Master of Arts in Communication : Corporate Communication Studies

Course : Advanced Communication Theory (1408ACT03)

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Session Topic : Paradigma 2
Course: Advanced Communication Theory
By Dr. Rino Boer Ph.D
LSPR eLearning Program
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Hal 3
Part 1 Perbedaan Paradigma
Part 2 Theories, Quality/ Criteria & Methods
Part 3 Paradigma Konstruktivis, Kritis & Participatory
Part 4 Postmodern Paradigm
Content
Part1 : Perbedaan Paradigma
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Hal 5
Perbedaan Paradigma : Realisms
KLASIK KRITIS KONSTRUKTIVIS
Critical realism:
Realitas yang real
yang diatur oleh
kaidah2 tertentu yang
berlaku universal;
Walaupun kebenaran
pengetahuan tsb.
mungkin hanya bisa
diperoleh secara
probabilistik.
Historical realism:
Realitas yang teramati
merupakan realitas
semu (virtual reality)
yang telah terbentuk
oleh proses sejarah &
kekuatan2 sosial,
budaya, & ekonomi-
politik.
Relativism:
Realitas merupakan
konstruksi sosial
Kebenaran suatu
realitas bersifat
relatif, berlaku sesuai
konteks spesifik yang
dinilai relevan oleh
pelaku sosial.
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Hal 6
Perbedaan Paradigma : Dualist, Transactionalist
KLASIK KRITIS KONSTRUKTIVIS
Dualist/objectivist:
Realitas objektif,
sebagai suatu realitas
yg external di luar
diri peneliti
Peneliti harus sejauh
mungkin membuat
jarak dengan objek
penelitian.
Transactionalist/
subjectivist
Hubungan peneliti
dengan yang diteliti
selalu dijembatani
nilai-nilai tertentu.
Pemahaman tentang
suatu realitas
merupakan value
mediated findings.
Transactionalist/
subjectivist
Pemahaman suatu
realitas, atau temuan
suatu penelitian
merupakan produk
interaksi peneliti
dengan yang diteliti.
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Hal 7
Perbedaan Paradigma : Nilai, etika & pilihan moral, Peran Peneliti
KLASIK KRITIS KONSTRUKTIVIS
Observer Activist Facilitator
Nilai, etika &
pilihan
moral
Harus berada
di luar proses
penelitian
Merupakan bagian
tak terpisah-kan
dari penelitian
Merupakan bagian tak
terpisah-kan dari
penelitian
Peran
Peneliti
Disinterested
scientist
Transformative
intellectual, advokat
& aktivis
Passionate participant,
fasilitator yang
menjembatani
keragaman subjektivitas
pelaku social
Tujuan
penelitian
Eksplanasi,
prediksi dan
kontrol realitas
sosial.
Kritik sosial,
transformasi,
emansipasi dan
social
empowerment.
Rekonstruksi realitas
sosial secara dialektis
antara peneliti dan yang
diteliti.
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Hal 8
Perbedaan Paradigma : Penekanan & Metode
KLASIK KRITIS KONSTRUKTIVIS
Observer Activist Facilitator
Penekanan
Interventionist
Pengujian
hipotesis dalam
struktur
hypothetico-
deductive
method;
Participative:
Analisis
komprehensif,
kontekstual, &
multi-level analysis
Reflective /Dialectical:
Empati, & interaksi
dialektis antara peneliti-
responden untuk
merekontruksi realitas
yang diteliti,
Metode
Eksperimen
laboratori atau
survey
eksplanatif,
dengan analisis
kuantitatif.
Penempatan diri
sebagai aktivis /
partisipan dalam
proses transformasi
sosial.
Metode-metode
kualitatif seperti
participant observation.
Part2 : Theories, Quality/ Criteria & Methods
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Hal 10
Theories : Overview
Traditional
Positivism/
Postpositivism
Constructionism /
Constructivism
Critical Theories
They - Objectivist I / We - Relativist You - Realist
Media effects, uses &
gratifications,
cultivation,
information theories,
etc.
Media economics,
media functions,
network theories, etc.
Symbolic interactions (school,
atau di luar school), audience
reception, theories of
meaning, discourse, cultural
studies, etc.
Media and: Social
constructions of realities,
theories of discourse, etc; Pop
cultures, Gender issues,
Identity, etc.
Critical political-economy
of media
Contoh: theories of
hegemony, public spheres,
media imperialism, media
concentration & regulation.
Nomothetic Ideographic Ideographic / nomothetic
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Hal 11
Quality/ Criteria : Overview
Traditional
Positivism/Postpositivis
m
Constructionism /
Constructivism
Critical Theory
critical theories
They - Objectivist I / We - Relativist You - Realist
Objectivity
Trustworthiness /Reflexivity /
Authenticity: Sejauh mana
temuan merupakan refleksi
otentik dari realitas yang
dihayati oleh para pelaku sosial.
Historical situatedness:
sejauhmana penelitian
memperhatikan konteks
historis, sosial, budaya,
ekonomi & politik.
External validity Credibility* Enlightenment (conscience)
Internal Validity Transferability* Empowerment (action)
Reliability Dependability*
Holistics: sejauh mana studi yg
dilakukan bersifat holistic,
terhindar dari analisis partial.
Confirmability : objects Confirmability*: peer inter-
subjectivity/ subjects
Confirmability: theory
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Hal 12
The credibility criteria involves establishing that the results
of qualitative research are credible or believable from
the perspective of the participant in the research.
Since from this perspective, the purpose of qualitative
research is to describe or understand the phenomena of
interest from the participant's eyes
The participants are the only ones who can legitimately
judge the credibility of the results.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Credibility for qualitative research
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Hal 13
Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of
qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to
other contexts or settings.
From a qualitative perspective, transferability is primarily
the responsibility of the one doing the generalizing.
The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by
doing a thorough job of describing the research context &
the assumptions that were central to the research.
The person who wishes to "transfer" the results to a
different context is then responsible for making the
judgment of how sensible the transfer is.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Transferability for qualitative research
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Hal 14
The traditional quantitative view of reliability is based on
the assumption of replicability or repeatability.
Essentially it is concerned with whether we would obtain
the same results if we could observe the same thing
twice.
But we can't actually measure the same thing twice - by
definition if we are measuring twice, we are measuring
two different things.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Dependability for qualitative approach
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Hal 15
To estimate reliability, quantitative researchers construct
various hypothetical notions (e.g. true score theory) to try
to get around this fact.
The idea of dependability, on the other hand, emphasizes
the need for the researcher to account for the ever-
changing context within which research occurs.
The research is responsible for describing the changes
that occur in the setting & how these changes affected the
way the research approached the study.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Dependability for qualitative approach (cont.)
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Hal 16
Qualitative research tends to assume that each researcher
brings a unique perspective to the study.
Confirmability refers to the degree to which the results
could be confirmed or corroborated by others.
There are a number of strategies for enhancing
confirmability.
The researcher can document the procedures for checking
& rechecking the data throughout the study.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Confirmability for qualitative research
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Hal 17
Another researcher can take a "devil's advocate" role with
respect to the results, & this process can be documented.
The researcher can actively search for & describe &
negative instances that contradict prior observations.
After the study, one can,
conduct a data audit that examines the data collection
& analysis procedures &,
makes judgments about the potential for bias or
distortion.
Quality/ Criteria : Definition of Confirmability for qualitative research (cont.)
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Hal 18
Methods : Overview
Traditional
Positivism/
Postpositivism
Constructionism / Constructivism
Critical Theory
critical theories
They - Objectivist I / We - Relativist You - Realist
Research
type
Quantitative &
qualitative
(quantitative
dominant)
Qualitative dominant Qualitative
Methodol
ogy
Survey, Experiment,
Case study
Survey, Case study, Case study
Participatory, Ethnography, Ethno-
methodology, Action research
Case study,
Participatory,
Action, Advocacy
research
Analysis
types
Statistics,
Comparative,
Network, Function,
Content.
Interactional, Document/textual,
Comparative, etc.
Life histories, Ethnographic,
Explorative-dialogic, Discourse, CDA,
Ethnographic, Explorative-dialogic.
Historical,
Comparative,
Interpretative, CDA.
Part3 : Paradigma Konstruktivis, Kritis, &
Participatory
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Hal 20
Question : What is the nature of "reality" ?
Item Constructivist Critical Participatory
O
n
t
o
l
o
g
y
Relativism:
Realitas
merupakan
konstruksi sosial
Kebenaran suatu
realitas bersifat
relatif, berlaku
sesuai konteks
spesifik yang
dinilai relevan
oleh pelaku
sosial.
Historical realism:
Realitas yang
teramati merupakan
realitas semu
(virtual reality) yang
telah terbentuk oleh
proses sejarah &
kekuatan2 sosial,
budaya & ekonomi-
politik
Participatory reality or
subjective-objective:
Realitas sosial adalah hasil
interelasi & hubungan co-
presence.
Disebut juga subj.-Obje.
karena dibangun dari
subyektivitas yang
berserakan & disebut
objective karena
pengungkapannya melalui
proses transaksi &
interpenetrasi antar
subjektivitas.
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Hal 21
Question : What is the nature of the relationship between the inquirer & the
knowable ? > Epistemology
Item Constructivist Critical Participatory
E
p
i
s
t
e
m
o
l
o
g
y
Transactionalist/
subjectivist
Pemahaman suatu
realitas, atau
temuan suatu
penelitian
merupakan produk
interaksi peneliti
dengan yang
diteliti.
Transactionalist/
subjectivist
Hubungan
peneliti dengan
yang diteliti
selalu
dijembatani nilai-
nilai tertentu.
Pemahaman
tentang suatu
realitas
merupakan value
mediated findings
Critical subjectivity & four ways
of knowing
pengetahuan personal selalu
terbangun dari kesadaran kritis
/co-created findings yg
disebut critical subjectivity
melalui 4 cara yang
interdependent:
experimental knowing,
presentational knowing,
propositional knowing,
practical knowing.
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Hal 22
Question : How should the inquirer go about finding out knowledge ? >
Methodology
Item Constructivist Critical Participatory
M
e
t
h
o
d
o
l
o
g
y
Reflective
/Dialectical:
Menekankan
empati, & interaksi
dialektis antara
peneliti-responden
untuk merekontruksi
realitas yang
diteliti, melalui
metode-metode
kualitatif seperti
participant
observation.
Participative:
Mengutamakan analisis
komprehensif,
kontekstual, & multi-
level analysis yang
bisa dilakukan melalui
penempatan diri
sebagai aktivis /
partisipan dalam
proses transformasi
sosial.
Collaborative form of action
inquiry (co-operative inquiry)
: peneliti & yang diteliti
bekerjasama untuk
mendefinisikan pertanyaan
yang mereka akan jawab &
metodologi yg akan
digunakan untuk menjawab
pertanyaan-pertanyaan
yang telah diformulasi
(shared experiental context).
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Hal 23
Question : What is the role of values? > Aksiologi
Item Constructivist Critical Participatory
Aksiologi
Facilitator
Nilai, etika & pilihan moral
merupakan bagian tak
terpisah-kan dari
penelitian;
Activist
Nilai, etika & pilihan moral
merupakan bagian tak
terpisah-kan dari
penelitian;
Practical knowing is
intrinsically valuable
Paradigma ini
menempatkan practical
knowing sebagai prinsip
utama, maka sistem nilai
dari practical knowing
akan sangat berperan.
Peran
Peneliti
Passionate participant,
fasilitator yang
menjembatani keragaman
subjektivitas pelaku sosial
Transformative intellectual,
advokat & aktivis
Tujuan
penelitian
Rekonstruksi realitas sosial
secara dialektis antara
peneliti & yang diteliti.
Kritik sosial, transformasi,
emansipasi & social
empowerment.
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Hal 24
Sibuk mencari cara bagaimana memahami pandangan
warga terhadap sebuah isu? Kenapa tidak biarkan
warga melakukan risetnya sendiri?
Kenapa orang miskin selalu diteliti? Kenapa tidak
mereka melakukan penelitiannya sendiri?
Bila manfaat dapat diambil langsung leh warga, kenapa
harus berlama-lama menunggu projek (yang semakin bias
saking karena semakin banyak ahli yang memberikan
pandangan)?
Participatory Paradigm : Background
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Hal 25
Perbedaan-Perbedaan
Others Paradigm Participatory Paradigm
Asumsi tentang
realitas
Singular, tangible.
Realitas berganda yang
dikonstruksikan secara sosial.
Metode
Reduksionis & Positivis;
Realitas yang kompleks dapat
disederhanakan menjadi
variabel-variabel independen
& hubungan sebab akibat,
kategori & persepsi peneliti
adalah yang utama.
Konstruktivis;
Kategori & persepsi warga
adalah yang utama;
Perbedaan subjek-objek &
metode-data kabur.
Strategi & konteks
penelitian
Peneliti tahu apa yang mereka
cari, rencana & desain riset
sudah ditentukan, informasi
didapat dari penanggap atau
eksperiman terkontrol;
Bebas independen & dikontrol.
Peneliti tidak tahu arah
penelitian; proses belajar yang
open-ended;
Pemahaman & fokus muncul dari
interaksi, konteks menjadi sangat
mendasar.
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Hal 26
Perbedaan-Perbedaan (cont.)
Others Paradigm Participatory Paradigm
Siapa yang
menentukan
prioritas
Profesional-peneliti
Warga & profesional /peneliti
yang menentukan bersama.
Hubungan antar-
aktor dalam proses
Kontrol dari peneliti &
memotivasi klien dengan
menjaga jarak
Dialog yang intim; bangun
kepercayaan melalui analisis
bersama & negosiasi
Pemahaman muncul dari
keterikatan
Cara bekerja Sendiri Bersama
Sumber: Pretty & Chambers dalam Beyond Farmer First (1994)
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Hal 27
Jumlah Rumah tangga yang memiliki WC : Sedikit
Kasus program komunikasi dengan pesan : Jamban untuk kesehatan
keluarga!
Gagal mengidentifikasi kebutuhan ruang publik.
Akar masalah yang diangkat warga adalah sbb (Ilustrasi semata)
Contoh Cara Kerjanya: Memahami Secara Partispatif
Ketersediaan pupuk
tidak memadai
Forum tidak hidup
Desa melarang
Pendapatan dari
pertanian tidak
memadai
Sungai tempat ngumpul;
Masyarakat tidak punya
tempat kumpul;
Kebun berjauhan
Ekonomi lemah Lebih suka di sungai
Kenapa orang di sini tidak memiliki
WC?
Kenapa:
ekonomi masyarakat di sini lemah?
lebih suka di sungai?
Apa yang menyebabkan
produktivitas rendah?
Kenapa sungai menjadi tempat
kumpul?
Tidakkah ada yang lain?
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Hal 28
Authenticity
Ontological authenticity : enlarge
personal constructions,
Educative authenticity : leads to
improved understanding of
constructions of others,
Catalytic authenticity : stimulates
to action,
Tactical authenticity : empowers
to action)
Evaluation Criteria : Constructivism-Denzin & Linoln (1994)
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Hal 29
Pride: peoples feeling of self-
worth
Dignity: peoples feelings of
autonomy, independence, &
competence
Identity: peoples affirmation of
social identity
Control: peoples feelings of
control over resources, decisions,
actions, events, & activities
Responsibility: peoples ability
to be accountable for their own
actions
Unity: the solidarity of groups
of which people are members
Evaluation Criteria : Gluck (1979) dalam Stringer (1999)
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Hal 30
1. Community mapping
2. Transect Walks
3. Ranking, Rating
4. Sorting Exercises
5. Semi-structured interviews
6. Seasonal calendars
7. Logic/ Decision trees
8. Taking pictures
9. FGD, Observasi
10.Observasi sebagai
partisipan
Evaluation Criteria : Tools yang bisa digunakan
01
10 09
08
07
06 05
04
03 02
Part4 : Postmodern Paradigm
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Hal 32
Background
Crisis of authority which tell us the world with this way.
Crisis of representation keep silence, complexity without
voices !
Postmodern
Expand the range of voices, understanding & storied
variations in humans experience!
There is no legitimated structures in society.
The concept itself will be used in immediate context such
as consumption, reflection & used of indigenous audience.
Shy to showed up in academic discussion Non scientific
World
Postmodern Paradigm : Is this a new paradigm or just a new game for scholar?
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Hal 33
There is no single truths : that all truths but partial truths.
Personal identities are fluid rather than fixed : so there
will be no single conventional paradigm to which all social
scientist have a common terms & with mutual
understanding.
The era of emancipation!
Emancipation from everybody that can be
someone!
Postmodern Paradigm : Truths & Emancipation
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Hal 34
Cultural studies
Feminisme
Teori-teori postkolonial
Multikulturalisme
Queer theory
Kajian atas etnis dan ras
Kajian tentang realitas virtual-ekonomi, politik
Budaya konsumen
Dalam banyak hal penelitian yang berkaitan dengan
diet, tubuh & seksualitas.
Tema-Tema Penelitian
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Course : Advanced Communication Theory (1408ACT03)