl( *e here tonight.
2Si#%e /ast j ,ill 4future43.
The truth,neutraity of an if,cause is refected in the %ossibiity of
using such constructions as@
If (ou should hear ne,s of the#$ please let #e )no,.
1Should j 'nfinitive in %ace of the Si#%e /resent3
The effect of %redication $ith <should< is to #ake the condition
sighty #ore tentative and 4acade#ic4 than it $oud be $ith the ordinary
/resent Tense.
A #ore for#a e+%ression of a tentative rea condition is achieved by
o#itting if and inverting the sub.ect and the au+iiary <should</
Should (ou re#ain I'll help (ou ,ith pleasure.
Unrea conditions are nor#ay for#ed by the use of the /ast Tense
2'ndicative or Sub.unctive3 in the conditiona cause& and ,ould j V
inf
in
the %rinci%a cause& e. g.@
If (ou left in the #orning$ (ou ,ould *e at ho#e at night.
If (ou had co#e$ he ,ould have changed his #ind.
The %recise gra##atica and se#antic nature of the s$itch fro# rea to
unrea conditions is obviousy reevant to overa%%ing reations in such
ty%es of sentence,%atterning
"auses of this ty%e are generay introduced by such connectives as@ if,
unless, proided, on condition t!at, in case, suppose Asupposing), but
t!at, once.
-hat has i##ediate reevance here is the gra##atica organisation of
the conditiona sentence& the verb,for#s of its %redicate& in %articuar.
If it !adn't been for !is blunders, he ,ould have finished the article in
three da(s. 2(ondon3
If !e doesn't comply ,e can't *ring proceedings for si0 #onths. I ,ant
to get on ,ith the #atter$ Cell*(. 2)as$orthy3
%nd if -oll( had not insisted on follo,ing her e0a#ple$ and *eing
trained too$ she #ust inevita*l( have cried off.
Suppose he tal)ed to Michael? +o7 5orse than useless. Cesides$ he
couldn't tal) a*out Fleur and that *o( to an(one D there*( hung too long
a tale. 2)as$orthy3
Mr. .inch stood rooted to the spot on hearing this$ and #ight have
stood there until dar)$ *ut that the old cathedral *ell *egan to ring for
vesper service$ on ,hich he tore hi#self a,a(. 2*ickens3
;97
Synony#ic aternatives of conditiona causes@
a3 'nfinitiva No#inas@
To !ae followed t!eir meal in detail ,ould have given hi# so#e
indication of their states of #ind. 2)as$orthy3
1S(n. If s!e !ad followed t!eir meal... it ,ould have given hi#...2.
To record of (r. /ombey t!at !e was not in !is way affect ed
by t!is intelligence, ,ould *e to do hi# an in3ustice. 2*ickens3 1S(n. If
we record of (r. /ombey that... 2
+o one ,ould *elieve$ to loo# at !er, that she ,as over thirt(. 2Au+ey3
1S(n. if one loo#ed at !er...)
b3 )erundia No#inas@
&ut for !is !aing !elped us ,e should not have *een successful
in this ,or).
c3 /artici%ia No#inas@
3iing in 3ondon (ou )no, ,hat fogs #ean.
5eather per#itting$ ,e shall start to#orro,.
"onsider aso reduced sub,causes of condition. E+a#%es are
co##on%ace.
5hat ,ould one of her o,n people do if called a coward and a cad D
her father$ her *rother$ uncle %drian? 5hat could the( do? 2)as$orthy3
It ,as clear to hi# that she could not ta)e her &artie seriousl($ and ,ould
go *ac) on the ,hole thing if gien !alf a c!ance. 2)as$orthy3
%nd$ if true$ ,hat ,as the director's responsi*ilit(? 2)as$orthy3
She ,as seldo# or never at a loss4 or if at a loss, ,as al,a(s a*le to
convert it into again. 2)as$orthy3
+nce in, (ou couldn't get out. 2)as$orthy3
A $ord #ust be said about styistic trans%osition of i#%eratives co,
ordinated $ith foo$ing decaratives to $hich they have the #eaning
reationshi% that causes of condition or cause $oud have.
Scarcity of inguistic units $ith inherent e+%ressivity is often
counterbaanced by effective styistic trans%ositions of the '#%erative
Mood.
'n ter#s of styistic vaue and %ur%ose& it is #ost essentia to
observe ho$ different %atterns of gra##atica organisation co#e to
correate as identica in denotative vaue but different in e+%ressive
connotation. "onte+tua nuances are so#eti#es very eusive.
Aere are a fe$ e+a#%es of the '#%erative Mood in
trans%osition@
a3 Tell !im of a -uality innate in some women D a seductive po,er
*e(ond their o,n control7 -e ,ould *ut ans,er/ -u#*ug7
She ,as dangerous$ and there ,as an end of it. 2)as$orthy3 1S(n.
If you told !im of a -uality innate in some women...)
b3 -e ,ould have fought for this #an as deter#inedl( as for hi#self$
and (et onl( so far as co##anded. Strip !im of !is uniform, and he ,ould
have soon pic)ed his side. 2*reiser3
1S(n. If you stripped !im of !is uniform...)
+c/ (a#e me do suc! t!ings, ma#e me li#e t!ose ot!er men, doing
t!e wor# t!ey do, breat!ing t!e air t!ey breat!e, deeloping t!e
point of iew t!ey !ae deeloped, and (ou have destro(ed the difference$
destro(ed #e$ destro(ed the thing (ou love. +London/
272
ASyn. If you ma#e me do suc! t!ings...)
+d/ %al# among t!e magnificent residences, the splendid e;uipages$
the gilded shops$ restaurants$ resorts of all )inds4 scent the flo,ers$ the
sil)s$ the ,ines4 drin# of t!e laug!ter springing from t!e soul of
lu5urious content, of the glances ,hich glea# li)e light fro# defiant
spears/ feel t!e -uality of t!e smiles ,hich cut li)e glistening s,ords and
of strides *orn of place$ and (ou shall )no, of ,hat is the at#osphere of
the high and #ight(. 2*reiser3 1S(n. If you wal#..., if you drin# of t!e
laug!ter...,
if you feel t!e -uality of t!e smiles... (ou shall )no,...2
*ee% gra##ar anaysis $i a$ays sho$ the difference bet$een the
%atterns given above.
'n 2a3 and 2b3 the verb,for#s of the '#%erative Mood function as
styistic aternatives of the 5bi0ue MoodG
in 2c3 and 2d3 the verb,for#s of the '#%erative Mood are used as
styistic aternatives of the 'ndicative Mood.
As can be seen fro# the above e+a#%es& the use of the '#%erative
Mood in such trans%ositions can i#%y conditiona& causa or resutative
#eaning. Si#iary in Russian and Ukrainian@
L YPMN X Z USpOJ_ mOSQIJUUhc pJMJR& Z WJ YSl PUhUNX Z ISUZ X
OPTTQZs Yh RhPiZI WJINQJ lL WJ& iWJ Z_ OLlpJRLOZRLI |SUZU.
2fLXQJRTQZs3
\QZUN l UNJpJ JQPIXOZ& QZUN MRV OJlYVsUZNQV VTQOZ R JiV D WL s
_LWZ_SK pJWJRZs JYOLl MXQL,mZRJOVlL. 2\WSIN_Lc3
0lauses of 9esult
"auses of resut or conse0uence $i aso e+e#%ify the synse#antic
character of syntactic structures. Their for#a arrange#ent is characterised
by t$o %atterns@
73 causes incuded by the con.unction that correated $ith the %ronoun
such or the %ronoun so in the #ain causeG
;3 causes incuded by %hrasa connective so that.
-er #iser( ,as so terri*le t!at s!e pinned on !er !at, put on !er
?ac#et and wal#ed out of t!e flat li#e a person in a dream. 2Mansfied3
-e did not ho,ever neglect to leave certain #atters to future
considerations$ ,hich had necessitated further visits$ so t!at t!e little
bac# room !ad become -uite accustomed to !is spare not unsolid but
unobtrusie figure... 2)as$orthy3
Variation in the e+ico,gra##atica organisation of such causes is
generay associated $ith variation in their #eaning.
'nstances are not fe$& for instance& $hen a cause of resut is
suggestive of the degree or the state of things indicated by the #ain cause.
The #oaning of such causes is a$ays #ade cear by conte+tua
indication.
E+a#%es of such causes of resut are@
The #oon had passed *ehind the oa)'tree no,$ endo,ing it ,ith
uncann( life$ so t!at it seemed watc!ing !im M t!e oa#4tree !is boy !ad
been so fond of climbing, out of w!ic! !e !ad once fallen and !urt
!imself, and !adn't cried) 2)as$orthy3
;98
5hen he told her that he ,ould ta)e care of her so that nothing evil
should *efall$ she *elieved hi# full(. 2*reiser3
Structura synony#s of sub,causes of resut %resented by infinitiva
%hrases #ay be iustrated by such %atterns as@
It ,as too ,onderful to *e an(thing *ut a deliriu#. 2(ondon3
S(n. It ,as so ,onderful that it could *e an(thing *ut a deliriu#2.
% ,oodpec)er's constant tap ,as the onl( sound$ for the rain ,as not
heav( enough for leaf'dripping to have started. 2)as$orthy3
1S(n. ... the rain ,as not so heav( that ...2.
Then$ 3ust ,hen the( ,ere old enough to go to school$ her hus*and's
sister ca#e to stop ,ith the# to help things along... 2Mansfied3
1S(n. Then$ 3ust ,hen the( ,ere so old t!at t!ey could go to sc!ool$..2.
Clauses of .urpose
The gra##atica organisation of sub,causes of %ur%ose does not take
ong to e+%ain.
-hat #erits consideration here is the syntactic organisation of the
constituents of the co#%e+ sentence and the verb,for#s in the structure of
%redication.
"auses e+%ressing %ur%ose are kno$n to be introduced by the
con.unction that or lest and by the %hrase in order that.
That has& %erha%s& no rivas a#ong connectives. 't is $e kno$n to
have a %articuary $ide range of structura #eanings& but no a#biguity
arises in actua usage. As a$ays in anguage& the conte+t $i re#ove in
each case a the other significations& as %otentiay i#%icit in that $hich
in subordination #ay do the duty of a reative %ronoun and a con.unction.
/ur%ose causes introduced by that #ay be iustrated by the foo$ing
e+a#%es@
... she had softl( #oved her chair into its present place/ partl( as it
see#ed fro# an instinctive consciousness that he desired to avoid
o*servation/ and partl( that she #ight$ unseen *( hi#$ give so#e vent to
the natural feelings she had hitherto suppressed. 2*ickens3
%nd lest the sun should *rea) this char# too eagerl($ there #oved
*et,een hi# and the ground a #ist li)e that ,hich ,aits upon the #oon on
su##er nights... 2*ickens3
'nfinitiva %hrases i#%ying %ur%ose reations are co##on%ace.
1a#iiar e+a#%es are@
This action has *een *rought *( the plaintiff to recover fro# the
defendant the su# of three hundred and fift( pounds$ alleged *( the
plaintiff to have *een fi0ed *( this correspondence... 2)as$orthy3
She #ade a #ove#ent to cross into the traffic.
Clauses of Concession
Sub,causes of concession $ith a their gra##atica co#%e+ity and
variety of syntactic %atterning as $e as their synse#antic character $i
engage our attention ne+t. The co#%onent gra##atica #eanings in
sentence,%atterns of this kind are often not so cear,cut as it #ight be
suggested.
274
't is very i#%ortant to distinguish bet$een the foo$ing ty%es of
concessive sub,causes@
a3 causes giving the infor#ation about the circu#stances des%ite or
against $hich $hat is said in the %rinci%a cause is carried out@
T!oug! s!e did not #now it, she had a feeling in hi# of proprietar(
right. 2(ondon3
I al,a(s understood (ou did so as a for# of e0piation$ een t!oug!
you !ad as#ed /inny to marry you. 2)as$orthy3
b3 causes $hich give so#e additiona infor#ation associated $ith the
content of the %rinci%a cause& the idea of concession in such %atterns is
so#e$hat $eakened.
-e #opped his forehead dr( and glanced a*out hi# ,ith a controlled
face$ t!oug! in t!e eyes t!ere was an e5pression suc! as wild animals
betray w!en t!ey fear t!e trap. 2(ondon3
c3 causes $ith overa%%ing reationshi%. 'n %atterns of this ty%e there
is a suggestion of the secondary adversative #eaning@
-e e0tracted great happiness fro# s;uelching her$ and she s;uelched
easil( these da(s$ t!oug! it !ad been different in t!e first years of t!eir
married life. +London/
"o#%e+ sentences of this kind are on the borderine bet$een
subordination and coordinationG though #ight be easiy re%aced by the
adversative con.unction *ut.
d3 inserted and %arenthetica concessive causes are #ore or ess
inde%endent syntactic units and are generay set off by a co##a& coon or
se#i,coon& e. g.@
Shannon ,as not a financier$ neither ,as Steger. The( had to *elieve in
a,a($ t!oug! t!ey dou*ted it, partl( D particularl( Shannon. 2*reiser3
... *ut *eing a Fors(te$ t!oug! not yet -uite eig!t years old, he #ade
no #ention of the thing at the #o#ent dearest to his heart... 2)as$orthy3
The con.unction though #ay introduce inde%endent sentences.
I've got a father4 I )ept hi# *( alive during the ,ar$ so he's *ound to
)eep #e no,. T!oug!, of course, t!ere's t!e -uestion w!et!er !e oug!t
to be allowed to !ang on to !is property. 2)as$orthy3
't $i be observed& in %assing& that concessive reations are& in %oint of
fact& ogicay associated $ith causa and resutative #eaning& the atter
being to so#e e+tent inse%araby %resent in any sub,cause of this ty%e.
The i#%ication of %ure concession is fairy %ro#inent in %re%ositive
sub,causes incuded by although$ though 2often intensified by
nevertheless in the %rinci%a cause3.
*lt!oug! !e was dealing priately for $dward &utler as an agent,
and wit! t!e same plan in mind, and alt!oug! !e !ad neer met eit!er
(ollem!auer or Simpson, he nevertheless felt that in so far as the
#anipulation of the cit( loan ,as concerned he ,as acting for the#.
2*reiser3
"auses of concession introduced by though and even though have
#uch in co##on $ith sub,causes introduced by if and even if.
The more cautious #e#*ers of Chicago societ($ een if t!ey did not
;9<
attend, then$ ,ould hear$ and then ,ould co#e ulti#ate co##ent and
decision. 2*reiser3
If all t!e world !ated you, and belieed you wic#ed, ,hile (our o,n
conscience approved (ou$ and a*solved (ou fro# guilt$ (ou ,ould not *e
,ithout friends. 2Brontx3
'ntensity of concessive #eaning is generay %roduced by %utting the
no#ina %arts or the adverbia ad.unct at the head of the sentence.
Young t!oug! s!e will always seem to me, she is...
Si#iary& in sentence,%atterns $ith the con.unction as/
Ta)ing his glass fro# the ta*le$ he held it a,a( fro# hi# to scrutinise
the colour4 t!irsty as !e was, it ,as not li)el( that he ,as going to drin)
thrush. 2)as$orthy3
0rafty and cruel as !is face was at t!e best of times, though it ,as a
sufficientl( fair face as to for# and regularit( of feature$ it ,as at its ,orst
,hen he set forth on this errand. 2*ickens3
Harmless as t!is speec! appeared to be, it acted on the traveller's
distrust$ li)e oil on fire. 2*ickens3
(uc! as I admire t!e film, I'll not go to see it again.
Note. The con.unction though #ay stand at the end of a si#%e
sentence& foo$ing another si#%e sentence& cosey connected in sense.
'n such end,%osition though $i be synony#ous $ith nevertheless$
nonetheless$ all the sa#e$ e. g.@
-e did not tell #e ,here he had *een$ *ut I )ne, t!oug! 1D *ut I
)ne, all t!e same).
'n sentences introduced by the con.unction as there is so#eti#es a
fairy %ro#inent suggestion of causa reations.
>ncommunicatie as !e was, so#e ti#e elapsed *efore I had an
opportunit( of changing his #ind. 2Brontx3
"oncessive causes #ay be introduced by the %hrasa con.unction for
all that/
%nd 9on could not help )no,ing too$ that she ,as still deepl( in love
,ith hi# for all t!at t!ey !ad been married two years. 2)as$orthy3
A s%ecia ty%e of co#%e+ sentences is %resented by %atterns $ith
concessive sub,causes suggestive of the secondary aternative #eaning.
Aere beong causes introduced by ho,ever$ ,hoever$ ,hatever$ ,henever$
,herever and such %hrasa con.unctions as no #atter ,hat$ no #atter ho,.
E+a#%es are@
4' dou*t if 5ilfred ,ill go *efore the Co##ittee<$ said Michael$
gloo#il(. <Fleur confir#ed hi#<.
<:f course he ,on't$ Michael<.
<Then ,hat ,ill happen?<
<%l#ost certainl( he'll *e e0pelled under rule w!ateer it is.
2)as$orthy3
The pu*lic ,ould never hear his na#e$ no matter !ow big t!e case
,as. 2"arter3
2o matter w!at t!e ot!ers #a( say, I shall have #( o,n ,a(.
The secondary aternative #eaning in causes of this kind is so
%ro#inent that so#e gra##arians are incined to identify the# as a
s%ecia ty%e of subordination. Such is& for instance& Ces%ersen!s %oint of
vie$
276
in !ssentials of !nglish "ra##ar $here these causes are cassified as
4causes of indifference4
7
.
Mention #ust aso be #ade of reduced sub,causes of concession that
!are not infre0uent both in infor#a s%oken Engish and iterary %rose.
Their a*ode$ t!oug! poor and miserable, ,as not so utterl( ,retched
as in the da(s ,hen onl( good Mrs. Cro,n inha*ited it. 2*ickens3
-is ,ife$ w!ateer !er conduct, had clear e(es and an al#ost
depressing a#ount of co##on sense. 2)as$orthy3
...-is case ,as different fro# that of the ordinar( !nglish#an as chal)
fro# cheese. &ut w!ateer !is case, he ,as not a #an to live ,ith.
2)as$orthy3
"oncessive reations overa%%ing $ith aternative #eaning find their
inguistic e+%ression in syntactic %atterns $ith functiona trans%ositions of
the '#%erative Mood for#s& e. g.@
Say w!at you may Amig!t) I shall have #( o,n ,a(.
Try w!at you will Awould) there is no helping here.
Say w!at one will, to ta)e the love of a #an li)e Co,per,ood a,a(
fro# a ,o#an li)e %ileen ,as to leave her high and dr( on land$ as a fish
out of its native ele#ent... 2*reiser3
$conomise as !e would, the earnings fro# hac)',or) did not *alance
e0penses. 2(ondon3
Attention #ust aso be dra$n to the use of verb,for#s in concessive
sub,causes& $hich naturay vary de%ending on the conte+t. The
'ndicative Mood is fairy co##on in a ty%es of causes i#%ying
concession& /resent and /ast tense,for#s& in %articuar. The Sub.unctive
Mood is co##on in co#%e+ sentences $ith hy%othetica concession.
"oncessive causes #ay be incuded by the con.unction ,hile $hich in
such %atterns co#es to function %arae $ith though 1although2.
%!ile !e was yet in unspea#able agonies, the d,arf rene,ed t!eir
conversation. 2*ickens3
"oncessive reations #ay aso be e+%ressed by such %atterns $ith
verbess %redicatives as@
-o, could (ou *ehave li)e that$ and your mot!er present t!ere' 1B
though (our #other ,as present there2.
(oist as was !is brow, tremble as did !is !and once after t!e
nameless frig!t, he ,as still flushed ,ith fu#es of li;uor. 2*reiser3
'ntensity and e#%hasis can aso be %roduced by inversion in such
%atterns as@
%ait as !e did, ho,ever$ Carrie did not co#e. +Dr.i,.r/
0lauses of (anner and 0omparison
Sub,causes of #anner and co#%arison characterise the action of the
%rinci%a cause by co#%aring it to so#e other action. /atterns of this sort
are synse#antic in their vaue. So#eti#es the i#%ication of
7
See/ 5. Ces%ersen. Essentias of Engish )ra##ar. (ondon& 7=88& %. 89;.
;99
co#%arison see#s 0uite %ro#inent& in other cases the cause is ceary one
of #anner.
The #eaning of co#%arison #akes itsef 0uite evident in cases ike the
foo$ing@
\ou can lead #en$ I a# sure$ and there is no reason ,h( (ou should
not succeed at an(thing (ou set (our hand to$ 3ust as (ou have succeeded
in gra##ar. 2(ondon3
It follo,ed inevita*l( upon the ,or)$ as the night follo,s upon the da(.
2(ondon3
She ,as not e0actl( as daring as she see#ed$ *ut she loved to give that
i#pression. 2*reiser3
'n %atterns ike She did it as *est as she could the i#%ication of
co#%arison is hardy fet at a.
The con.unction as has a $ide and varied range of structura #eanings.
't is often used to introduce sub,causes of ti#e and cause& and it is ony
the conte+t that #akes the necessary #eaning cear.
1urther e+a#%es of sub,causes of co#%arison are@
-is father's face$ dus)( red$ t,itching as if he ,ere going to cr($ and
,ords *a)ing out that see#ed rent fro# hi# *( so#e spas# in his soul.
2)as$orthy3
%nd all that passed see#ed to pass as though his o,n po,er of
thin)ing or doing had gone to sleep. 2)as$orthy3
O'ERLAPPING RELATIONSHIPS
AND S(NSEMANTICS IN H(POTA>IS
A $ord #ust be said about the synse#antic character of various ty%es
of hy%ota+is $hich in #any cases have #i+ed or overa%%ing #eaning. 'n
so#e of these instances there is ony a suggestion of the secondary
#eaning& in others it is fairy %ro#inent.
The co#%e+ity of sub,causes& their synse#antic character and
overa%%ing reations observed in various %atterns of subordination bear
i##ediate reevance to such 0uestions as the e+ico,gra##atica
organisation of the sentence& i#%icit %redication and the %otentia vaency
of connectives introducing sub,causes.
5vera%%ing reationshi% in adverbia causes #erits s%ecia
consideration. 'nstances are not fe$ $hen causes introduced by
subordinative connectives and causes to $hich they are .oined see# to be
e0ua in their functiona eve.
't is a$ays i#%ortant to re#e#ber that not a the genera %otentia
#eaning of a given category $i be reevant in each occurrence. A
distinction that is reevant to one occurrence of the %attern can so#eti#es
have no bearing at a on another use. E+a#%es to iustrate the state#ent
are nu#erous. Thus& for instance& a conditiona ee#ent can be suggestive
of the secondary causa #eaning e. g.@
4If that's ,hat the .resident ,ants$< said "arloc)$ <,ell$ of course$ I
have no o*3ection<. 2Baiy3
...<%nd real reason$ Mr. .resident?<
278
<\es$ da#n it I need to plan so#e strateg( and if I'# going to do it$ I
need to thin) for a change<. 2Baiy3
<5hat shall I #a)e #( chec) for?< pursued Monsieur .rofond. <Five
hundred< said Soa#es shortl(4 <*ut I don't ,ant (ou to ta)e it if (ou don't
care for it #ore than that<. 2)as$orthy3
A good e+a#%e to iustrate overa%%ing reations of condition and
cause $i be found in Bain!s -igher !nglish "ra##ar$ fro# the fabe&
$here the ant says to the grassho%%er& <It (ou sang in su##er$ dance in
,inter<. The con.unction if has here the force of a reason& the condition
being a reaised fact. If (ou sang D since (ou sang or as (ou sang.
"ausa reations are fairy %ro#inent $hen the condition under $hich
the action is %erfor#ed %recedes the action $hich resuts fro# it.
2a3 If (ou have alread( #ade such arrange#ents I cannot interfere.
2b3 If he'd had the *rass to sta( in !ngland after co##itting such a
*are'faced forger($ he ,ould have the *rass to co#e here again and see
,hat #ore he could get. 2)as$orthy3
2c3 The thing I did not li)e ,as not *eing a*le to see her t,o ,hole
,ee)s$ *ut if it ,as for her good I ,as prepared to put up ,ith that.
2"ur#e3
2d3 It ,as a #ista)e she ,as #a)ing$... *ut if she ,as deter#ined on it$
,hat could he do a*out it? 2"ur#e3
2e3 If (ou are not in love$ of course there's no #ore to *e said.
2)as$orthy3
't is of interest to note that co#%osite sentences $ith overa%%ing
reations cf condition and cause are generay characterised by the
indicative #odaity of the sub,cause. /redication in the %rinci%a cause
can be of different #oda force 2indicative& obi0ue or i#%erative3.
If Soa#es had faith$ it ,as in ,hat he called< !nglish co##on
sense<D or the po,er to have things$ if not one ,a( then another.
2)as$orthy3
And here are a fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es of sentence %atterns $ith sub,
causes of condition used to intensify the reations of cause@
%nd if Crian even felt distrust for that s(#pathetic organisation it ,as
onl( *ecause all *ig na#es see#ed li)e devil's threats to hold his soul in
thrall. 2Siitoe3
'n other cases if,causes have a %ro#inent suggestion of the #eaning of
concession& e. g.@
She ,ould hold Tara$ if she had to *rea) the *ac) of ever( person of it.
2Mitche3
If :ld 9ol(on sa,$ he too) no notice. 2)as$orthy3
The( had co#e at a good *at up the slope and ,ere a little out of
*reath/ if the( had an(thing to sa( the( did not sa( it$ *ut #arched in the
earl( a,),ardness of *rea)fasted #orning under the songs of the lar)s.
2)as$orthy3
If Cosinne( ,as conscious of her trou*le$ he #ade no sign. 2)as$orthy3
A conditiona sub,cause introduced by the con.unction if is so#eti#es
suggestive of adversative reations& e. g.@
The senior senator fro# California ,as not a particularl( stri)ing
figure$ *ut he successfull( conve(ed the i#pression of *eing a #an ,ho
e0pected to do#inate a gathering and usuall( did. If he ,as a *it heav(
across the #idriff$ that gave hi# a certain advantage over #en of less
a#ple *ul). If his
;9=
gestures ,ere a trifle *road$ his voice a shade too strong for ordinar(
conversation$ these characteristics see#ed appropriate enough in a #an
#ore used to *eing listened to than listening. 2Baiy3
TRANSPOSITIONS AND F&NCTIONAL
RE;E'AL&ATION OF S(NTACTIC STR&CT&RES
5bservations on the conte+tua use of various sentence,%atterns furnish
nu#erous e+a#%es of re,inter%retation of syntactic structures by $hich
$e #ean styistic trans%ositions resuting in neutraisation of %ri#ary
gra##atica #eaning. The asy##etric duais# of the inguistic sign
7
a%%ears to be natura and is fairy co##on at different eves of anguage.
The inguistic #echanis#& %rosodic features in %articuar& $ork
naturay in #any $ays to %revent a#biguity in such %atterns of
gra##atica structure.
E+%ressive re,evauation of sentences can be connected $ith shifts of
their syntactic content.
Such is the use of the so,caed %seudo,subcauses of co#%arison& ti#e
and condition $hich in trans%osition function as inde%endent units of
co##unication. A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are@
%s if I ever told hi# a*out it7
S(n. I never told hi# a*out it.
-iggins/ %s if I ever stop thin)ing a*out the girl and her confounded
vo,els and consonants. 2Sha$3
Cf. s(n. I never stop thin)ing...
Cf. 4 US mZTLI [L_ mZTS_...4 4zP,ML4& cJcJWLIL MSRZL. 4LQ,YPM,
WJ X US lULn [LKSpJ mJiSOQL4. 2ScJR3
<%s if it ,asn't trou*le enough hatching the eggs<$ said the .igeon$
<*ut I #ust *e on the loo)out for serpents night and da(.< 2)arro3
<Me$ indeed7<Dcried the Mouse ,ho ,as tre#*ling do,n to the end of
his tail.
<%s if I ,ould tal) on such a su*3ect7< 2"arro3
E+a#%es of %seudo,subcauses of condition functioning as
inde%endent units are@
<5ell$ if (ou aren't a ,onder$< &rouet ,as sa(ing$ co#placentl($
s;uee=ing Carrie's ar#. <\ou are the dandiest little girl on earth.<
2*reiser3
If there isn't Captain &onnithorne a'co#ing into the (ard7 2Eiot3 D
here the direct and the indirect negations cance each other& the resut
being %ositive 1he is co#ing2.
A s%ecia case of functiona re,evauation of sub,causes of condition
$i be found in 4$ish,sentences4@
That ,asn't ,hat he had #eant to sa(. If onl( he )ne, #ore$ if onl( he
could #a)e others feel that vision$ #a)e the# understand ho, the( ,ere
duped into hatred under the guise of lo(alt( and dut(. 2Adington3
If onl( Fleur and he had #et on so#e desert island ,ithout a past D
and +ature for their house7 2)as$orthy3
7
See/ S. Karcevsky. *uais#e asy#tri0ue du signe inguisti0ue. T"(/. /rague& 7=;=.
280
'n sentence,%atterns of this ty%e the idea of the %rinci%a cause see#s
to be su%%ressed& but they occur so often that at ast $e hardy think of
$hat is eft out& the re#aining %art beco#es a reguar idio#atic e+%ression
$hich $e #ust recognise as a co#%ete sentence& an inde%endent unit of
co##unication.
Even $ithout any continuation the if,cause is taken at #ore than its
face,vaue and beco#es to s%eaker or hearer aike& a co#%ete e+%ression
of $ish.
(ike in so#e other ty%es of sentence,%atterning such conte+tua
variations are not s%ecificay Engish and #ay be traced in #any
anguages.
"o#%are anaogous deveo%#ents in Russian and Ukrainian@
A+& QLYh lZ_Jn RSWh OLTRSWLIZw
LQ Yh _h InYZIZ& ML US OLlInYIXIZ. 2b. yJITWJs3
as& XQYZ lZ_Jn QRVWZ OJlQRVWLIZw
Sub,causes of ti#e are syntacticay re,evauated in %atterns ike the
foo$ing@
:h$ ,hen she pla(s7
;roblems of Implicit ;redication
1or#a subordinative reations in co#%osite sentences are so#eti#es
$eakened and the second %art of the sentence co#es to function as an
o%tiona ee#ent& not necessariy needed to co#%ete the #eaning of the
first.
Such borderine cases bet$een subordination and coordination $i be
found& for instance& in syntactic structures $ith if'causes $hich give
rather so#e additiona infor#ation about the event invoved than the
condition under $hich the action is %erfor#ed. A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es
are@
She ,as prett($ too$ if #( recollection of her face and person are
correct.
In upper and #iddle classes ,e're doing it all the ti#e and *lin)ing the
#oral side$ if there is one. 2)as$orthy3
That's still the %#erican ,ho counts$ especiall( if (ou lu#p in the
&utch and Scandinavians stoc) %#ericans li)e this fello, -allorsen.
2)as$orthy3
If she #ade a #ista)e she has paid for it$ if ever a ,o#an did. 2*oye3
Reated to this are syntactic structures $ith i#%icit %redication.
The absence of the direct ogica reationshi% bet$een the e+%icit %arts
of the co#%osite sentence can suggest the o#ission of a certain
%redicative unit in its surface structure. The for#a organisation of such a
sentence does not refect the actua syntactic reations of its %arts.
'n s%oken Engish and iterary %rose such co#%ression in sentence,
structure is fairy co##on.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es are@
...<It's 3ust a cra=( old thing$< she said. ' I 3ust slip it on so#eti#es
,hen I don't care ,hat I loo) li)e.<
<Cut it loo)s ,onderful on (ou$ if (ou )no, ,hat I #ean$< pursued
Mrs. Mc[ee.
<If Chaster could onl( get (ou in that pose I thin) he could #a)e
so#ething of it<. 21itEgerad3
;?7
...9a#es and the other eight children of <Superior &osset<$ of ,ho#
there are still five alive$ #a( *e said to have represented Victorian
!ngland$ ,ith its principles of trade and individualis# at five per cent and
(our #one( *ac) D if (ou )no, ,hat that #eans. 2)as$orthy3
...%nd if it is an( satisfaction to (ou$ ,e are not for#all( engaged.
2)as$orthy3
The %redicative unit to $hich the if'cause $oud be ogicay attached
is not for#ay e+%ressed and re#ains in dee%,sense structure@
<...%nd if it is an( satisfaction to (ou$ I can tell (ou that ,e are not
for#all( engaged.<
(inguistic studies of recent ti#es have #ade it obvious that the
interde%endence of the causes in %arata+is is not absoute.
The ogica connection of the co,ordinated causes #akes it cear that
a%%arenty inde%endent causes are often not absoutey inde%endent& and
one of the# i#%icity stands in so#e gra##atica reation to the other.
Take& for instance& causes co,ordinated by the dis.unctive or in such
co#%osite sentences as@
D ...%re those (ours$ Mar(?
D I don't ,ear such things... Stop or I'll tell the #issis on (ou. :ut
half the night. 2Coyce3 1Stop$ if (ou don't$ I'll tell...2
...<"o out. Leave this house$ or I'll do (ou an in3ur(<. That fello, to
tal) of in3uries7 2)as$orthy3 Leave this house7 If (ou don't I'll...2
FINAL REMARuS ON S&BORDINATION
The synse#antic character and overa%%ing reations observed in va
rious ty%es of co#%osite sentences bear i##ediate reevance to their
e+ico,gra##atica organisation& the %otentia vaency of connectives
introducing sub,causes& in %articuar. "on.unctions& adverbs and
con.unctive %hrases %erfor# contained syntactic functions of a re#arkabe
variety of ty%es.
That is $e kno$n& for instance& as a cause,#arker introducing
sub.ect& ob.ect& %redicative& attributive causes and adverbia sub,causes of
%ur%oseG in adverbia causes of resut& ti#e& condition and concession that
is fairy co##on as correated $ith other %rono#ina or adverbia $ords@
so ... that$ for all that$ no, that$ *ut that.
The use of that is co##on in e#%hatic %atterns $ith it is ... that.
't is to be noted that the traditiona cassification of con.unctions into
coordinative and subordinative #ust be taken $ith so#e %oints of
reservation. 'nstances are not fe$ $hen causes introduced by
subordinative connectives and causes to $hich they are .oined are e0ua in
their functiona eve. This is the case& for instance& $ith descri%tive
attributive causes or& say& causes introduced by the coordinative
con.unction for that very often functions as absoutey synony#ous $ith
the subordinative *ecause.
282
'n so#e %atterns $ith the subordinative con.unction though the o%%osition
bet$een hy%ota+is and %arata+is co#es to be neutraised. The con.unction
though can introduce inde%endent sentences. Ter#ina %unctuation and
initia ca%ita etters $i #ake it cear in the $ritten anguage.
The %otentia #eaning of a given category is& in fact& the su# of the
co##on %arts of its actua #eanings in various conte+ts of use. An
atte#%t to identify so#e %otentia #eaning $ithout considering a the
actua occurrences of the category $i be futie.
"ertain s%eciaised %arts of actua #eanings are not covered by a
%otentia #eaning state#ent& athough in characterising the distributiona
vaue of a given category these %arts are .ust as significant as the #ore
genera co#%onents.
't is aso i#%ortant to re#e#ber that not a the genera %otentia
#eaning of a category $i be reevant in each occurrence.
This& ho$ever& #ust be taken $ith #uch reservation& for indeed it is
hardy %ossibe to #ake %otentia #eaning state#ents that $oud a%%y to
each occurrence of a certain category. The #eaningfu seg#entations #ay
vary fro# sentence to sentence.
A distinction that is reevant to one occurrence of the %attern #ay
so#eti#es have no bearing at a on another use.
Borderine cases $i be found in causes introduced by the con.unctive
$ord ,hile used in so#e conte+ts $ith the i#%ication of contrast rather
than te#%ora reations.
*ifficuties of gra##atica anaysis so#eti#es arise in sentences $ith
the coordinative con.unctions (et and so.
Variation in the functiona eve of causes introduced by such
connectives is a$ays signaed by the e+ico,gra##atica organisation of
the $hoe sentence& the #eaning of the connective $ord itsef& in
%articuar. -hat #ay so#eti#es be a#biguous in the $ritten anguage is
#ade cear in s%oken anguage by the ter#ina %auses of intonation $hich
$i a$ays sho$ ho$ the co#%onents of the utterance grou% the#seves
in each conte+t.
AS(NDETON
There is another ty%e of syntactic addition $hich gets aong $ithout
any connection at a. "auses .u+ta%osed in this $ay are not attached to
one another in any gra##atica $ay& they si#%y abut against each other&
they #ake contact but are not connected. )ra##ar books differ in
identifying the inguistic essence of such syntactic structures. According to
the traditiona ange of vie$& they are cassified in #ost anguages into
co#%ound and co#%e+ sentences.
A different a%%roach is found in N. S. /os%eov!s
1
treat#ents of
asyndeton in Russian synta+ $here asyndetic sentences are vie$ed as a
s%ecia syntactic category $ith no i##ediate reevance to subordination or
coordination.
7
A. \. J T m S I J R . a pOL__LWZiSTQJs mOZOJMS Z mOZUZmLc QILTTZZQLZZ
YSTTJnlUhc TIJUhc mOSMIJSUZs. q[JmOJTh TZUWLQTZTL TJROS_SUUJpJ OPTTQJpJ
XlhQLr. 7=<6& %%. 88?D8:<.
283
This ange of vie$ has been taken aso in other books and $ork,%a%ers
on this s%eciaised to%ic.
7
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich asyndetic sentences are for#ed in
#any if not a anguages gives& ho$ever& every reason to say that
sentence,%atterns of this ty%e in a the variety of their e+ico,gra##atica
organisation can hardy be ade0uatey described on the $hoe as irreevant
to subordination and coordination.
5ur survey of asyndeton in Modern Engish $ith its o$n se#antic
traits and features of syntactic arrange#ent gives sufficient evidence to
%oint out that in so#e ty%es of asyndetic co#%osite sentences subordinate
reations are 0uite %ro#inent.
The first to be #entioned here are %atterns $ith the attributive causes&
so#eti#es referred to as 4contact,causes4& because $hat characterises
the# is the cose contact bet$een the antecedent and the cause& e. g.@
\ou don't care a*out the#7 The('re not the gi#crac) things you and
your friends li#e, *ut the( cost #e sevent( pounds7< 2)as$orthy3
It's a prett( large thing I'm going on to and I'll need a lot of clever
#edical advice. 2"ronin3
That the criterion of subordination is reevant to asyndetic sentences
#ay $e be iustrated by ob.ect and conditiona causes. E+a#%es are@
-e )ne, t!ere were important ideas wor#ing in t!e ot!er man's
#ind. 2"ronin3
:ld 9ol(on said !e would wait ... 2)as$orthy3
I'# afraid t!ere's no doubt about it. 2)as$orthy3
Had I been a mere clod, neither ,ould I have desired to ,rite nor
,ould (ou have desired #e for a hus*and. 2(ondon3
5bserve aso the foo$ing e+a#%es of asyndeton $here the cose
contact bet$een t$o causes is suggestive of causa reations@
Ti#oth( ,as ver( poorl($ !e !ad !ad a lot of trouble wit! t!e
c!imney sweep in !is bedroom, t!e stupid man !ad let t!e soot down t!e
c!imney. 2)as$orthy3
4 5h($ (es<$ she ans,ered$ as the #usic stopped$ tr(ing to )eep an
even tone to her voice. She ,as glad t!ey were wal#ing toward a c!air.
2*reiser3
'n other ty%es of asyndetic co#%osite sentences the #eaning of resut
or conse0uence is 0uite %ro#inent& e. g.@
5ar#th$ softness$ light$ a s,eet scent$ all those things so fa#iliar to
her s!e neer een t!oug!t about t!em, she ,atched that other receive.
2Mansfied3
She had put on so #uch ,eight !e would scarcely recognise !er.
2"ronin3
Asyndetic sentences are fairy co##on after the introductory it is$ e.
g.@
7
See/ dOL__LWZQL OPTTQJpJ XlhQL& W. ;& i. ;& 7=<:& %%. 8?;D8?:. |. . L s S R L .
yZmh YSTTJnlUhc TIJUhc mOSMIJSUZs R TJROS_SUUJ_ LUpIZsTQJ_ XlhQS.
bRWJOSSOLW QLUM. MZTT& |.& 7=<<.
284
It is an apple she ,ants$ not a pear.
A si#iar case is found in %atterns ike@ 5hat is this I hear?
As can be seen fro# the above e+a#%es the se#antic reations
bet$een causes are signaed ony by the e+ica #eaning of the $ords
#aking u% the sentence. And this is one #ore e+a#%e to iustrate the
interaction bet$een vocabuary and synta+ $hich #ust never be
overooked in gra##atica anaysis.
A $ord $i be said about asyndetic sentences in $hich the reative
%ronoun as a sub.ect can be dis%ensed $ith 2the so,caed <apo)oinou<
%rinci%e3.
<There's a gentle#an do,nstairs ,ishes to see the lad(<$ said
%lderson. <It's her father$ I thin)<$ he added ;uietl(. 2*reiser3
REPRESENTED SPEECH
Re%resented s%eech is a co##on device in narrative $riting. Syntactic
structures $ith re%resented s%eech differ in their gra##atica organisation
and styistic vaue.
'ntended to e+%ress the character!s feeings and thoughts&
%sychoogica traits or #enta state of #ind through the $riter!s narration&
they are #ost e+%ressive and affective.
Re%resented s%eech 2free re%orted s%eech3 does not give the s%eaker!s
e+act $ords as they $ere uttered. 'n 0uotation #arks& it does not re%ort the
s%eakers $ords fro# the author!s %oint of vie$ either as the case is in
indirect s%eech. Re%orting an utterance indirecty by back,shifting the verb
it o#its the re%orting causes $hich are conventiona signas of indirect
s%eech.
There are t$o %oints to re#e#ber about the gra##atica organisation
of such syntactic structures@
73 the use of the tenses& the future,in,the,%ast in inde%endent
sentences& in %articuar& $hich is distinct fro# the direct s%eech& and the
use of %ersona %ronounsG
;3 the use of e+ca#atory no#ina sentences as distinct fro# indirect
s%eech.
Re%resented s%eech is fairy co##on in ;>th century iterary %rose.
-ith so#e $riters it has deveo%ed into a s%ecia #anner of stye.
Structures of this ty%e are skifuy used by creative $riters. The use of
free indirect s%eech for describing 4interior #onoogue4 has beco#e a
very $ides%read& if not standard %ractice in the fiction of the ;>th century.
'n )as$orthy!s noves& for instance& they are so effective and add so #uch
to the artistic vaue of his $ritings that #erit s%ecia consideration. They
are a$ays 4in character4& $e befitting the %ersonaity and socia standing
of the character. -e find here interrogative& vocative sentences& rhetoric
0uestionsG structures of this kind are not infre0uenty introduced into
various diaogues& $here the direct and indirect s%eech are used aongside
$ith re%resented s%eech. Transation fro# one for# to another ends
variety to narration.
;?<
E+a#ine the foo$ing e+tracts fro# C. )as$orthy to see ho$ skifuy
these styistic resources of synta+ serve his %en@
<Consoir$ #onsieur7< -o, softl( she had said it. To )no, ,hat ,as in
her #ind7 The French D the( ,ere li)e cats D one could tell nothing7 Cut
D ho, prett(7 5hat a perfect (oung thing to hold in one's ar#s7 5hat a
#other for his heir7 %nd he thought$ ,ith a s#ile$ of his fa#il( and their
surprise at a French ,ife$ ana their curiosit($ and of the ,a( he ,ould pla(
,ith it and *uffet it D confound the#7 The poplars sighed in the dar)ness4
an o,l hooted. Shado,s deepened in the ,ater. <I ,ill and #ust *e free<$
he thought. <I ,on't hang a*out an( longer. I'll go and see Irene. If (ou
,ant things done$ do the# (ourself. I #ust live again D live and #ove and
have #( *eing.< %nd in echo to that ;ueer *i*licalit( church'*ells chi#ed
the call to evening pra(er.
1e$ things are so sub.ective as the use of re%resented s%eech. By a
skifu use of its various %atterns the $riter is abe to i#%y $ith e#otive
shades of #eaning his o$n attitude concerning the %erson s%oken to or of.
NOMINALIT( IN ENGLISH SENTENCE;STR&CT&RE
Nouna,verba contrast& vie$ed in ter#s of functiona interaction of
these t$o #a.or casses of $ords& is an interesting ob.ect of inguistic
investigation in any anguage.
Noun and verbs are organicay reated and constanty aiding to and
su%%orting each other in co##unication. No#inaity #ust naturay be
distinguished differenty in different anguages. Engish shares this feature
$ith a nu#ber of tongues& but its deveo%#ent has ed to such significant
idiosyncratic traits as #erit s%ecia attention.
'n %resent,day Engish the tendency to co#%actness through
no#inaity is brought into %articuar %ro#inence.
The variety of gra##atica for#s in no#inaisation #ay be $e
iustrated by the foo$ing@
a3 the e+tensive use of one,#e#ber sentencesG
b3 the use of infinitiva sentences as inde%endent units of
co##unicative vaueG
c3 the fre0uency vaue of noun,ad.unct grou%s 2%re#odification of
nouns by nouns3G
d3 co#%ression of different ty%es of subcauses by no#inaisation
2gerundive& infinitiva& %artici%ia no#inas and absoute no#ina %hrases3.
This #akes it %ossibe to do $ithout a subcause $hich $oud be other$ise
necessary.
e3 different ty%es of sentence %atterning in syntactic structures
introducing the direct s%eech.
No#inaity of this atter ty%e %resents a s%ecia inguistic interest as
reevant to so#e obvious 4%eri%hera4 changes in %resent,day Engish
synta+ and its styistic as%ects.
Syntactic co#%ression is obviousy reevant to such %robe#s of
#odern inguistics as se#antic as%ects of synta+& the %robe# of i#%icit
%redication and fe+ibiity in syntactic hierarchy. The trend to activising
co#%ression eads to aconis# and ends variety to s%eech.
286
Se#antic inter%retation of syntactic structures& %robe#s of i#%icit
%redication& surface and dee% sense structure are sti in a rudi#entary
stage of investigation. The t$o as%ects of syntactic descri%tion D
4se#antic synta+4 and 4synta+ of surface structures4 D are organicay
reated to each other but none shoud be brought to the front at the e+%ense
of the other.
'n ter#s of content there are ho#ony#ous structura %atterns of
sentences& i. e. %atterns identica in their gra##atica organisation and
different in ter#s of content. And on the other hand& one se#antic
sentence %attern #ay be e+%ressed by different for#a sentence %atterns.
'nvoving vocabuary in studying synta+ he%s to distinguish the
se#antic #arkers $hich signa the necessary #eaning in each case.
A#biguity is co##ony narro$ed do$n by the conte+t& inguistic or
situationa. There are aso cases $hen it is resoved on a s%an arger than a
sentence.
'#%icit %redication in co#%osite sentences is often suggested by the
vioation of direct ogica reationshi%s bet$een the e+%icit %arts of the
sentence. This is the case& for instance& in syntactic structures $ith
anne+ation& sentences $ith overa%%ing adverbia reations& syntactic
structures introducing direct s%eech.
'n co#%ression by no#inaisation a sentence dis%enses $ith a sub,
cause $hich resuts in coser cohesion of its ee#ents and greater con,
density of the $hoe sentence structure.
This reative co#%actness of the Engish sentence and the use of
various condensers as its synony#ic aternatives is one of #any syntactic
features that sho$s the anaytica character of Modern Engish.
Synony#ic correation of sub,causes and their no#ina condensers
#erits attention in ter#s of gra##atica as%ects of stye.
No#inas functioning as synony#ic aternatives of verba sub,causes
are in #ost cases $e ada%ted to their %ur%ose in different s%heres of
a%%ication.
't $i be he%fu to distinguish bet$een one,#e#ber and t$o,#e#ber
structures of the secondary %redication@
/artici%e ' She ca#e in and sat do,n
at her place$ feeling
e0ceedingl( ,atched.
2*reiser3
-e stood in the road$ wit!
the sun s!ining on hi#.
2Ae#ing$ay3
/artici%e '' 5holl( depressed he
started for Thirteenth Street.
2*reiser3
-is rifle fell *( hi# and la(
there ,ith one of the #an's
fingers t,isted through the
trigger guard
2Ae#ing$ay3
'nfinitive Crian laughed to thin) of it.
2Siitoe3
&rouet ,as ,aiting for
Carrie to come bac#.
2*reiser3
)erund -e ,ound up *( sa(ing he
,ould thin) it over$ and
ca#e a,a(. 2*reiser3
287
Absoute Cac) in the hut$ he
/hrase s,itched the tuning dial
fro# its allotted
,avelength to find so#e
#usic$ hoping no plane
,ould choose to send
and S:S ,hile he ,asn't
listening. 2Siitoe3
The no#ina tendency #erits consideration in the use of %re%ositiona
%hrases.
The #uti%icity of $ays in $hich such %hrases #ay be co#bined in
actua usage %er#its a very arge nu#bers of %atterns to be buit in
%resent,day Engish. 5n different inguistic occasions a %re%ositiona
no#ina %hrase can %erfor# different functions& secondary %redication& in
%articuar.
A re#arkabe range of uses $i be observed in no#ina %hrases $ith
the %re%osition ,ith.
5ith 2AS. ,ith$ against$ to,ards$ opposite2.
'n genera& ,ith renotes a reation of %ro+i#ity& contiguity& or
association. 'n various a%%ications ,ith,%hrases #ay indicate@ 73
o%%osition& being e0uivaent to against$ as to fight ,ith the ene#(4 ;3
association of a reci%roca kind or by $ay of %artici%ation in an action or
transaction& as to tal) ,ith friends4 83 association in the $ay of
co#%arison& e0uaity or sa#eness& as in on e;ual ter#s ,ith another4 :3
association as ob.ect of attention or concern& as in patient ,ith children4 <3
association by $ay of aiance& assistance or har#ony& as on friendl( ter#s
,ith all nations4 63 association in res%ect of s%hereG hence in the
esti#ation& sight or o%inion of& e. g.@ their argu#ents had ,eight ,ith hi#4
93 causa connection& as in to perish ,ith hunger4 e(es di# ,ith tears4 ?3
attendance by $ay of #anner& %ur%ose& resut& condition& etc.G =3
association by $ay of %ossession& care& or attribute& e. g.@ to arrive ,ith
good ne,s4 7>3 association by $ay of addition& as in he ca#e ,ith his
students4 773 association in the $ay of si#utaneity& as in change ,ith
(ears4 7;3 se%aration.
E+a#ine the foo$ing sentences $hen the no#ina %hrase is used
$ith the i#%ication of various adverbia #eanings in secondary
%redication@
The countr( ,as still living on its capital. 5ith the collapse of the
carr(ing trade and !uropean #ar)ets$ the( ,ere i#porting food the(
couldn't afford to pa( for...
5ith shipping idle$ concerns #a)ing a loss all over the place$ and the
une#plo(ed in s,ar#s$ it ,as a prett( pair of shoes7 !ven insurance #ust
suffer *efore long... 2)as$orthy3
Unconsciousl( she had assu#ed a #odern attitude$ ,ith one leg
t,isted in and out of the other$ ,ith her chin on one *ent ,rist$ her other
ar# across her chest$ and its hand hugging her el*o,. 2)as$orthy3
-is rifle fell *( hi# and la( there,ith one of the #an's fingers t,isted
through the trigger guard$ his ,rist *ent for,ard. 2Ae#ing$ay3
288
So#e gra##arians e#%hasise that no#inaity@ a3 he%s i#%ersonaity
and offers advantage to scientific EngishG b3 that it is easier to $rite
and c3 that it is thus natura for those $ho are #ore concerned $ith
$hat they say than $ith ho$ they say it
1
. The atter state#ent is
ho$ever o%en to doubt and 0uestioning.
't $oud be $rong to say that no#inaity is a si#%e substitution. 't is
aso not a variabe $hich can itsef vary $ithout causing variation in the
other significant factors of stye.
Nu#erous e+a#%es can sho$ that no#ina structures are often #ost
affective& coourfu and $e ada%ted to their %ur%ose in %ictoria or
other$ise e#%hatic stye. They are ess vivid and dyna#ic than verba
sentences& yet sti gracefu and strong.
"o#%are the foo$ing@
Cirds ,ere singing. Cirds ,ere in varied song.
%pple'trees ,ere *loo#ing. %pple'trees ,ere in fullest *loo#.
-e thought deepl(. -e ,as in deep thought.
She ,as all tre#*ling. She ,as all in a tre#*le$
She ,as all fluttering. She ,as all in a flutter.
The pool$ for#ed *( the da##ing of a roc)$ had a sand( *otto#4 and
the *ig apple tree$ lo,est in the orchard$ gre, so close that its *oughs
al#ost overhung the ,ater4 it ,as in leaf, and all but in flower D its
cri#son *uds 3ust *ursting. 2)as$orthy3
-is cousin 9une D and co#ing straight to his recess7 She sat do,n
*eside hi#$ deep in t!oug!t, too) out a ta*let and #ade a pencil note.
2)as$orthy3
She ,as all in a tremble of e0cite#ent and opposition as she spo)e.
2*reiser3
...Roses on the veranda ,ere still in bloom, and the hedges
evergreen... 2)as$orthy3
-e crossed the floor and loo)ed through the farther ,indo, at the
,ater slo,'flo,ing past the lilies. &irds were in aried song...
2)as$orthy3
A $ord $i be said& in %assing& about trans%ositions of Engish nouns
into ad.ectives $here they are ready to do another duty. -e #ean
rendering the idea of 0uaity through the reationshi% of one ob.ect to the
other@
a3 the so,caed 4genitivus 0uaitatis4& synony#ous $ith ad.ectives
%ro%er and often used to obtain e+%ressive nuances for s%ecia styistic
%ur%oses in %ictoria anguages& e. g.@
Fleur sat do,n4 she felt ,ea) in the legs. The ice see#ed suddenl( of
an appalling thinness D the ,ater appallingl( cold. 2)as$orthy3
b3 no#ina %hrases N j '
sef
D a styistic aternative of the absoute
su%erative degree 2so,caed 4eative43& e. g.@
Mr. .ic),ic) is )indness itself.
\ou are patience itself ` \ou are #ost patient. She
,as prudence itself D She ,as #ost prudent.
/hrases of this sort are #ore forcefu and e+%ressive than the
res%ecitive ad.ective in the su%erative degree. Such structures of
%redication
7
See/ T h. Sebeok. Stye in (anguage& 7=6>. %%. ;7>D;77. 7=

;?=
are good evidence of the fact that 0uaity in so#e cases can be e+%ressed
#ore effectivey by a noun than an ad.ective. c3 noun,%hrases all A N@
She is all patience$ (ou're all activit(. She is
all goodness 1Cf. She is ver( good2. -e is
all nerves. 1Cf. -e is ver( nervous2.
*irect s%eech is often introduced by no#ina %hrases of different
ty%es. The %reference for such co#%actness is no$ co##on%ace.
A fe$ ty%ica e+a#%es of such co#%actness $here %redication $ith
verbs of saying is i#%icit are@
<Co#e on$ #( lad$ let's have (ou do,n<. %nd again/ <%re (ou goin' to
get do,n or aren't (ou?<
<I'll fall< D his ar#s *are and the nec) slipp( ,ith s,eat.
<+o (ou ,on't<. 2Siitoe3
1...he said$ his ar#s *are and the nec) slipp( ,ith s,eat2
...<5hat's (our na#e$ love?< % straight ans,er$ as if she didn't #ind
telling hi#/ <!dna<. 2Siitoe3
<-e( up$ )id$< D onl( a glance. 2Siitoe3
1he too) a glance and said2
...<Shall ,e go along here< D pointing to ,here the footpath for)ed$
through a #eado, and up the hill. 2Siitoe3
1...she said pointing to...2
And here are a fe$ e+a#%es of no#ina sentences $ith the absoute
use of verba nouns 2nornina actionis or no#ina acti3 transfor#ed into
inde%endent sentences of co##unicative vaue& in %atterns ike the
foo$ing@
:ne s#ile$ and she stopped arguing.
% cr($ or had she drea#ed it? 2)as$orthy3
:ne push$ and he ,as standing inside$ *reathless$ ,iping his feet.
2Siitoe3
The tendency to $ord %redication no#inay rather than verbay is
decidedy on the increase in %resent,day Engish. This outstanding feature
characterises the #odern Engish sentence as a $hoe.
A sentence dis%enses $ith a sub,cause $hich undoubtedy resuts in
coser cohesion of its ee#entsG such cohesion is e0uivaent to a greater
condensity of the $hoe sentence structure grou%ed around one singe
ne+us of sub.ect and %redicate. The reations of at east so#e sentence
ee#ents to this centra ne+us are often of rather co#%e+ character.
The student of Engish as a foreign anguage finds #any difficuties in
#astering the %ecuiarities of various ty%es of co#%ression in sentence
structure different fro# %ractice in other anguages.
The difference bet$een the synthetic and anaytica gra##atica
structure is $e kno$n to be refected in synta+. The %osition of the $ords
in the sentence is gra##aticaised to a #uch higher degree in anaytica
than in synthetic anguages. But the highy fi+ed $ord,order is not the ony
syntactic feature that sho$s the anaytica character of Modern Engish.
This is aso refected in the reative co#%actness of the Modern
;=>
Engish sentence and the use of various condensers as its synony#ic
aternatives.
The idio#atic character of co#%actness in the gra##atica
organisation of the Engish sentence is different fro# %ractice in other
anguages.
GRAMMAR AND ST(LE
-ith the e+%ansion of inguistic interest into stye %robe#s
gra##atica studies in our day have taken on ne$ vitaity.
Anaysing the anguage fro# the vie$%oint of the infor#ation it
carries $e cannot restrict the notion of infor#ation to the cognitive as%ect
of anguage. "onnotative as%ects and e#otiona overtones are aso
i#%ortant se#antic co#%onents of inguistic units at different eves.
)ra##atica for#s %ay a vita roe in our abiity to end variety to
s%eech& to give 4coour4 to the sub.ect or evauate it& to convey the
infor#ation #ore e#otionay& to give it affective overtones.
Stye in anguage is a syste# of organicay reated inguistic #eans
$hich serve a definite %ur%ose of co##unication.
'n highy deveo%ed anguages one and the sa#e idea #ay be
differenty e+%ressed in different consituations. 5n various occasions a
s%eaker #akes an intentiona use of so#e inguistic for#s to give
e#%hasis to $hat is e#%hatic& to #ake $hat is striking and i#%ortant
strike the eye and #ind of the reader. This %ur%ose #ay be attained in
#any different $ays.
The styistic range of Russian and Ukrainian is $ide and uti#atey the
gradations are infinite. And so it is $ith Engish. -hen $e are %utting
$ords together& $e have to see that they are congruous $ith the
e+%ectations at so#e %oint on this scae and that they are arranged
according to the conventions of coocation $ith reference to the sa#e
%oint on the scae.
'ntensity and e#%hasis #ay be obtained in different $ays.
There are e+%ressive #eans in any anguage estabished by right of
ong use at different eves@ %honetic& #or%hoogica& e+ica&
%hraseoogica and syntactic.
E+%ressive nuances #ay be obtained& for instance& by %rosody aone&
by inter.ections and %artices of e#%hatic %recision or& say& by $ord,
#aking& etc.
The seection of such inguistic devices is a factor of great significance
in the act of co##unication. /honetic #eans are #ost effective. By
%rosody $e e+%ress subte nuances of #eaning that %erha%s no other
#eans can attain. /itch& #eody and stress& %ausation& dra$ing out certain
syabes& $his%ering and #any other $ays of using the voice are #uch
stronger than any other #eans of intensifying the utterance& to convey
e#otions or to kinde e#otions in others.
5n the #or%hoogica eve e+%ressivity is often attained by effective
trans%ositions of gra##atica for#s the styistic vaue of $hich can
hardy be overesti#ated.
;=7
The %robe#s of stye in gra##ar are sti in a rudi#entary stage of
investigation. Recent inguistic studies have contributed significanty to
the e+%oration of gra##atica as%ects of stye but #uch sti re#ains to
be done to give the inventory of gra##atica for#s $ith reevance to their
connotation and e+%ressive vaue.
'n any s%eech event the structure of the utterance naturay de%ends on
the %revaent denotative function& but the %artici%ation of the other factors
#ust be taken into consideration as $e.
The co#%onents of gra##atica #eaning that do not beong to the
denotation of the gra##atica for# can reasonaby be covered by the
genera ter# of connotation. As a #atter of fact& styistic differentiation in
the $hoe variety of any anguage beongs in its e+ica and gra##atica
resuts to the category connotation.
7
The variety of e+%ressive features
that #ay be incor%orated in anguage& $hether $ritten or s%oken& is
#anifesty enor#ous.
5n the connotative eve& $e #ay distinguish& at east to a $orkabe
degree& the co#%onents of the gra##atica #eaning that add so#e
contrastive vaue to the %ri#ary denotative vaue of the $ord,for#. -e
#ean intensity of #eaning& e+%ressivity& sub.ective #oda force or
e#otiona coouring.
The vaidity of the connotative anaysis #akes itsef 0uite evident. And
this is based not ony on theoretica considerations& but aso on %ractica
ones.
't $oud be therefore a #istake to deny the constitutive vaue of
4styistic4 gra##ar as %art of functiona styistics& $hose i#%ortant goa is
to dee%y in0uire into the gra##atica as%ects of stye and describe those
characteristic styistic traits of anguage that ie in the fied of gra##ar.
These are #ost skifuy #astered by creative $riters but often
disregarded& if not absoutey ignored& by gra##arians.
E+a#ining the organisation of the te+t aong the syntag#atic a+is $e
cannot avoid consideration of the seection in the distribution of its
inguistic ee#ents.
)reat $riters %ossess an intuitive #astery of the rues that are
obigatory $ithin the tradition of anguage but they have a$ays seective
$ay and can #ani%uate these rues in accordance $ith their o$n artistic
intentions and sur%ass the i#its %rescribed by tradition. C. )as$orthy& for
instance& uses gra##atica i#agery in his 41orsyte Saga4 so #astery that
so#e of its %ages are& indeed& difficut to %ace in 4%rose D %oetry4
dichoto#y.
'n ter#s of gra##atica as%ects of stye& $e find it reasonabe to
distinguish bet$een inherent and adherent e+%ressivity of gra##atica
for#s.
)ra##atica for#s $ith inherent e+%ressive vaue are styisticay
#arked units of gra##ar. 'n Engish #or%hoogy they are fe$ in nu#ber.
The first to be #entioned here are the e#%hatic for#s of the /resent
7
See/ |. I N _ T I S R. OJISpJ_SUh Q WSJOZZ XlhQL. [ TY.@ 4zJRJS R
IZUpRZTWZQS4. [hm. 7& f.& 7=6>.
;=;
and /ast 'ndefinite $ith do and did and the e#%hatic for#s of the
'#%erative Mood $ith the au+iiary do.
There are aso variant for#s of the /ast tense $ith e#%hasis aid on
negation $hich are aso styisticay #arked@ he sa, not ` he did not see4
he )ne, not D he did not )no,. E+a#%es are@
The( passed fro# his vie, into the ne0t roo#$ and Soa#es continued
to regard the <Future To,n<$ *ut sa, it not. % little s#ile snarled up his
tips.
... The tune died and ,as rene,ed$ and died again$ and still Soa#es
sat in the shado,$ ,aiting for he )ne, not ,hat. 2)as$orthy3
...and on the glea#ing river ever( fallen leaf that drifted do,n carried
a #oon*ea#4 ,hile$ a*ove$ the trees sta(ed$ ;uiet #easured and
illu#ined$ ;uiet as the ver( s)($ for the ,ind stirred not. 2)as$orthy3
The sa#e is true negative for#s of the '#%erative Mood $ithout the
au+iiary do.
+o use to rave7 5orse than no use D far4 ,ould onl( #a)e hi# ill$ and
he ,ould ,ant all his strength. For ,hat? For sitting still4 for doing
nothing4 for ,aiting to see7 Venus7 Touch not the goddess D the hot$ the
3ealous one ,ith the lost dar) e(es7 -e had touched her in the past$ and
she had ans,ered ,ith a *lo,. Touc! !er not) 2)as$orthy3
Cf. Touch her not ] &o not touch her7 D &on't touch her72.
There are aso archaic for#s in the con.ugation of the Engish verb
beonging to the high stye ony& e. g. 'th for the third %erson singuar&
/resent 'ndicative@ endeth$ liveth$ )no,eth$ saith$ doth$ hath$ etc.
...The #oon's hiding$ no,$ *ehind on of the el#s$ and the evening star
shining... It's a night far fro# our ti#e$ far even fro# our ,orld. +ot an
o,l hooting$ *ut the hone(suc)le still s,eet. %nd so$ #( #ost dear$ here
endet! the tale7 2)as$orthy3
The sa#e is true of the for#s in 'st for the second %erson singuar of
both the /resent and the /ast 'ndicative& e. g&@ livest$ )no,est$ sa(st$ dost$
livedst$ )ne,est$ saidst$ didst$ hadst$ etc. and the for#s shalt$ ,ilt$ art ,ert
2or ,ast2 of the verbs shall$ ,ill$ be used $ith the %ersona %ronoun thou.
A certain nu#ber of verbs have aternative archaic for#s differing
fro# the ordinary ones by a distinct soe#n coouring of eevated stye& e.
g.@ spa)e$ for spo)e 2/ast tense of the verb spea)24 throve for thrived 2/ast
tense of the verb thrive2.
The seection of inguistic #eans is a factor of great significance in the
act of co##unication.
1ro# the styistic %oint of vie$& so#e gra##atica for#s are neutra&
others are not. There are for#s $hich have a noticeabe styistic coouring
and $i %roduce an ina%%ro%riate effect $hen used outside their s%here of
styistic usage. There are aso a fe$ nouns $hich have aternative archaic
%ura for#s& e. g. *rethren 2differing fro# *rother not in styistic
coouring aone3 or& say& co,$ $ith its aternative archaic %ura for# )ine
used $ith a %oetic tinge.
A far greater interest attaches to gra##atica for#s $ith adherent
e+%ressivity i. e. for#s $hich are endo$ed $ith e+%ressive functions ony
in s%ecia conte+ts of their use.
;=8
This 0uestion naturay invoves #any others& such as& for instance&
functiona trans%ositions of gra##atica for#s eading to their functiona
re,evauation& sus%ension of o%%ositions and conte+tua synony#y in
gra##ar.
't is interesting to note& in %assing& that not a gra##atica for#s are
e0uay endo$ed $ith e+%ressive functions to be %erfor#ed in different
conte+ts. So#e of the# are ess dyna#ic in their use& others %ossess 0uite
a %ecuiar #obiity and are %articuary suitabe for use in e#otiona
conte+ts $ith various subte shades of e+%ressive #eaning.
Trans%ositions in gra##ar ike those in the vocabuary ead the $ay to
ever #ore dyna#ic and %ictoria #eans of e+%ression& they are rather
reguar in the structure of any anguage. "osey reated to the o%%ositions
in %airs of gra##atica for#s they have their o$n syste# and %ecuiarities
in the gra##ar of different %arts of s%eech.
't can be said $ith itte fear of e+aggeration that due to functiona
trans%ositions the styistic range of gra##ar in #ost deveo%ed #odern
anguages is sur%risingy $ide. -e kno$ $e the fu richness and the
e#otive dyna#ic force of Russian and Ukrainian gra##atica for#s
concerned $ith the sub.ective e#otiona use of different %arts of s%eech.
And so it is $ith Engish. 't has a very definite and co#%e+ gra##ar
$ith its o$n set of devices for handing the $ord,stock& $ith its o$n
styistic traits and idiosyncrasies $idey current to serve different %ur%oses
in the act of co##unication. 'n trans%ositions on its #or%hoogica eve
$e #ay find not ony its o$n structura %ecuiarities but a fair nu#ber of
universa features traced in other anguages.
1ro# this %oint of vie$ the connotative vaue of gra##atica for#s as
deveo%ed in different conte+ts of their sub.ective use is a source of
constant interest.
Aere are a fe$ gra%hic e+a#%es to iustrate the fact that on the
connotative eve a gra##atica for# #ay take on s%ecia sub.ective
shades of #eaning& styisticay different fro# its %ri#ary denotative
content@
<5e %#ericans agree. Cut #a( *e not our Senate.< ! 'That Senate of
(ours<$ #uttered -u*ert$ <see#s to *e a prett( hard proposition.<
2)as$orthy3
<That dog of (ours is spoiling the garden. I shouldn't )eep the dog$ if I
,ere (ou.< 2)as$orthy3
, That face of hers$ ,hose e(es for a #o#ent ,ere off guard$ ,as dar)
,ith so#e deep D he couldn't tell. 2)as$orthy3
The conte+t is a$ays sufficienty e+%icit to revea the e#otive use of
the %artitive genitive $hich in %atterns $ith the de#onstratives this or that
#ay deveo% connotative #eanings denoting different e#otions@ scorn&
conte#%t& indignation& ad#iration& deight& a%%rova& etc.
Vivid e+a#%es of connotative #eanings defined by the conte+t or
situation $i aso be found in the e+%ressive use of de#onstrative
%ronouns@
...he perfectl( re#e#*ered ho, %unt %nn$ *orn in 1$ used to tal)
a*out <that dreadful Conaparte D ,e used to call hi# Cone($ #( dear.<
2)as$orthy3
4' had a *rain ,ave D ,ent to that Mr. Mont ,ho gave us the clothes$
and he's advanced it.< 2)as$orthy3
294
<%n(thing unpleasant$ duc)(?< Soa#es loo)ed up as if startled.
<Unpleasant? 5h( should it *e unpleasant?<
<I onl( thought fro# (our face.<
Soa#es grunted. <This Ruhr7< he said. 2)as$orthy3
It ,as that sister &oris D She got hold of hi#. 2Mansfied3
The co##on function of the de#onstrative %ronouns this D these4
thai D those is to %oint out e+acty one or #ore %ersons or things and to
distinguish the# fro# others of the sa#e cass.
(anguage varies as its function variesG it differs in different
situations. The na#e no$ often given to a variety of anguage
distinguished according to its use is 4register4.
The category of 4register4 is needed $hen $e observe anguage
activity in the various conte+ts in $hich it takes %ace and find
differences in the ty%e of anguage seected as a%%ro%riate to different
ty%es of officia etters and docu#ents or& say& s%orts co##entaries&
%o%uar .ournais# or scientific Engish $i a$ays be inguisticay 0uite
distinct. Reading a frag#ent fro# any of these and #any #ore
situation ty%es $i a$ays he% to identify 4the register4 correcty.
The choice of ite#s fro# the $rong register& and the #i+ing of ite#s
fro# different registers& are a#ong the #ost fre0uent #istakes #ade by
non,native s%eakers of a anguage.
The criteria of any given register are to be found in its gra##ar and
in its vocabuary. (e+ica features see# to be the #ost obvious. The
cearest signas of a %artia register& say& bioogy& che#istry&
engineering or #edicine& are scientific technica ter#s e+ce%t those
that beong to #ore than one science& ike #athe#atics and #odern
inguistics.
/urey gra##atica distinctions bet$een the different registers are
ess striking& yet there can be noticeabe variation in gra##ar aso.
Many of the #ost characteristic styistic traits of the anguage are
in the fied of gra##ar.
Standard usage of Engish incudes for#a& infor#a and so#eti#es
coo0uia Engish. Each of these& in turn& offers its o$n set of criteria.
Thus& for#a scientific Engish& $here %recision and carity are vita&
is generay identified by s%ecia %atterns of gra##atica structure&
by its use of co#%e+ sentences and by its affinity for %recision. Most
of its gra##atica ee#ents are 4denotative4& not 4connotative4.
Scientific technica iterature& for instance& abounds in the use of
engthy %artici%ia& gerundia and infinitiva %hrases. Another noticeabe
feature of scientific Engish& for e+a#%e& is the %referabe use of the
i#%ersona one$ the generaising (ou$ so caed %urais #odestia ,e$ or&
say& the use of ,ould for a %ersons in Singuar and /ura to denote
habitua re%eated actions $ith reference to %resent& %ast and future.
Not ess characteristic is the fre0uency vaue of %assive verba for#s&
generay due to the fact that the agent is unkno$n or the $riter %refers
not to s%eak of hi#. Thus the author #ay aso avoid sho$ing that he
hi#sef is the agent. 'n its $ritten for#& for#a Engish ao$s no
re%etition& no re%hrasing to e+%ain an abstruse %oint. The choice of
%atterns in scient i fi c %rose is therefore ikey to be #ost factua and
referentia $ith co#%arativey fe$ sub.ective e#otiona ee#ents in it.
1or#a Engish
;=<
is very sedo# used in s%eaking D #ainy $hen& for instance& reading
fro# a %re%ared s%eech& addressing a #eeting& a grou% or an association
of schoars. 't is aso co##on in ega docu#ents and announce#ents&
in $ork,%a%ers& in %roceedings& essays& etc.
"oo0uia Engish is generay recognised by its oose synta+& its
reativey short and unco#%icated sentence structure& by its fre0uent
use of so,caed sentence frag#ents and readiy understood gra##atica
idio#s. 't is ivey& free in for#& often e+ca#atory& abounding in
ei%sis.
Many of its idio#atic %atterns of gra##atica structure are
unacce%tabe as standard for infor#a iterary usage.
Aere is a short %assage that iustrates the degree to $hich C.
)as$orthy& aert of #ind and 0uick of ear& succeeded in #astery
transferring to his %age the very essence and %attern of staccato s%eech in
coo0uia Engish@
<-allo7... That (ou$ 5ilfrid?... Michael spea)ing... :ne of our
pac)ers has *een snooping copies of <Copper Coin<. -e's got the *ird ]
poor devil7 I ,ondered if (ou'd #ind putting in a ,ord for hi# D old &an
,on't listen to #e... \es$ got a ,ife D Fleur's age4 pneu#onia$ so he sa(s.
5on't do it again ,ith (ours an(,a($ insurance *( co##on gratitude D
,hat7 Than)s$ old #an$ a,full( good of (ou D ,ill (ou *o* in$ then?<
2)as$orthy3
"onsider aso the foo$ing e+a#%es@
<Curt #ust *e up ,ith Michael$ tal)ing a*out his ne, *oo).<
< 5riting at his age?< said Soa#es.
< 5ell$ duc)($ he's a (ear (ounger than (ou.<
<I don't ,rite. +ot such a fool. "ot an( #ore ne,'fangled friends?<
<9ust one D "urdon Minho$ the novelist.<
<%nother of the ne, school?<
<:h$ no$ dear7 Surel( (ou've heard of "urdon Minho4 he is older than the
hills... 2)as$orthy3
<...\ou ,ere in the ,ar$ Mr. &esert?<
<:h$ (es.<
<%ir service?<
<%nd line. Cit of *oth.<
<-ard of a poet.<
<+ot at all...< 2)as$orthy3
"onsider aso the foo$ing e+a#%e@
...-here tov
4"ass.4
4Mathv4
4No& S%anish.4
4'n a hurryv4
4Rather.4
4-hat forv4
4A#ost ten.4
4-e& so ong. "a #e u%4

.
7
A. A. MLpTk$ardt. 'ntroduction to the Engish (anguage. Ne$ York& 7=<>& %. 7:6.
296
The stye of the anguage of everyday ife& or coo0uia anguage&
ans$ers the needs of everyday co##union in everyday #atters. 't is
essentiay a diaogue in $hich a the %artici%ants e+change their
thoughts freey. Situation& gesture& intonation he% the una#biguous
understanding& therefore there is no great need for the s%eech to be very
e+act& very cear. -e often i#it ourseves $ith #ere hinting& and the fu
e+%ressions of thought #ay see# %edantic. The vocabuary is neither very
rich nor refined& $e often recur to non,standard ayers of anguage. The
structure of sentence is si#%e& often ei%tica to the ut#ost. The
enunciation is negigent and contracted for#s %revai.
Bernard Sha$ has very $ittiy s%oken on 4S%oken Engish and
Broken Engish4@
4...no t$o native s%eakers of Engish s%eak it aikeG but %erha%s you
are cever enough to ask #e $hether ' #ysef s%eak it in the sa#e $ay.
' #ust confess at once that ' do not. Nobody does& ' a# at %resent
s%eaking to an audience of #any thousands of gra#o%honists& #any
of $ho# are trying hard to foo$ #y $ords syabe by syabe. 'f '
$ere to s%eak to you as careessy as ' s%eak to #y $ife at ho#e& this
record $oud be useessG and if ' $ere to s%eak to #y $ife at ho#e as
carefuy as ' a# s%eaking to you& she $oud think that ' $as going
#ad.
As a %ubic s%eaker& ' have to take care that every $ord ' say is heard
distincty at the far and of the arge has containing thousands of
%eo%e. But at ho#e& $hen ' have to consider ony #y $ife $ithin si+
feet of #e at breakfast& ' take so itte %ains $ith #y s%eech that very
often instead of giving #e the e+%ected ans$er& she says 4*on!t #u#be
and don!t turn your head a$ay $hen you s%eak. ' can!t hear a $ord you are
saying.4 And she aso is a itte careess. So#eti#es ' have tosay4$hat4
t$o or three ti#es during our #eaG and she sus%ects #e of gro$ing deafer
and deafer and deafer& though she does not say so& because& as ' a# no$
over seventy& it #ight be true.
No doubt ' ought to s%eak to #y $ife as carefuy as ' shoud s%eak
to a 0ueen& and she to #e as carefuy as she $oud s%eak to a king. -e
ought toG but $e don!t. 24*on!t4 by the $ay is short for 4do not43.
-e a have co#%any #anners and ho#e #anners. 'f you $ere to
ca on a strange fa#iy and isten through the keyhoe D not that '
$oud suggest for a #o#ent that you are ca%abe of doing such very
unadyike or ungente#anike thingG but sti D if& in your
enthusias# for studying anguages you coud bring yoursef to do it .ust
for a fe$ seconds to hear ho$ a fa#iy s%eak to one another $hen
there is nobody ese istening to the#& and then $ak into the roo#
and hear ho$ very differenty they s%eak in your %resence& the change
$oud sur%rise you...
Su%%ose ' forget to $ind #y $atch& and it sto%s. ' have to ask
so#ebody to te #e the ti#e. 'f ' ask a stranger& ' say 4-hat o!cock is
itv4 The stranger hears every syabe distincty. But if ' ask #y $ife&
a she hears is 4cokst4. This is good enough for herG but it $oud not
be good enough for you. So ' a# s%eaking to you no$ #uch #ore
carefuy than ' s%eak to herG but %ease don!t te herw4
;=9
The aesthetic and e#otiona i#%act %roduced by a $ork of iterature
is argey conditioned by the aternative choices of gra##atica for#s.
The connotative anaysis #ust essentiay invove the identification of
the various di#ensions aong $hich #essages #ay differ.
Re v i s i o n Ma t e r i a
Revie$ your kno$edge of coordination and subordination in
co#%osite sentences in Modern Engish and be ready to discuss@
a3 the %robe# of cassification of these t$o ty%es of sentence
structureG
b3 the synse#antic vaue of coordinated causesG overa%%ing
reations in different ty%es of such %atternsG
c3 sub,causes of different ty%esG %ecuiarities of their gra##atica
organisation in Modern EngishG the synse#antic vaue of different
ty%es of sub,causesG
d3 trans%osition and functiona re,evauation of syntactic structuresG
e3 %robe#s of i#%icit %redicationG
f3 neutraisation of o%%ositions in %atterns of subordinationG
g3 transfor#ations in sentence se0uencesG
h3 co#%ression of sub,causes by no#inaisation.
INDE> OF GRAMMATICAL POINTS TREATED
Absoute co#%arative& =7& =;
Absoute su%erative& =7& =;
Absoute synony#s& <8
Abstract nouns& :& 9:& =:
Active voice& 77?& 77=
Actua division of the sentence& 7==D
;>?
Ad.ective@
base& ?=& =>
derived& ?=& =>
%ace of ad.ectives& 7=>& ;89
0uaitative& ?=
reative& ?= Adverb& #or%he#ic
structure& 76:& 76<
se%arabe adverbs& 76<
Adverbia use of nouns& 99& 9?
Adverbia ad.uncts& 7=:& 7=<
Adverbia causes@
of cause& ;69&
of concession& ;9:D;99
of condition& ;9>D;98
of #anner and co#%arison& ;99&
;9?
of %ace& ;6?
of %ur%ose& ;7:
of resut& ;98& ;9:
of ti#e& ;6=& ;9> A#biguity& :>&
:7& :<& :9& <>& 6?& 7<;&
7<8& 7=>& 7=<& ;;?D;88& ;89& ;?9
Ao#or%h& 6> Anaytica for#s& 6:
Ana%horic to& ;7= Archaic for#s& <<&
76>& ;=8 Artice& ?:D??
contrasting use of the artice& ?6
definiteness D indefiniteness& ?:&
?<
generaisation D concretisation& ?:&
?<
styistic functions of the artice&
?6& ?9
the use of the artice in
substantivation& =6D=? As%ect@
actions of singe occurrence& 78:D
786&
co##on %rogressive& 78>
ingression 2inchoative as%ect3& 78>&
78;
re%eated actions& 78;D78:
Asy##etry& :6& 7?>& ;;7
Asyndeton& ;<;& ;?8D;?<
Attribute& 7?=D7=>
Attributive bond& 7?=
Attributive causes
continuative& ;6<& ;66 restrictive&
;6<& ;66 synony#ic aternatives of
attributive causes& ;66D;99
Back,for#ation& 7>8
Be@
au+iiary& 7>6
co%uative& 7>6
re%resentative& 7>6& ;79D;;>
"an and coud& 77:& 77<
"ase& 9?D?8
"ategory of state& 766
"ausative& 787& 7<8
"ognate ob.ect& 7=8& 7=:
"ohesion& ;?9& ;=>
"oo0uia Engish& ?9& ;=6
"o##unicative unit& 76=& 79>
"o#%arative !eatives!& =;
"o#%arison& =>D=<
"o#%etive bond& 7?=
"o#%e+ sentence& ;<8
"o#%osite sentence& ;<;D;<9
"o#%ound %redicate& 7?6
"o#%ound sentence& ;<8
"o#%ression by no#inaisation& ;?=D
;=7& ;6<& ;69& ;9>& ;9;& ;9:
"oncord& 796 "on.unctive adverbs& ;6>
"onnotation& :9& <7& <8& 77<& ;=;& ;=<
"onsituation& :=& 7;9& 76>D768& 79;
"ontact causes& ;<; "onte+t&
significance in .udging& 89D
:;& =7& 7?:& ;?9
"onte+t,sensitive& 8;& 7=<& ;9;& ;98& ;?9
"onversion& 6?& 6= "overt gra##ar& ?>
"urrent reevance& 7<>
;==
*ee% sense,structure& 8;& ;98
*enotation& 89D:;& :<& :9
*irect ob.ect& 7=>D7=:
*iscourse anaysis& see Te+t,inguistics
*istribution& ;=& 6=
*o@
au+iiary verb& ;:?
e#%hatic au+iiary& 7>6& 7>9& ;:?
haf,au+iiary verb& 7><D7>6
notiona verb& ;:?
se#i,au+iiary& ;:9
substitute& ;79D;;>
*oubets& <<& <? *urative
as%ect& see As%ect
Ei%sis& ;7;
E#%hasis& :=D<;& =6D=?& 779& ;;>D
;;<
E#%hatic verb,for#s& 7>6& 7>9
E+%ressivity@
adherent& ;=7D;=?
inherent& ;=7D;=?
1actitive ob.ect& see "ognate ob.ect
1ied structure& :;D:<
1initude D non,finitude& ==& 7>>
1or#,$ord& see 1unction,$ord
1or#a Engish& ?9
1ree #or%he#e& 67
1oreign %ura& 96& 99
1ree indirect s%eech& see Re%resented
s%eech
1unction,$ord& 87& 6;& 6=& 97& 7><
1uturity& 7<:D7<=
1unctiona re,evauation of
gra##atica for#s& :<
1unctiona sentence %ers%ective&
see Actua division of the sentence
)enerative gra##ar& 8: )et,
%assive& 77=& 7;< )o& verb,
intensifier& 7>6& 7>9& ;;8 )oing to,
future& 7<9& 7<? )radabe #eaning&
=7 )ra##e#e& 67 )ra##atica
category& 67 )ra##atica
coigation 2coocation3& ;8:D;:=
Aabitua action& 78? Aaf,
au+iiary verbs& 78>D78:
Aead,$ord& ;8:D;86 Aistoric
%resent& 7:7 Ao#ony#y&
constructiona& ;;?D;88
300
infectiona& 6?
inter%aradig#atic& 6_
Ay%ota+is& ;<;D;?>
'dio#& gra##atica& ?7& 77?& 7;7& 78;&
7<?
'dio#atic sentences& ;;<D;;?
'diosyncrasy& ;?6& ;=:& ;>7 '##ediate
constituent 2'"!s anaysis3&
;=& 7?9& 7??& 7?= '#%erative
#ood& 7>?& 7>= '#%erative
#odaity& 7>?& 7>= '#%erative
sentences& ;9>D;98 '#%icit
%redication& ;?7& ;?; '#%ied
%uraity& 9;& 9? 'ncuded cause&
;<: 'ncuded sentence& ;<:
'ncongruity& ;;?D;88 'ndefinite
sub.ect& 7?: 'nfection& 87& 68& 7>7&
7>; 'nfor#a Engish& ;=7D;=?
'nner ob.ect& see "ognate ob.ect
'ntensity& =>& =;& ;;>& ;=7D;=?
'ntonation& 87& ;=7 'ntransitive
verbs& 7=>& 7=8 'ntroductory
sub.ect& see Sub.ect 'nversion& 77>&
7=<& 7=? 't@
antici%atory& 7?<
it is...& it $as...& see actua division
of the sentence 'terative
as%ect& see As%ect
Kerne sentence& 88
(e+ica coocation& 79: (e+ico,
gra##atica %eri%hrasis& 7?7& 7?;
Ma.or synta+& 79>
Minor synta+& 79>
Moda verbs@
%ri#ary functions& 777 D 77?
secondary functions& 777D77?
Modaity& 77D77:& 79;& 798& 7?6& ;=7 D
;=? Mood& 7>9
D777
#echanistic anaysis& 7?9
#entaistic anaysis& 7?9
Modification& 6< Mor%hoogy@
%aradig#atics& 6>
sub.ect,#atter of #or%hoogy& 6>
syntag#atics& 6>
Must& 77;& 778
%ri#ary functions& 77;& 778
secondary functions& 77;& 778
Ne+us of de%recation& 7?& :>& 7?7
Notiona verbs& 7><
Non,e#%hatic D e#%hatic& 7>6
Non,gra##atica& ;;>
Non,%ast tense& 78?
Non,%rogressive& 7>7
Non,%erfective& 7:=& 7<>
No#ina %redicate& 7?6
No#inaity@
infinitiva no#ina& ;6;D;9:
gerundive no#ina& ;6;D;9:
%artici%ia no#ina& ;6<D;9:
Noun@
noun,deter#iner& 9> noun,%hrase&
;86 noun,ad.unct grou%s& ;89
adverbia use of nouns& 99& 9?
Not& :?& ;79
Nu#ber& ::& 9;
5b.ect& 7=>
ob.ect co#%e#ents& 7=>
ob.ective case& see "ase
ob.ect reationshi%& 7=:
of,%hrase& ?;& ?8
5ne@
genera& ::& 7?:
substitute& ;79
5ne,#e#ber sentences& ;>?D;77
5ne,$ord sentences& )5)
5%%ositiona reations& 67
binary o%%osition& ;9& 67& 79;& 798
trino#ic o%%osition& 67
%oyno#ic o%%osition& 67
5vert gra##ar& ?>
/aradig#atics& 6>& 79<
derivationa %aradig#& 79:
#or%hoogica %aradig#& 79:
sentence,%aradig#& 79<D7?;
/arata+is& ;<8
/arceing in sentence,structure& 7=9& 7=?
/arts of s%eech& 9>
/assive& see Active D /assive& 77?& 77=
/assive au+iiary& ;:6
/erfective& 7>7
/eri%hrastic for#& <8
/hase& 7<<
/hrase& ;8:D;:=
definition& ;8:D;86
endocentric& ;8:
e+ocentric& ;8:
/hrasa verbs& 7>?& 7;<D7;?& 78>D786
/uraity& see 1ied structure
/oyse#y@
%otentia %oyse#y& :<& :6
synchronic %oyse#y& :6
/ossessive case& 9?& ?8
/redicate&
ty%es of %redicate& 7?6
/redication& /redicative bond&
7?= /redicative causes& ;6;
/re%osed #odifiers& ;86
/rescri%tive 2%re,nor#ative3
gra##ar& 77& 7;
/resent tense@
e+cusive %resent& 78?& 78=
i#%erative #odaity& 78=
incusive %resent& 789
neutra %resent& 78?& 78=
%erfective use& 7:7 /riority&
7<> /rivative o%%osition& see
Binary
o%%osition /rogressive
2continuous3 tenses@
denotative #eaning& 7:;
i#%erative #odaity& 7:<
i#%ication of futurity& 7:<
0uaitative #eaning& 7::
re%etitive #eaning& 7::
/ronouns@
%ersona %ronouns& 76>
styistic trans%osition of
%ersona %ronouns& 76>D768
/rosody& 87& ;;;& ;:>& ;=7
Huaitative genitive& ?> Huaitative
#eaning& 7?=& )$O1 66Q1 ;;<
Re%resentation& ;79D;;>
Re%resented s%eech& ;?<D;?6
Rhe#e& 79; Rhetorica
0uestions& ;;7& ;;;
Scientific gra##ar& 78 Secondary %arts
of the sentence& 7?= Seg#entation& 7=?&
7== Se#i,au+iiary verbs& ;:?
Sentence,order& ;<: Sentence,substitute&
;7=D;;> Se%arabe verbs& 7>8D7><
Sentence,structure& 76= Sha and
shoud& 776D77?
So& ana%horic& ;7=D;;>
S%eciaisation& ?:
Structura A#biguity& see A#biguity
Structura gra##ar& ;8D8:
Stress& :>& :7& ?<
Stye& ?9
%robe#s of stye in gra##ar& ?9&
=:& =<& =9& =? Sub,cause& See
Subordination
8>7
Sub.ect& definition@
the definite sub.ect D the indefinite
sub.ect& 7?:
introductory sub.ect& 7?<
Sub.unctive& 7>9& 7>?& 77>
Subordination& ;67D;?; Substitution&
;79D;;> Substantivation of ad.ectives&
=6D=? Substitutes for %assive& 7;<D
78> Su%erative& => Su%%etive for#& 68
Su%ra,%hrasa unity& 7==& ;>> Surface
structure& 8;& ;?8& ;?9 Syndetic& ;<;
Synony#y@
%aradig#atic synony#s& :9& <;D<<
reative synony#s& <8& <:
synony#s by function in s%eech&
:9& <;D<<& 7<:
styistic synony#s& <8& <:
Synse#antics& 97
Syntag#atics& 6>& 79< Synta+@
syntactic categories& 7=8& 7=:
syntactic content& 7=8& 7=:
syntactic for#s& 7=8& 7=:& 7=<
syntactic functions& 79<
syntactic hierarchy& 79<
Syntactic #ood& 79; Synthetic
for#s& 68& 6:
Ta+ono#ic casses of $ords& 6
The#e& 79;
Te+tinguistics& 7==
Tense& 789D7<=
Transfor#ationa gra##ar. 88
Transfor#& 88& 8:& 7=;& 7=8
Transitivity& 7=>D7=:
Trans%osition of gra##atica for#s& :<
D:=& ;?>& ;?7 reguar& :?& :=
styistic& :?& :=
T$o,#e#ber 2t$o,nuceus3 sentences&
7?:
Used to& 788
Utterance& 797
Verba %redicate& 7?6
Verb for#s& ==D7>7
Verb %hrases& 78>D786& ;:;D;::
Verbess sentences& 7?<& 7?6& ;7:D;79
Variant for#s& see *oubets
Voice& see Active D %assive
-ord,order& 7=<& 7=6
-i$oud& 77?& ;;9
-ish,sentences& ;?>& ;?7
-ith,%hrase& ;?9
Fero artice& ?:
Fero 2gra##atica3 infection& 87
Fero,derivative nouns& 78<
R!C:MM!+&!& LIT!R%TUR!
Suggestions $i be #ade here for further earning& so that the student can foo$ u%
various ines of thought suggested in the book. The reference ist given beo$ $i incude
not ony so#e advanced books devoted to teaching Engish gra##ar& but aso& detaied
#onogra%hs and $ork,%a%ers on s%eciaised to%ics $hich $i interest the student.
bM_JUZ [. d. LRSOKSUUJTWN QJUTWOPQZZ QLQ XRISUZS TZUWLQTZiSTQJs JO_h.
q[JmOJTh XlhQJlULUZXr& 7=<?& 7.
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bc_LUJRL a. \& f S I N i P Q . b.& LMPiSRL . [.& O P _ Q Z, U L {. f.
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7
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304