13

1he ma[or analyLlcal meLhods LhaL are used are Lhose proposed by Mulr Wood (1973), CurLls (1976)
and uuddeck and Lrdman (1982). 1hese models are all based on Lhe excavaLlon and llnlng of a hole ln
a sLressed conLlnuum and generally yleld slmllar resulLs for normal (hoop) forces for Lhe same lnpuL
parameLers buL Lhe predlcLed bendlng momenLs may dlffer slgnlflcanLly (uSACL 1997).
1.3.1.1 Mu|r-Wood's Method 197S
Pe derlved Lhe formulae from Lhe Alry sLress funcLlon ln polar coordlnaLes. lL ls assumed LhaL a
clrcular llnlng deforms lnLo an elllpLlcal shape ln an elasLlc ground and LhaL a full lnLeracLlon beLween
llnlng and Lhe surroundlng ground exlsLs (alassl, n.d). 1he LangenLlal ground sLresses are lncluded buL
Lhe parL of Lhe radlal deformaLlon LhaL ls due Lo LangenLlal sLresses ls omlLLed. Pe proposed Lo Lake
only 30 of Lhe lnlLlal ground sLress lnLo conslderaLlon. 1he maxlmum bendlng momenL and axlal
force developed ln Lhe llnlng are dependenL on Lunnel depLh, Lunnel radlus and Lhe coefflclenL of
laLeral earLh pressure.
8endlng MomenL:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
!
! !
!
!! !!!!! !!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

ConsLanL Poop lorce:
!
!
! !
!"
!
!
!
! !
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
!
!"!
!
!! !!!

varlable Poop force:
!" !"#$% !
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
! !! !!!!!"
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!! !!! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

!" !"#$ !
!"#
! !
!
! !!
!
!
!
! ! !! !!!!!"
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! ! !! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

And
! ! !
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

8adlal ulsplacemenL:
16

!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!" !
!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!! !!!!! !!!!!
!
!
!


1.3.1.2 Curt|s's Method 1976
ln Lhe meLhod proposed by CurLls (1976) Lhe bendlng momenLs and axlal forces developed ln Lhe
llnlng of Lhe Lunnel are esLlmaLed slmllar Lo Lhe Mulr-Wood's meLhod excepL LhaL radlal deformaLlon
due Lo LangenLlal sLress and Lhe shear sLress beLween Lhe llnlng and Lhe ground ls Laken lnLo Lhe
accounL (alassl, n.d.). CurLls uses a flexlblllLy raLlo C2 ln hls formulas glven by:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !!
!
!
!
!
!"!

lull shear
8endlng MomenL:
!
!"#
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!! !!
!
! !!!
! !!!
!

ConsLanL hoop force:
!
!
! !
!"
!
!

varlable hoop force:
!
!"#
!
!
!
!
!
!
!! !
!!"
!
!! !!!!!! !!
!
!

no Shear
8endlng MomenL:
!
!"#
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !!!
! !!! !!!
!

ConsLanL Poop lorce:
!
!
! !
!"
!
!

varlable Poop lorce:
!
!"#
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
! !!!
! !!! !!!
!


Llnlng ueformaLlon:
17

!
!"#
!
!
!
!
!"!
!
!
!
!!
! ! !!! !
!
!
! !!! !!!
!
!

1.3.1.3 Duddeck and Lrdman 1982]S
lL ls assumed LhaL Lhe bendlng momenL and sLresses developed ln Lhe llnlng are dependenL on Lhe
sLlffness of Lhe llnlng relaLlve Lo LhaL of Lhe soll surround lL. 1he bedded-beam sprlng model proposed
by uuddeck and Lrdmann (1982) descrlbes Lhe Lunnel llnlng as a serles of beams aLLached Lo Lhe
ground and connecLed aL Lhelr nodes Lo mulLlple radlal and LangenLlal sprlngs LhaL are deslgned Lo
model Lhe ground reacLlons. 1he sprlng sLlffness slmulaLes Lhe supporL behavlour of Lhe ground and lL
ls assumed LhaL llnlng dlsLorLlon and compresslon are reslsLed by ground reacLlons.









1he lmporLanL parameLers of Lhe ground are Lhe sLlffness modulus L
s
(whlch ls lncluded ln Lhe sprlng
sLlffness) and Lhe coefflclenL of laLeral earLh pressure k
0
(whlch ls lncluded ln Lhe loadlng). 1he loads
acLlng on Lhe llnlng are evaluaLed uslng an emplrlcal formulaLlon Laklng lnLo accounL Lhe properLles of
Lhe rock mass and Lhe geomeLry of Lhe Lunnel. 1he 8edded 8eam Model uses Lhe followlng
expresslon for beddlng modulus k
r
= L
C
/8.
8elow are Lhe analyLlcal formulaLlon proposed by uuddeck and Lrdmann (1982) for Lhe Lunnel llnlng
deslgn:
Iu|| bond
8endlng MomenL:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
!
!! !
! !!! !
!
!
!
!
!!! !!!!! !!!!!!
!
!
!
!
!

ConsLanL Poop lorce:
llgure 3: 1he 8edded Sprlng Model
A
18

!
!
!
!
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
! !
!
! !!
!
!
!
!
!"

varlable Poop lorce:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
! !
!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!! !!!!!!" ! !! !
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

1angent|a| S||p
8endlng MomenL:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
!
!
!" !!"!
! !!!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!!! !!!!! !!!!!!
!
!
!
!
!

ConsLanL Poop lorce:
!
!
!
!
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
! !
!
! !!
!
!
!
!
!"

varlable Poop lorce:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!!
!
!
!
!" !!"!
! !!!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!!! !!!!! !!!!!!
!
!
!
!
!

8adlal ulsplacemenL:
!
!"#
! !
!
!! !!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!" !
!! !!!!!!
!
!
!
!
!
!! !!!!! !!!!!
!
!
!

1he soluLlons for Lhe analyLlcal meLhods can also be obLalned graphlcally by use of Lhe charLs
proposed by uuddeck and Lrdman as shown ln Appendlx C.
1.3.1.4 Convergence conf|nement method
1hls ls Lhe mosL sulLable meLhod for Lunnels excavaLed wlLhouL a shleld or Lunnel-borlng machlne
(18M). lL ls based on Lhe analysls of Lhe sLress and sLraln sLaLe LhaL develops ln Lhe rock around a
clrcular Lunnel and ls able Lo predlcL Lhe deformaLlon of Lhe ground for a wlde range of ground
condlLlons and Lunnel supporL measures. 1yplcal appllcaLlons of Lhe convergence conflnemenL
meLhod are deep Lunnels and Lunnels wlLh ground behavlour Lypes where dlsplacemenLs play a ma[or
role (8eumayer eL al 2009).
19

ln Lhls meLhod Lhe proporLlon of unloadlng of Lhe ground before Lhe lnsLallaLlon of Lhe llnlng
consLrucLlon ls prescrlbed, l.e. Lhe volume loss ls a predlcLed value (Chapman eL al 2010). 1he
parameLer \ ls used Lo deflne Lhe proporLlon of unloadlng. lnlLlally \ ls zero and ls progresslvely
lncreased Lo 1 Lo model Lhe excavaLlon process. AL a predeLermlned value of \
d
Lhe llnlng ls lnsLalled,
aL whlch polnL Lhe sLress reducLlon aL Lhe Lunnel boundary ls \
d
mulLlplled by Lhe lnlLlal soll sLress. 1he
remalnder of Lhe sLress ls applled Lo creaLe Lhe llnlng sLress l.e. Lhe sLress lmposed on Lhe llnlng ls (1-
\
d
) Llmes Lhe lnlLlal soll sLress (oLLs and Zdravkovlc 2001).
1.3.1.S L|m|t-equ|||br|um method (Anagnostou 2007)
1hls meLhod ls based upon a fallure mechanlsm LhaL conslsLs of a wedge and Lhe overlylng prlsm. 1hls
represenLs Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe Lunnel llnlng and Lhe rock mass. 1he equlllbrlum of Lhe wedge
ls analysed based upon Lhe meLhod of sllces. 1he meLhod of sllces assumes proporLlonallLy beLween
Lhe horlzonLal sLress o'
h
and Lhe verLlcal sLress o'
v

o'
h
= k
o
o'
v

where k
o
ls Lhe coefflclenL of laLeral earLh pressure and ls assumed Lo be consLanL. ln order Lo
calculaLe Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe verLlcal sLresses o'
v
lnslde Lhe wedge, Lhe equlllbrlum of an
lnflnlLeslmally Lhln sllce ls consldered. 1he knowledge of Lhe verLlcal sLress offers Lhe posslblllLy of
analyslng Lhe ground wlLh relnforcemenL by deLermlnlng Lhe sLablllslng effecL of rock bolLs lf
consldered as a supporL pressure.
Cnce Lhe forces acLlng on Lhe prlsm have been deLermlned, lL ls posslble Lo deLermlne Lhe safeLy
facLor as a funcLlon of Lhe angle !, where 0 ls Lhe angle of Lhe lncllned sllp plane.
!
!!!
!
!
!
!!!"# !
!!
!
!!! !"#!

1he crlLlcal lncllnaLlon 0 of Lhe lncllned sllp plane ls deLermlned lLeraLlvely so LhaL lL maxlmlzes Lhe
supporL requlremenL (erazzelll eL AnagnosLou 2007).






SupporL pressure
due Lo rock bolLs
0
llgure 4: SupporL pressure dlsLrlbuLlon
20

1.3.2 Numer|ca| Methods
numerlcal modellng ls based on Lhe slmple lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe rock and Lhe Lunnel l.e. Lhelr
behavlor when ln conLacL. 1hey uLlllze complex compuLer codes Lo creaLe models LhaL can elLher be
2dlmenslonal or 3 dlmenslonal dependlng Lhe geomeLry of Lhe Lunnel and how complex Lhe pro[ecL ls.
A mesh ls generaLed Lo represenL Lhe ground ln whlch Lhe Lunnel wlll be consLrucLed and Lhe maLerlal
properLles are asslgned Lo lL (norconsulL n.d.). 8oundary condlLlons are Lhen asslgned Lo represenL
Lhe sLress sLaLe ln Lhe Lunnel's vlclnlLy. 1here are Lwo ma[or groups of numerlcal models:
1. ConLlnuous models
2. ulsconLlnuous models
ln a cont|nuous mode| Lhe sLress and deformaLlon ls dlsLrlbuLed evenly Lhrough Lhe whole rock mass.
1he rock mass ls consldered a unlform medlum whose maLerlal properLles are Lhe average of Lhe
lnLacL rock blocks and Lhe [olnLs LhaL separaLe Lhem (norconsulL n.d). Pence Lhls model works besL for
a rock mass wlLh very few or no [olnLs aL all, or lf lL ls heavlly [olnLed. (81S 2004).
ulsLlncL rock blocks separaLed by [olnLs bulld up d|scont|nuous model. 1he deformaLlon of Lhe enLlre
model ls due Lo Lhe dlsplacemenL of each rock block LhaL ls caused by mlnor elasLlc deformaLlons,
roLaLlon and [olnL sllp (norconsulL n.d.). 1hls Lechnlque ls very accuraLe ln Lhe analysls of a moderaLely
[olnLed rock mass buL lL requlres very accuraLe daLa ln Lerms of Lhe orlenLaLlon and spaclng beLween
rock blocks, and Lhe sLrengLh and frlcLlon characLerlsLlcs of Lhe [olnLs.
numerlcal analyses use flnlLe elemenL (lL), flnlLe dlfference (lu), dlscreLe elemenL (uL) or boundary
elemenL (8L) meLhods and have Lhe ablllLy Lo model expllclLly complex sLrucLures, dlfferenL geologlcal
sLraLa, complex consLlLuLlve behavlour, Lemporary and dynamlc loadlng, and consLrucLlon sequences.
1he dlfferenL meLhods are used dependlng on Lhe Lype of model whereby sofL ground ls normally
consldered a conLlnuous model and hence flnlLe elemenL and flnlLe dlfference meLhods can be
applled whlle rock [olnLed rock masses are consldered dlsconLlnuous models and can ofLen be
modelled reallsLlcally uslng dlscreLe elemenL and boundary elemenL (8L) meLhods.
1.3.2.1 I|n|te e|ement and f|n|te d|fference
1he ob[ecL Lo be analysed ls represenLed by a mesh of many elemenLs or zones, ln a process of
dlscreLlsaLlon. 1he maLerlal properLles, maLerlal behavlour, boundary condlLlons and loads are
asslgned Lo Lhe model and Lhe problem solved. ln lL a sLlffness maLrlx ls assembled for Lhe whole
21

mesh ln order Lo relaLe Lhe dlsplacemenLs Lo Lhe sLresses. 1hese vary ln a prescrlbed manner wlLhln
each elemenL. 1he maLrlx ls Lhen solved uslng sLandard maLrlx reducLlon Lechnlques, ln an lmpllclL
soluLlon Lechnlque. 1he llnlng ls dlvlded lnLo beam elemenLs and hlnges can be lnLroduced Lo slmulaLe
sLrucLural properLles of Lhe llnlng. 1angenLlal and radlal sprlngs are applled aL each node Lo slmulaLe
elasLlc lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe llnlng and Lhe ground. 1he lnLerface beLween llnlng and ground
cannoL wlLhsLand Lenslon, Lherefore lnLerface elemenLs may be used or Lhe sprlngs deacLlvaLed when
Lenslle sLresses occur. 1he radlal and LangenLlal sprlng sLlffness expressed ln unlLs of force/
dlsplacemenL (subgrade reacLlon coefflclenL), are esLlmaLed from:
!
!
! !
!"
!
!
!
!"
!
!!
!
!!!"! !
!"
!
!
!"
!!
!
! !
!
! !
!
!"# !
!
! !"!
Accordlng Lo Lhe 1unnel Llnlng ueslgn Culde (2004), flnlLe-dlfference meLhods are numerlcal meLhods
for approxlmaLlng Lhe soluLlons Lo dlfferenLlal equaLlons uslng flnlLe dlfference equaLlons Lo
approxlmaLe derlvaLlves. ln Lhe lu meLhod Lhe 'dynamlc relaxaLlon' soluLlon Lechnlque ls used.
newLon's Law of MoLlon ls expressed as a dlfference equaLlon and ls used Lo relaLe Lhe unbalanced
forces aL each lnLegraLlon polnL ln Lhe mesh Lo Lhe acceleraLlon of Lhe mass assoclaLed wlLh LhaL
polnL. lor a very small Llme-sLep Lhe lncremenLal dlsplacemenLs can be calculaLed. ln sLaLlc
mechanlcal problems Lhls Llme sLep ls flcLlLlous l.e. lL ls noL relaLed Lo real Llme. 1he lncremenLal
dlsplacemenLs are used Lo calculaLe a new seL of unbalanced forces. 1hls calculaLlon sLep ls repeaLed
many Llmes for each lnLegraLlon polnL ln Lhe mesh, ln a 'Llme-marchlng' meLhod unLll Lhe ouL-of-
balance force has reduced Lo a negllglble value l.e. equlllbrlum has been reached for a sLaLlcal
problem. More lnLegraLlon polnLs are requlred ln an lu raLher Lhan an lL model because lu uses
consLanL sLraln zones (81S eL lCL 2004).
1.3.2.2 D|screte e|ement and boundary e|ement
ln Lhe ulscreLe LlemenL meLhod Lhe lndlvldual blocks ln a rock mass are modelled and Lhe elemenLs
may move and roLaLe, dependlng on Lhe movemenL of ad[acenL elemenLs. LlLher lL or lu ls used Lo
model Lhe consLlLuLlve behavlour wlLhln Lhese elemenLs. ln Lhe 8oundary LlemenL meLhod Lhe
surface of an ob[ecL ls dlvlded lnLo elemenLs, whlch are modelled maLhemaLlcally as lnflnlLe conLlnua
(81S eL lCL 2004).
1.4 DLICkMA1ICN
SLrucLural fallure ln a Lunnel ls lnduced more by Lhe deformaLlons Lhan Lhe llnlng sLresses ln mosL
cases. ueformaLlons are generally Lhe mosL rellable lndlcaLor of poLenLlal problems Lherefore lL ls
22

necessary Lo compuLe Lhe expecLed deformaLlons of Lhe llnlng ln order Lo arrlve aL a concluslon
concernlng lLs sLablllLy. usually Lhe bendlng sLrengLh and sLlffness of sLrucLural llnlngs are small
compared Lo Lhose of Lhe surroundlng ground. 1he ground properLles Lherefore dlcLaLe Lhe
dlsLorLlonal deformaLlons and changlng Lhe properLles of Lhe llnlng usually wlll noL slgnlflcanLly alLer
Lhls deformaLlon however a compleLed llnlng reslsLs unlform hoop deformaLlon well.
1he ldeal slLuaLlon ls a conflned flexlble llnlng LhaL can redlsLrlbuLe sLresses efflclenLly wlLhouL
slgnlflcanL loss of load-bearlng capaclLy. 1hls applles Lo boLh segmenLal and sprayed-concreLe llnlngs.
ln general as much as 30-30 of Lhe deformaLlon experlenced durlng consLrucLlon wlll occur ahead of
Lhe face Lherefore, ground supporL usually needs Lo be lnsLalled as close Lo Lhe face as posslble when
requlred (81S eL lCL 2004). lf Lhe lnsLallaLlon of supporL ls delayed, lL could resulL ln progresslve
deformaLlons and consequenLly Lhere wlll be a need for addlLlonal supporL Lo conLrol Lhose
deformaLlons and dead loads acLlng on Lhe llnlng buL Lhls could lead Lo lnsLablllLy.
1he ground supporL lnLeracLlon process has been modeled uslng Cround 8eacLlon Curves (C8Cs),
whlch use a slmple analyLlcal approach Lo relaLe deformaLlon ln Lhe ground wlLh Lhe supporLlng
pressure acLlng ouLwards on Lhe exLrados of an excavaLlon, reslsLlng Lhe lnward deformaLlon.
Chapman eL al (2010) propose LhaL Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween deformaLlon and Lhe Lunnel supporL
reslsLance can be shown uslng Lhe lenner-acher curve as shown ln llgure 3, where w ls Lhe
seLLlemenL of Lhe Lunnel crown.









1he more Lhe ground deforms before Lhe Lunnel supporL ls placed, Lhe lower Lhe load LhaL has Lo be
carrled by Lhe Lunnel llnlng and Lhe hlgher Lhe self supporLlng elemenL of Lhe ground. 1he requlred
Lunnel supporL reslsLance reduces wlLh lncreaslng deformaLlon. When Lhe deformaLlon reaches a
llgure 3: lenner- acher Curve, where 1 ls Lhe reslsLance agalnsL Lhe ground (Chapman eL al 2010)
23

cerLaln amounL, lL resulLs ln sofLenlng and weakenlng of Lhe ground fabrlc Lherefore Lo consLrucL a
sLable Lunnel beyond Lhls polnL lL ls essenLlal Lo lncrease supporL reslsLance wlLh lncreaslng
deformaLlons.
1hus, Lhere ls a deformaLlon value for Lhe ground aL whlch Lhe requlred Lunnel supporL reslsLance ls
mlnlmal. 1hls deformaLlon should be reached when all Lhe sLress redlsLrlbuLlon has flnlshed. 8y
keeplng Lhe deformaLlon Lo w
crlL
, lL would be posslble Lo have Lhe opLlmal supporL sysLem boLh from
an economlcal and rock behavlour polnL of vlew. 1he relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe supporL sysLem
reslsLance and Lhe deformaLlon ls dependenL on Lhe geology. 1hls means LhaL for every ground Lhere
ls a dlfferenL lenner- acher curve and a dlfferenL crlLlcal deformaLlon. 1he problem wlLh Lhls ls:
knowlng how blg w
crlL
should be. lf a loL of experlence exlsLs ln geologlcal condlLlons wlLh
slmllar consLrucLlon meLhods Lhen lL ls posslble Lo puL a quanLlLaLlve boundary on Lhe crlLlcal
deformaLlon buL lf lL ls an unknown ground, Lhen Lhls ls nearly lmposslble.
Lven lf Lhe crlLlcal deformaLlon ls known, lL ls dlfflculL Lo ensure LhaL Lhe consLrucLlon phase
resulLs ln a flnal value of w
crlL
because many of Lhe facLors LhaL lnfluence Lhe developmenL of
deformaLlons are noL llnear and are Llme dependanL. 1here ls also Lhe problem of checklng Lhe
deformaLlons wlLh measuremenLs.

1.4.1 Deformat|on measurement
ln many cases Lhere wlll be a slmple serles of dlameLer measuremenLs aL regular spaclng and
prescrlbed Llme lnLervals along Lhe lengLh of Lhe consLrucLed Lunnel. Spaclng may be deslgned Lo
maLch changes ln ground condlLlons where predlcLed levels of deformaLlon may vary. 1lme-scales wlll
be dependenL on Lhe raLe of advance, Lhe naLure of Lhe ground, Llme Lo fully load Lhe Lunnel, and Lhe
appllcaLlon of llve loads. MeasuremenLs wlll lnclude, as a mlnlmum, Lhe horlzonLal and verLlcal
dlameLers. AddlLlonal measuremenLs may be lncluded where asymmeLrlcal loadlng ls creaLlng slmllar
deformaLlon (81S eL lCL 2004).
1.S LINING SS1LMS
A wlde varleLy of supporL sysLems are avallable and Lhe llnlng deslgn wlll depend on Lhe cholce of
consLrucLlon meLhod and Lhe naLure of any Lemporary supporL. 1he Lype of supporL, lLs sLrengLh and
Llme of lnsLallaLlon should be consldered. Accordlng Lo lPWA (2003) Lhese llnlng sysLems are malnly
grouped under:

24

a) ShoLcreLe
lL ls malnly used Lemporarlly before Lhe flnal llnlng ls lnsLalled Lo provlde sLablllLy ln rock Lunnels. ln
some cases lL can be used as Lhe flnal llnlng buL ln Lhls slLuaLlon, lL wlll be placed ln layers wlLh
synLheLlc flbres or meLal as relnforcemenL. 1he ma[or beneflL of shoLcreLe ls lLs shorL sLand up Llme
and ease of appllcaLlon.

b) 8ock 8elnforcemenL SysLems
When rocks have sLrucLural defecLs such as faulLs or cracks, Lhey have Lo be provlded wlLh addlLlonal
sLablllLy so as Lo reslsL exLernal forces. WlLh rock relnforcemenL sysLems, Lhe rock pleces are [olned aL
Lhe defecL by Lhe use of meLal sLraps and mlne Lles and bolLs or dowels. Wlre mesh and shorLcreLe are
Lhen applled so as Lo prevenL small rock fragmenLs from spalllng off Lhe llnlng.
c) unllned 8ock
1here ls no llnlng for ma[orlLy of Lhe Lunnel lengLh excepL aL speclflc polnLs LhaL may be consldered
weaker as Lhe rock ls sLrong enough Lo be self-supporLlng.
d) Slurry Walls
1hese are malnly used especlally when groundwaLer presenLs a problem for consLrucLlon. A Lrench
LhaL maLches Lhe proposed wall proflle ls excavaLed Lhen fllled wlLh slurry ln order Lo sLablllse Lhe
sldewalls. A relnforcemenL cage ls Lhen placed lnLo Lhe slurry and flnally concreLed ls poured lnLo Lhe
excavaLlon whlch dlsplaces Lhe slurry. 1hls procedure ls carrled ouL ln predeLermlned Llme lnLervals
and Lhe panel [olnLs are sealed Lo make Lhem waLerLlghL.
e) 8lbbed SysLems
8lbbed sysLems are carrled ouL ln Lwo passes, Lhe flrsL of whlch conslsLs of sLeel, Llmber or precasL
concreLe rlbs wlLh blocks beLween Lhem. uurlng Lhe second pass concreLe ls poured lnLo Lhe rlbs.
1hey can be used ln sofL ground alLhough barrel sLave Llmber wlll be lagged beLween Lhe rlbs ln Lhls
case.
f) laced ConcreLe
23

1hls ls usually placed as Lhe flnal llnlng afLer Lhe lnlLlal sLablllzaLlon of Lhe Lunnel. 1he concreLe can be
placed on Lop of a waLerproof membrane Lo provlde a smooLh flnlsh and lL can be deslgned as a
sLrucLural or non-sLrucLural elemenL. lL can also be relnforced or unrelnforced.
g) SegmenLal Llnlngs
1hese are commonly used as Lhe supporL sysLem for Lunnels LhaL have been excavaLed by use of a
1unnel 8orlng Machlne ln sofL ground. 1he prefabrlcaLed llnlng segmenLs are erecLed wlLhln Lhe
cyllndrlcal Lall shleld of Lhe 18M. 1hese prefabrlcaLed segmenLs can be made of sLeel, concreLe, or
casL lron and are usually bolLed LogeLher Lo compress gaskeLs for prevenLlng waLer peneLraLlon.

1.6 1UNNLL IAILUkL MCDLS
Why 1unne|s Ia||
ln Lhe consLrucLlon of any Lunnel, Lhere ls always a rlsk of fallure due Lo human errors and unknown
geologlcal condlLlons. Whlle human errors lnvolve mlscommunlcaLlon, mlscalculaLlon, noL followlng
safeLy precauLlons and bad pro[ecL Llmlng, Lhey can be mlnlmlzed Lhrough lmprovlng on pasL
mlsLakes. Ceologlcal heLerogenelLy, whlch lnvolves weaLherlng, foldlng and ground waLer LhaL can
alLer Lhe behavlour of a rock mass around Lhe Lunnel, ls Lougher Lo predlcL and handle because lL
happens on masslve scales. WeaLherlng of a rock mass Lhrough waLer or alr can decrease Lhe sLrengLh
of rock. WaLer flow Lhrough faulLs and [olnLs can weld maLerlals beLween Lwo masses maklng Lhem
loose and suscepLlble Lo fallure of Lhe Lunnel. laulLs and foldlng of rock mass can have hlgh and low
flucLuaLlng sLrengLhs and sLresses over Lhe geologlcal map. laulLs and sLresses are hard Lo deal wlLh
durlng consLrucLlon of Lunnels due Lo rocks bursLlng under hlgh sLresses. Cround waLer can creaLe
hydrosLaLlc sLresses near Lhe face of Lhe walls lf lL has noL yeL bursL Lhrough and can also form karsL lf
waLer ls presenL near soluble rocks such as llmesLone and can creaLe cavlLles ln Lunnels, whlch leads
Lo fallure of Lhe rock mass near fracLure and [olnLs.

Ia||ure Mechan|sms
1unnel fallure can range from local fallure, global fallure, local breach, parLlal or compleLe collapse, or
lnundaLlon wlLh waLer Lo progresslve fallure. 1unnel fallure modes can sLarL from an oversLress ln Lhe
llnlng, whlch may lead Lo fallure of Lhe llnlng lf Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe llnlng maLerlal ls less Lhan Lhe
applled sLress. Whenever a Lunnel fallure occurs Lhere ls a comblnaLlon of one or more fallure
26

mechanlsms assoclaLed wlLh lL. lallure mechanlsms lnclude ovallsaLlon, snap Lhrough a [olnL, flre,
porLal fallure, waLer and lnrush fallure, loss of sLrengLh, squeezlng ground behavlour, rock bursLlng,
fallure relaLed Lo Lunnels ln faulL zone and progresslve fallure.

1.6.1 GLC8AL IAILUkL
1.6.1.1 Ia||ure mechan|sms of ||n|ng due to ova||sat|on
When Lhe soll cover above a Lunnel roof ls Loo small, Lhe soll wlll begln Lo break up due Lo a verLlcal
ovallsaLlon of Lhe roof Lunnel. lf Lhe Lunnel ls below Lhe ground waLer surface, a slmllar mode of
fallure may be Lrlggered due Lo buoyancy (8rlnkgreve 1999).




lor a Lunnel LhaL ls sufflclenLly deep Lhe fallure mechanlsm ls horlzonLal ovallsaLlon. 1he Lunnel
lncreases ln wldLh buL reduces ln helghL Lhus exerLlng pressure on lLs lefL and rlghL walls due Lo
compresslon, see llgure 7. 1hls lncrease ln laLeral sLress resulLs ln a decrease ln Lhe dlfference
beLween Lhe verLlcal and horlzonLal soll sLresses. 1hls ls Lhe reason why Lhe llnlng sLresses ln a flexlble
llnlng are malnly due Lo hoop compresslon. 8endlng momenLs ln Lhe llnlng would vanlsh and Lhe only
mode of fallure lefL would be compresslve fallure of Lhe llnlng (8akker 2003). Powever, addlLlonal
second order bendlng momenLs can be lnduced by large deformaLlons and Lhese may exceed Lhe
decrease due Lo dlmlnlshlng sLress dlerences ln Lhe surroundlng soll. (LuLLlkholL, 2007)




1he behavlour of a llnlng ln Lhe ground sub[ecL Lo ovallsaLlon loads ls descrlbed by 8lom (2002). As Lhe
load on Lhe Lunnel lncreases, Lhe bendlng momenLs ln Lhe llnlng wlll keep on lncreaslng unLll a polnL
llgure 6: a) 8reaklng up of Lhe Lunnel roof due Lo verLlcal ovallsaLlon b) 8uoyancy of a shallow Lunnel
llgure 7: PorlzonLal CvallsaLlon of a 1unnel
27

where Lhe bendlng momenL capaclLy of a segmenL ls reached. 1he acLlve load can sLlll lncrease
wlLhouL an excesslve lncrease ln deformaLlons of Lhe llnlng buL more plasLlc hlnges wlll develop and
Lhe deformaLlons wlll grow. 8akker (2003) emphaslzes LhaL Lhe lncreaslng loads are fully compensaLed
by Lhe soll and LhaL Lhe rlng sLays sLable so Lhe uLS wlll Lhus noL be deLermlned by Lhe bendlng
capaclLy buL by Lhe normal capaclLy of a segmenL.
1.6.1.2 Weather decompos|t|on
1he exposure of some rocks Lo waLer can lead Lo weaLher decomposlLlon, whlch leads Lo loss of
sLrengLh. An example of Lhls would be Lhe Wlenerwald 8allway 1unnel exLenslon ln vlenna, AusLralla
ln whlch waLer exposed Lo sandsLone Lhrough Lhe paLhway creaLed by boreholes durlng consLrucLlon
led Lo a loss ln shear sLrengLh and decrease ln effecLlve sLress of Lhe soll.
1.6.1.3 Squeez|ng Ground 8ehav|our
Squeezlng rock causes excesslve pressure on Lhe rock supporL LhaL leads Lo fallure of Lhe llnlng due Lo
large deformaLlons. Many geologlcal envlronmenLs resulL ln squeezlng behavlour. 1he ?aambu -
Culbor Lunnel locaLed ln Andez, venezuela ls a good example of squeezlng rock ln Lunnels. 1he
squeezlng rock Lrapped Lhe 18M ln Lhe Lunnel ln 1979, Lhe remalns of whlch were removed years
laLer ln 1987 and led Lo compleLe closure of Lhe Lunnel aL some locaLlons (8ocsclence 2009).
1.6.1.4 kock 8urst|ng
1hls malnly resulLs from Lhe redlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe sLresses LhaL occur around a Lunnel durlng
excavaLlon. Several facLors conLrlbuLe Lo rock bursLlng for example:
1he mechanlcal properLles such as denslLy, poroslLy, permeablllLy and sLrengLh of Lhe rock.
1he geologlcal sLrucLure such as Lhe [olnLs and faulLs ln Lhe reglon
1he shape, orlenLaLlon and slze of Lhe Lunnel
1he sLress ln Lhe rock mass
1here are Lhree posslble fallure modes due Lo rock bursLlng:



Compresslon lallure
Comblned bendlng and LhrusL unchlng lallure
llgure 8: 1unnel fallure modes due Lo rock bursLlng
28

1.6.1.S Ia||ure due to 1unne|||ng |n Iau|t zones
1unnelllng ln faulL zones ls generally assoclaLed wlLh sudden wldenlng of Lhe Lunnel and
concenLraLlon of hlgh sLresses on Lhe llnlng. 1unnelllng ln hlghly fracLures zones and crosslng of
lnLerfaces beLween geologlc blocks are Lhe Lwo subcaLegorles assoclaLed wlLh Lhls fallure mechanlsm.

llgure 9: lallure Lhrough a hlghly fracLured zone
Plghly fracLured zones have a low C value and small sLand up Llmes e.g Lhe Channel Lunnel LhaL
connecLs uk Lo lrance where Lunnelllng ln Lhe fracLured zone had Lo be slowed down Lo less Lhan 40
Llmes Lhe orlglnal worklng speed from 334m/week Lo 8m/week and Lhe Lvlnos-Mornos Lunnel ln
Creece whereby 10m of rock above Lhe Lunnel fell ln Lo form a cavern (Crandorl eL al 1993).
1.6.1.6 Loss of Strength
lL can occur Lhrough blasL damage by creaLlon of new fracLures or exLenslon of old ones by exploslves.
AlLhough blasLlng ls speclflcally deslgned Lo creaLe fracLured rocks for easler meLhod of excavaLlon,
Lhe effecL of blasLlng may exLend ouLslde Lhe Lunnel radlus permanenLly reduclng sLrengLh around Lhe
perlmeLer. lL also occurs by weaLherlng of Lhe soll.
1.6.1.7 kock swe|||ng
8ocks conLalnlng clay mlnerals and anhydrlLe lncrease ln volume when ln conLacL wlLh waLer. 1hls
causes a heave of Lhe Lunnel floor or pressure on Lhe lnverL arch. ln some cases lL leads Lo a heave of
Lhe enLlre Lunnel sLrucLure causlng lL Lo rlse upwards (AnagnosLou, 1988).



1he rock fell down Lrapplng
Lhe 18M & wldenlng Lhe
Lunnel cross-secLlon
Peave on Lhe Lunnel floor ressure on Lhe Lunnel
llnlng
llgure 10: LffecLs of ground swelllng on Lunnels
29

1.6.2 LCCAL IAILUkL
1.6.2.1 Snap through of a [o|nt
A llnlng behaves [usL llke an eccenLrlcally loaded column wlLh boLh bendlng momenLs and normal
forces acLlng Lhrough lL and because of Lhls buckllng can occur. When Lhe Lunnel llnlng capaclLy ls
exceeded and Lhe deformaLlons geL Loo large Lo reslsL normal forces, Lhe segmenLs can snap Lhrough
whlch ls a fallure of Lhe llnlng. 1hls snap Lhrough mechanlsm for a slngle rlng parLlally supporLed by
soll ls descrlbed by 8loom (2002), see llgure 11.









When a unlform radlal load and an lncreaslng ovallsaLlon radlal load acL on a segmenLed rlng, Lhe
llnlng ls parLlally supporLed by sprlngs aL Lhe sldes of Lhe rlng. An lncrease ln Lhe ovallsaLlon radlal
load resulLs ln an lncrease ln bendlng momenLs unLll a plasLlc hlnge develops ln Lhe boLLom of Lhe
llnlng. As Lhe load ls furLher lncreased, Lhe rlng wlll sLay sLable unLll Lwo more plasLlc hlnges develop
aL Lhe same Llme aL Lhe Lop of Lhe rlng where Lhere ls a low reslsLance agalnsL bendlng. 1he segmenL
[olnL ln beLween Lhose Lwo plasLlc hlnges wlll snap Lhrough and Lhls occurs when Lhe Lop of Lhe rlng
undergoes a dlsplacemenL of 630 mm (LuLLlkholL, 2007). 1he load lncreases by a facLor of Lhree from
Lhe developmenL of Lhe flrsL plasLlc hlnge Lo snap Lhrough (8lom 2002).

1.6.3 IUNC1ICNAL IAILUkL
1.6.3.1 Water Inf|ow and I|ood|ng
When large deformaLlons occur Lhe waLer LlghLness of Lhe llnlng ls noL ensured because of shearlng of
ad[olnlng rlngs. 1he gaskeLs wlll begln Lo open and waLer can flow Lo Lhe lnslde of Lhe Lunnel. lloodlng
may also lnLroduce large quanLlLles of sand, sllL, gravel or shear zone debrls. SlgnlflcanL lengLhs of
a) Model of llnlng loaded
by ovallsaLlon
b) lallure Mechanlsm
llgure 11: 1he formaLlon of plasLlc hlnges and snap Lhrough a [olnL
30

Lunnel can become fllled wlLh debrls or mud ln shorL perlods of Llme, causlng Lunnel sLrucLures Lo
become burled and a reduced supporL of Lhe llnlng aL LhaL spoL and LhaL leads Lo fallure.
ln order Lo conLrol fallure by waLer, Lhe Lunnel has Lo be waLer proofed. WaLer prooflng of concreLe
segmenLs ls by form of a preformed gaskeL. 1he Lwo mosL commonly used gaskeLs are Lhe LLhylene
olyLhene ulene Monomer (LuM) and Pydrophlllc. LuM gaskeLs are rubber gaskeLs LhaL are flLLed
around Lhe perlmeLer of each precasL segmenL and Lhey rely on a compresslon force durlng erecLlon
Lo compress Lhe gaskeLs Lo form a seal. 1he precasL segmenL [olnLs are speclflcally deslgned and casL
Lo lncorporaLe an LuM gaskeL. Pydrophlllc gaskeLs are made from speclally lmpregnaLed rubber or
benLonlLe and have Lhe ablllLy Lo swell when ln conLacL wlLh waLer formlng a waLerproof barrler (81S
eL lCL 2004).
1.6.3.2 Inrush Ia||ure
1hls fallure mechanlsm occurs almosL lnsLanLaneously. lL occurs when Lhe Lunnel geLs lnLo conLacL
wlLh surface waLer or unconsolldaLed soll deposlLs durlng consLrucLlon LhaL resulLs ln a sudden
lnundaLlon wlLh waLer and soll.






llgure 12: WaLer and soll lnrush lnLo a Lunnel

1.6.3.3 1unne| L|n|ng 8ehav|our dur|ng a I|re
uue Lo accldenLs durlng Lhe operaLlon of a Lunnel, Lhere ls always a rlsk of flre or exploslons. 1he
sLrucLural deslgn of a Lunnel llnlng Lherefore has Lo wlLhsLand, as a mlnlmum, Lhe flre lnduce by a
burnlng lorry (1C8 2006). 1here are Lhree prlmary adverse effecLs on concreLe Lunnel llnlngs LhaL are
sub[ecLed Lo flre:
31

1he llnlng may lose lLs effecLlve secLlon area by exploslve spalllng due Lo lnLernal pressures
generaLed durlng Lhe aLLempLed release of chemlcally bound waLer from Lhe concreLe. (1C8
2006).
1he maLerlal sLrengLh and load-carrylng capaclLy of Lhe llnlng may be degraded when exposed
Lo hlgh LemperaLures resulLlng from Lhe flre.
1unnels Lend Lo be Lhermally resLralned ln boLh longlLudlnal and Lransverse dlrecLlons,
resulLlng ln lncreased sLrucLural demand under flre condlLlons.
1.6.3.4 rogress|ve Ia||ure
lL ls consldered a progresslve fallure when lnsLablllLy of ad[acenL underground sLrucLures and/or
damage Lo surface sLrucLures ls lnvolved (1C8 2006). lallure of Lhe Lunnel llnlng and surroundlng
ground may cause lnsLablllLy of ad[acenL underground uLlllLles and damage Lo surface sLrucLures by
plplng and dlfferenLlal seLLlemenLs. lloodlng of Lhe enLlre Lunnel sysLem can also be consldered a
progresslve fallure.

1.7 CnLCk CI SAIL1
ln accordance wlLh Lhe lnLernaLlonal 1unnelllng AssoclaLlon (1999), Lhe calculaLlon resulL of member
forces ls used Lo check Lhe safeLy of Lhe mosL crlLlcal secLlons by elLher Lhe llmlL sLaLe deslgn or Lhe
allowable sLress deslgn meLhod.
1he mosL crlLlcal secLlons are:
1. SecLlon wlLh Lhe Maxlmum poslLlve momenL
2. SecLlon wlLh Lhe Maxlmum negaLlve momenL
3. SecLlon wlLh Lhe maxlmum axlal force
1.7.1 L|m|t state des|gn method
1he curve ln llgure 13 shows Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe deslgn axlal capaclLy n
ud
and Lhe deslgn
flexural capaclLy M
ud
of member cross secLlons sub[ecLed Lo axlal load n
d
and flexural momenL M
d.

1he polnL (M
d
, n
d
) should be locaLed lnslde of Lhe n
ud
vs M
ud
curve ln order for Lhe secLlon Lo be
consldered safe. LquaLlon 1 and 2 are used Lo calculaLe n
ud
and M
ud
respecLlvely (l1A 1999).

32


1.7.2 A||owab|e stress des|gn method
1he segmenLal llnlng should be safe agalnsL Lhe deslgn loads lf Lhe exLreme flbre sLress of concreLe
and Lhe exLreme sLress of relnforcemenL are noL more Lhan Lhelr allowable sLresses.
!
!
! !
!"
! !!
!"
!!
!
(3)
!
!
! !
!"
! !
!"
!!
!
(4)
Where,
!
!
LxLreme flbre sLress of concreLe
!
!"
Allowable sLress of concreLe
l'
ck
CharacLerlsLlc compresslve sLrengLh of concreLe
l
c
SafeLy facLor of concreLe
!
!
SLress of relnforcemenL
!
!"
Allowable sLress of relnforcemenL
l
yd
?leld sLress of sLeel
l

SafeLy facLor of sLeel

M
ud

0
n
ud

Axlal CapaclLy
!
!"
! !
!!!!!"#
!"
!
!
!
!!
!
!!" ! !!
!
!
!"
!!!
llexural CapaclLy
!
!"
! !
!!!!!"!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!!"!
!
! ! !
! ! !!
!
!
!
! ! !
!
!!
!
!
!!!
Where !" ! !
!
!" !"# !!
!
! !
!!
!"
yb and ys are Lhe safeLy facLors of concreLe and sLeel.
llgure 13: 1ranslLlon of ulLlmaLe LlmlL SLaLes and Mud-nud dlagrams
33

1.8 CASL S1UD
1.8.1 1he London Crossra||
1he crossrall ls a hlgh frequency commuLer rallway llne LhaL ls expecLed Lo sLarL runnlng lLs flrsL Lralns ln
2018 aL abouL 24 Lralns per hour ln each dlrecLlon Lhrough CenLral London. 1he ldea of a cross-CaplLal
rallway llne orlglnally came up ln Lhe 1880s by Lhe 8egenLs Canal & 8allway Company buL over Lhe years
several seLbacks were enconLered unLll 2008 when Lhe Pybrld Crossrall AcL flnally gave Lhe rall llnk a
conflrmed rouLe. Cn 13 May 2009 crossrall flnally broke ground aL Canary Wharf afLer 33 years of
sLruggllng buL Lunnellng dld noL sLarL unLll 2012.







1he Crossrall ls Lurope's largesL rallway and lnfrasLrucLure consLrucLlon pro[ecL, Lhe cosL of whlch ls
esLlmaLed aL 13.9 bllllon. lL wlll have Lhree secLlons (LasLern, WesLern and CenLral) wlLh Lwln bore Lube
llnes LhaL wlll connecL LasL london Lo WesL London. 1he rallway llne wlll be 118 km long wlLh 42 km of new
Lunnels and 39 new sLaLlons. lL wlll connecL Lo exlsLlng sLaLlons LhaL wlll Lhen become parL of Lhe Crossrall
as shown ln Lhe map above where Lhe exlsLlng sLaLlons are ln Lhe surface llne. 1he Crosssrall wlll run from
Maldenhead Lo Lhe wesL of CenLral London Lo Shenfleld Lo Lhe norLh LasL and flnally Abbeywood ln Lhe
SouLhLasL. lL wlll be [olnLly run by 1ransporL for London from Cld Cak Lo Abbey Wood & SLraLford and
neLwork 8all, whlch wlll operaLe all Lhe oLher secLlons.

1.8.2 Geotechn|ca| data

uue Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhe Crossrall ls consLrucLed ln Lhe London 8asln, Lhe geology along lLs allgnmenL ln
Lerms of depLh from below Lhe ground surface ls broadly comprlsed of made ground and rlver Lerrace
addlngLon
8ond SLreeL
llgure 14: 1he Cross-rall rouLe Lhrough London
34

gravels, London Clay, Parwlch lormaLlon, LambeLh Croup, 1haneL Sand lormaLlon and Chalk Croup see
llgure 13, alLhough Lhe proporLlons of Lhe sLraLa dlffer wlLh depLh and locaLlon of each Lunnel allgnmenL.













1he characLerlsLlcs of Lhe sLraLa are:
London Clay - relaLlvely homogeneous sLlff blulsh clay wlLh a relaLlvely long sLand up Llme.
Parwlch lormaLlon - ls 1m Lo 3m ln Lhlckness, malnly on Lhe eaLern arm of Lhe rouLe conslsLlng of
malnly sand and pebble beds.
LambeLh Croup - up Lo 20m ln Lhlckness, predomlnanLly ln Lhe cenLral secLlon of Lhe Lunnels and ls
comprlsed of varlable lnLerlocked sands and clays wlLh a few occurances of sandsLones and
llmesLones.
1haneL Sand lormaLlon - up Lo 16m ln Lhlckness, malnly found ln Lhe easLern secLlon of Lhe Lunnels
and lL ls a pale yellow-brown flne-gralned sand.
Chalk Croup - a sofL porous whlLe llmesLone ln Lhe easLern secLlon of Lhe Lunnels (8eynolds 2010).

1he runnlng Lunnels are belng excavaLed malnly Lhrough Lhe London Clay and LambeLh Croup. 1he Lunnel
elevaLlon beglns wlLhln Lhe clay ln Lhe wesL of cenLral London and meeLs Lhe lnLerface wlLh Lhe LambeLh
addlngLon SLaLlon 8ond SLreeL SLaLlon
llgure 13: Ceologlcal longlLudlnal secLlon (1unnel 2013)
33

Croup aL abouL Lhe cenLre of Lhe Lunnel rouLe. 1o Lhe easL, Lhe Lunnels aL Canary Wharf SLaLlon are ln Lhe
LambeLh Croup and Lhen on Lhe Woolwlch arm Lhe ground ls more varled wlLh weL gravels and sands
expecLed. 1he waLer Lable ls generally wlLhln Lhe LambeLh Croup, dlpplng Lo Lhe Chalk ln some cenLral
areas and ln mosL cases lL ls below Lhe 1haneL Sands (8eynolds 2010).

1.8.3 1unne| ||n|ng and construct|on

1he Lunnel llnlng of Lhe Crossrall ls deslgned and analysed based on Lhe geoLechnlcal lnformaLlon of Lhe
area, Lhe permanenL loads and Lhe varlable loads Lo a deslgn llfe of 120 years. 1he loads acLlng on Lhe
openlngs and llnlngs are evaluaLed uslng conLlnuum analyLlcal models, bedded beam sprlng models and
3u llnlLe LlemenL models. Ma[orlLy of Lhe rouLe ls analysed uslng conLlnuum analyLlcal models buL for
complex slLuaLlons, bedded beam sprlng models and 3u llnlLe LlemenL modelllng are used e.g. ln close
proxlmlLy Lo Lhlrd parLy sLrucLures, when modelllng bursLlng sLresses ln Lhe segmenL [olnLs or for sLress
analysls ln spheroldal graphlLe lron (SCl) framed openlngs ln Lhe Lunnel llnlng. LlghL 1unnel 8orlng
machlnes (18M) of dlameLer 7.1m are Lo be used Lo creaLe Lhese Lunnels whlch wlll have an lnner
dlameLer of 6.2m. 1he 18Ms are of Lwo Lypes, one slurry Lype for chalk and Lhe oLher, LarLh pressure
8alance Machlne for clay sand and gravel. 1he permanenL Lunnel walls wlll be made of 1.6m wlde and
0.9m Lhlck concreLe segemenLs. 230,000 segmenLs of dlfferenL shapes, Lo caLer for bendlng and change ln
dlrecLlon ln Lhe Lunnel, wlll be used Lo llne Lhe Lwln bore Lunnels (Crossrall 2014).
36

2 ML1nCDCLCG
1he chosen research meLhodology ls quanLlLaLlve because quanLlLaLlve research lnvolves collecLlng
numerlcal daLa LhaL ls analysed uslng maLhemaLlcally based meLhods so as Lo explaln phenomena
(Wllllams 2007). ln Lhe deslgn and analysls of Lhe Lunnel llnlng, l uLlllsed maLhemaLlcal meLhods ln order Lo
explaln Lhe llnlng's behavlour. 1he procedures l underLook were accordlng Lo my pro[ecL ob[ecLlves:

1) 1o carry ouL a sLudy lnLo Lhe sLrucLural deslgn meLhods for Lunnels, Lhe varlous Lypes of llnlngs and
fallure mechanlsms.
llrsL of all l adopLed a desk sLudy so as Lo gaLher background lnformaLlon on Lhe Lunnel deslgn
procedures, fallure mechanlsms, Lypes of llnlngs, geoLechnlcal lnformaLlon and analysls meLhods. 1hese
were all very necessary as Lhey lnfluence Lhe flnal deslgn. ln order Lo do Lhls l used:
Cnllne daLabases such as Lhe clvll englneerlng daLabase, Lhe lnsLlLuLlon of Clvll Lnglneers, Sclence
ulrecL and many oLhers. !ournals and Lechnlcal reporLs can be accessed from Lhese daLabases.
CeoLechnlcal LexLbooks on Lunnelllng llke 8urled SLrucLures by .S. 8ulson.

2) 1o deslgn a Lunnel based on a real case sLudy and ground parameLers uslng chosen analyLlcal
meLhods.
l analysed Lhe deformaLlons, axlal loads and bendlng momenLs on a clrcular Lunnel sLrucLure wlLh 1he
Cross rall as my case sLudy. 1he physlcal and maLerlal properLles of Lhe Lunnel llnlng, Lhe soll sLraLa and lLs
allgnmenL ln Lhe soll and were all readlly avallable on Lhe Cross rall webslLe. 1he soll parameLers were goL
from Lhe 1ransporL for London webslLe because Lhere ls an ln-depLh analysls of Lhe soll ln Lhe London
basln. 1he analyLlcal meLhods used are Mulr Wood, CurLls and uuddeck and Lrdman. l chose Lhese
because because of Lhelr ease of use, and Lhe posslblllLy of obLalnlng a qulck and slmple evaluaLlon of Lhe
member forces.

3) 1o deslgn and analyse a 2u numerlcal model uslng MluAS CeoLechnlcal and 1unnel Analysls
SysLem sofLware.
1hls daLa was analysed uslng analyLlcal models and valldaLed wlLh numerlcal meLhods by llnlLe LlemenL
Analysls wlLh Lhe parLlal deslgn facLors goL from Lhe Luro Code 7. 1he flnlLe elemenL meLhod lnvolvlng 2u
plane sLraln condlLlons was used for Lhe numerlcal analysls. ln Lhls deslgn, Lhe commerclally avallable
37

flnlLe elemenL sofLware Mldas C1S was employed. 1he flrsL sLep of modellng was Lo asslgn Lhe maLerlal
and physlcal properLles of Lhe Lunnel llnlng Lo generaLe Lhe 2u shape of Lhe Lunnel. nodes were creaLed
on Lhe Lunnel llnlng and Lhe 2u mesh was asslgned Lo lL, whlch was auLomaLlcally generaLed based on Lhe
LrlangulaLlon procedure. A surface sprlng was applled Lo Lhe model as lLs boundary condlLlon by enLerlng
Lhe ground reacLlon coefflclenL on selecLed nodes. 1he ground sprlng ls modeled wlLh compresslon only
elemenLs because Lhe boLLom supporL of Lhe Lunnel cannoL Lake any Lenslle forces. ln addlLlon, a
boundary condlLlon ls added aL Lhe crown and Lhe base Lo resLraln any movemenL along Lhe x - axls. 1he
self-welghL, verLlcal and horlzonLal loadlng condlLlons were Lhen deflned for Lhe model uslng Lhe llne
beam load. 1he load comblnaLlons were Lhen creaLed because llnear sLaLlc load comblnaLlons cannoL yleld
correcL resulLs ln a model LhaL ls solved for Lhe boundary nonllnear analysls uslng elasLlc llnks wlLh Lhe
compresslon only funcLlon. An analysls was Lhen performed ln order Lo geL Lhe momenL dlsLrlbuLlon, axlal
loads and deformaLlons.
4) 1o compare Lhe resulLs obLalned from boLh Lhe analyLlcal and numerlcal meLhods.
1he resulLs from Lhe numerlcal and analyLlcal approaches were Lhen compared by uses of graphs and
Lables. 1he resulLs were supposed Lo be very slmllar buL numerlcal meLhods are known Lo be more
accuraLe lf Lhe daLa ls well lnpuL, so l used lL as a way Lo valldaLe Lhe analyLlcal resulLs. All Lhe acLlvlLles l
underLook were done ln accordance wlLh Lhe eLhlcal guldellnes of CovenLry unlverslLy.

38

addlngLon
Llne correspondlng wlLh sofflL of Lunnel
Surface of ground
3 kLSUL1S AND ANALSIS
3.1 nC1nL1ICAL DLSIGN

1he 2.2km Lunnel secLlon beLween addlngLon and 8ond SLreeL wlll be deslgned. 1he sofflL of Lhe Lunnel
aL addlngLon ls approxlmaLely 43km ACu as shown ln llgure 16 below whlch puLs Lhe Lunnel ln Lhe
London Clay accordlng Lo llgure 13. 1he Lwln Lubes aL addlngLon and 8ond SLreeL SLaLlons are ln London
Clay, wlLh Lhe waLer Lable ls near Lhe Lop of Lhe underlylng LambeLh Croup aL addlngLon whlle aL 8ond
SLreeL SLaLlon lL ls ln Lhe Chalk. (8eynolds 2010).






llgure 16: A secLlon Lhrough Lhe Lunnel aL addlngLon showlng ground levels
39

3.1.1 Graph|ca| kepresenatat|on of the strata w|th the tunne|

llgure 17: 1he 2.2km secLlon Lhrough Lhe soll from addlngLon Lo 8ond SLreeL
3.1.2 Ground Condt|ons
1he maLerlal properLles for each layer of sLraLa and Lhe Lunnel llnlng are as follows:
ropert|es London
C|ay
k|ver 1errace
Depos|ts
Made
ground
Segment
L|ast|c Modu|us (kN]m
2
) 110000 23000 3000 26000000
o|sson's rat|o (v) 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2
We|ght Dens|ty (kN]m
3
) 20 19 19 23
Saturated we|ght dens|ty
(kN]m
3
)
20 19 19 23
Coef||c|ent of Latera|
ressure (k
o
)
0.6 0.3 0.3
Cohes|on (c') 13 1 0
Interna| Ir|ct|on Ang|e
(O')
26 38 23
1able 1: 1he maLerlal properLles of Lhe Lunnel and soll sLraLa

0
3
10
13
20
23
30
0 0.3 1 1.3 2
8lver 1errace ueposlLs
1unnel oslLlon
London Clay
Made ground
40

3.1.3 Des|gn Cases and Load Iactors for Des|gn
ln sLrucLural deslgn accordlng Lo Luro code 7 for each maLerlal and load, a parLlal safeLy facLor ls
asslgned lndlvldually dependlng on Lhe maLerlal and load properLles. 1hree deslgn cases are
consldered known as case A, 8 and C Lo ensure LhaL Lhe rlsk of fallure elLher ln Lhe sLrucLure or Lhe
ground ls accepLably low for dlfferenL facLored comblnaLlons of load and ground properLles. ln Lhe
deslgn of a Lunnel case 8, shown ln 1able 2, ls used because lL deals prlmarlly wlLh uncerLalnLles ln
acLlons. Case 8 also alms Lo provlde safe geoLechnlcal slzlng and sLrucLural deslgn agalnsL
unfavourable devlaLlons of Lhe loads from Lhelr characLerlsLlc values (Crr and larrell 1999).
arameter art|a| |oad factors Mater|a|
ropert|es
kes|stance
Act|ons Case 8 M1 k1
ermanenL unfavourable acLlon 1.33
varlable unfavourable acLlon 1.3
ermanenL favourable acLlon 1
CoefflclenL of shearlng reslsLance 1
LffecLlve coheslon 1
undralned sLrengLh 1
unconflned compresslve sLrengLh 1
WelghL uenslLy 1
8earlng 8eslsLance 1
Slldlng 8eslsLance 1
LarLh reslsLance 1
1able 2: 1he load facLors for uLS Lunnel deslgn (8ond eL Parrls 2008)
3.1.4 Des|gn Informat|on
Mulr Wood, CurLls and uuddeck Lrdman's analyLlcal meLhods are used Lo derlve hoop forces,
bendlng momenLs and radlal deformaLlons.
LffecLs of full sllp and no sllp are consldered.
Cround loadlng pressures are calculaLed based on long-Lerm condlLlons.
Long-Lerm parameLers for laLeral earLh pressure k
o
and elasLlc modulus L are used.
41

Surcharge load of 73 kn/m2 was applled Lo slmulaLe Lhe addlLlonal load due Lo Lhe surface
sLrucLures wlLhln Lhe area accordlng Lo Clause 3.4.1 of Lhe Clvll ueslgn CrlLerla provlded by Land
1ransporL AuLhorlLy.
AcceleraLlon due Lo gravlLy (g) Laken as 10m/s
2
.

Iunct|on of the tunne|
1he planned Lunnel ls Lo be used as a rallway LransporL Lunnel.

D|mens|on of 1unne|
"#$#$% %&'(&)*+ ',)-#$&. /*'( 01& 2*'33 4-#5 6&,3#)&7
lnLernal ulameLer lu 6200mm
LxLernal ulameLer Cu 7100mm
1hlckness L
s
900mm
WldLh w 1600mm
LxLrados radlus 8
o
3330mm
number of segmenLs n
s
13
Computat|on of |oads based on 1erzagh|'s r|nc|p|e
Long 1erm |oad|ng: Iu|| Cverburden ressure
verLlcal pressure aL Lunnel crown
!
!
! !" ! !!!" ! !!!" ! !"!!"
! !!" !"!!
!

verLlcal pressure aL Lunnel axls
!
!"
! !" ! !!!" ! !!!" ! !"!!"!!
! !"# !"!!
!

PorlzonaLal pressure aL axls
!
!
! !"#!!!!
42

! !""!! !"!!
!

Apply facLors of safeLy on load for ulLlmaLe llmlL sLaLe deslgn
g
sur
= 1.3 and g
soll
= 1.33
!
!"#$
! !"#!! !"!!
!

!
!!"#
! !"#!! !"!!
!

ressure dlfference,
o
: !
!
! !
!"#$
! !
!!"#
! !"#!! !"!!
!

Average ressre
av
: !
!"
! !!
!"#$
!!
!!"#
!!! ! !"#!! !"!!
!

3.2 CCMU1A1ICN CI MLM8Lk ICkCLS
1hls ls based on Lhe meLhods proposed by Mulr Wood, CurLls and uuddeck Lrdman. 1he resulLs obLalned
are showed ln 1able 3.
CurLls' relaLlve flexlblllLy facLor, C2: C2 = 2.12
Llnlng unlL momenL of lnerLla l
e
: l
e
= 6.9110
-3

!
!
! !
!
!!
!
!
!
!

Where n
s
= 13. l
[
negllglble and ls = wL
s
3
/12
3.2.1 NUMLkICAL ANALSIS kLSUL1S
8end|ng Moment








llgure 18: 8endlng MomenL ulsLrlbuLlon
43

Ax|a| Load










llgure 19: Axlal Load ulsLrlbuLlon

Deformat|on









llgure 20: ueformaLlon dlsLrlbuLlon

44

3.2.2 ANAL1ICAL AND NUMLkICAL ANALSIS
1able dlsplays Lhe calculaLed resulLs uslng long Lerm full over burden pressures and llnlLe LlemenL
Analysls.

Mode|
8end|ng
Moment
(kNm]m)
8end|ng
Moment
(kNm)
Var|ab|e
Ax|a| Iorces
(kN]m)
Constant
Ax|a| Iorce
M|n (kN)
Max Constant
Ax|a| Iorce Max
(kN)
kad|a|
Deformat|o
n (mm)
CurLls (nS) 208.17 739.04 38.64 208.07 1819.73 3.43
CurLls (lS) 163.73 388.34 291.31 1034.13 1819.73
uuddeck Lrdman (nS) 272.79 968.40 76.84 272.78 1713.38 7.12
uuddeck Lrdman (lS) 217.18 770.99 382.17 1336.7 1713.38 3.67
Mulr Wood (aL crown) 137.06 337.36 437.36 1623.63 1794.23 4.1
Mulr Wood (aL axls) 638.09 2336.22 2806.3
Numer|ca| (at crown) - 393.0 - 1300.1 43.4
Numer|ca| (at ax|s) - 619.34 - 2498.36 42.4

1able 3: numerlcal and AnalyLlcal CalculaLlon 8esulLs

1he resulLs of Lhe numerlcal and analyLlcal analyses are graphlcally represenLed ln llgure 20, 21 and 22.

llgure 21: A comparlson of Lhe bendlng momenLs from analyLlcal and numerlcal models

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Curus (nS) Curus (lS) uuddeck
Lrdman (nS)
uuddeck
Lrdman (lS)
Mulr Wood
(crown)
numerlcal
(crown)
numerlcal
(axls)
8endlng MomenL
8endlng MomenL (knm/m) 8endlng MomenL (knm)
43




llgure 22: A comparlson of axlal forces


llgure 23: A comparlson of deformaLlons

Mulr Wood produces smaller momenLs because Lhe addlLlonal deformaLlon due Lo LangenLlal forces ls
neglecLed. Pe also proposes a 30 reducLlon ln Lhe llnlng sLresses as menLloned ln chapLer.

lf LangenLlal sLress componenLs are prevenLed from flowlng lnLo Lhe llnlng, Lhe ground conLlnuum model
has Lo reacL Lo Lhem by sLress redlsLrlbuLlon and addlLlonal deformaLlon. 1he deformaLlon lncreases Lhe
0
300
1000
1300
2000
2300
3000
Curus (nS) Curus (lS) uuddeck
Lrdman (nS)
uuddeck
Lrdman (lS)
Mulr Wood
(crown)
Mulr Wood
(axls)
numerlcal
(crown)
numerlcal
(axls)
Axlal lorce
varlable Axlal lorces (kn/m) ConsLanL Axlal lorce Mln (kn) Max ConsLanL Axlal lorce Max (kn)
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
33
40
43
30
Curus (nS) uuddeck Lrdman
(nS)
uuddeck Lrdman
(lS)
Mulr Wood
(crown)
numerlcal
(crown)
numerlcal (axls)
8adlal ueformauon (mm)
46

radlal deflecLlons and hence bendlng momenLs.. lf noL LangenLlal sLress componenLs are applled Lo Lhe
radlally bedded beam model, Lhe bendlng ls smaller and Lhe correspondlng deformaLlon does noL comply
wlLh LhaL of conLlnuum model allowlng LangenLlal sllp.
47

4 DISCUSSICN

1he resulLs show LhaL analysls uslng Lhe analyLlcal models glves larger resulLs as compared Lo Lhe
numerlcal meLhod for bendlng momenLs and axlal loads. 1he dlfference ls due Lo Lhe facL LhaL Lhe models
proposed by uuddeck, Mulr Wood and CurLls are all sLrucLural models LhaL are sub[ecLed Lo purely
horlzonLal and verLlcal loads. 1he sLresses and momenLs developed ln Lhe llnlng are Lhus dependanL on
Lhe sLlffness of Lhe Lunnel llnlng relaLlve Lo Lhe soll, so Lhere ls no soll-sLrucLure lnLeracLlon. 1he maxlmum
bendlng momenL ls conLrolled by Lhe flexlblllLy raLlo. lor a larger value of flexlblllLy raLlo (relaLlvely rlgld
llnlng), Lhe momenL becomes very small and for a small value of flexlblllLy raLlo (relaLlvely rlgld llnlng), Lhe
momenL ls large. ln Lhe lLM, soll sLrucLure lnLeracLlon was consldered and Lhls caused Lhe resulLs Lo be
smaller due Lo Lhe arclng effecL. 1he soll wlll Lransfer parL of Lhe acLlve pressure by arclng and Lhe Lunnel
llnlng geLs relaLlvely small pressure, Lhls arclng effecL wlll be larger lf Lhe soll surroundlng Lhe Lunnel ls
sLlffer accordlng Lo vermeer (2001).
lL was shown LhaL Lhere ls a raLher good compaLlblllLy beLween Lhe resulLs of Lhe lLM and CurLls (lL)
meLhod for Lhe esLlmaLlon of Lhe maxlmum bendlng momenL developed ln Lhe llnlng excepL LhaL CurLls
(lL) resulLs are ofLen less Lhan lLM resulLs. 1here ls good compaLlblllLy beLween lLM resulLs and CurLls
(L) meLhod for Lhe esLlmaLlon of Lhe maxlmum axlal force.
1he Lunnel deformaLlon due Lo lLM analysls ls greaLer Lhan Lhe resulLs obLalned by Lhe analyLlcal
meLhods. 1hls ls because analyLlcal soluLlons are based on slmpllfled assumpLlons of llnear (lsoLroplc or
anlsoLroplc) maLerlal behavlour whlle numerlcal soluLlons model a more reallsLlc slLuaLlon by assumlng,
non-llnear and lnelasLlc soll behavlour on Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of ground movemenLs.


48

S CCNCLUSICN

Cn Lhe oLher hand, Lhe analyLlcal meLhods are based on valuable experlence and have been successfully
used for Lhe deslgn of Lunnels ln Lhe pasL. AnalyLlcal meLhods should be used ln Lhe prellmlnary deslgn
process of a Lunnel buL ln order Lo Lake lnLo accounL Lhe complexlLy of Lunnel geomeLry, geology and
consLrucLlon meLhod, numerlcal models should be used ln Lhe flnal deslgn. 1he numerlcal models can be
used Lo drlve an anlmaLed slmulaLlon of Lhe Lunnel deformaLlon. Asslgnlng approprlaLe maLerlal
parameLers and ln slLu sLaLe of sLress requlres Lhe experLlse of a. Cnce Lhe models are creaLed and
funcLlon properly lL ls easy Lo vary Lhe lnpuL parameLers for Lhe purpose of sLudylng Lhe effecL of Lhe
dlfferenL parameLers on Lhe deslgn and Lhe adequacy of Lhe deslgn under varylng geologlcal condlLlons
however numerlcal models can be dlfflculL Lo lnLerpreL as compared Lo Lhe slmple analyLlcal models.
lmporLance of geologlc lnvesLlgaLlons, learnlng from prevlous meLhods, consLanL monlLorlng of Lunnels
durlng and afLer consLrucLlon as fallure can occur aL any Llme.
lrregular boundarles and shapes can be handled
lncremenLal consLrucLlon loads can be analysed e.g. backflll from grouLlng
1wo pass llnlng lnLeracLlon can be analysed.
kLCCMMLNDA1ICNS
Are analyLlcal meLhods Loo conservaLlve?
numerlcal analysls should noL solely be relled on buL Lhey should be used LogeLher wlLh Lhe ground
parameLers as Lhey are useful ln predlcLlng Lhe ground behavlour. Cnly an experlenced deslgnr would
undersLand Lhe changes LhaL would occur de Lo varlaLlons ln parameLers.
49

6 8I8LICGkAn & ALNDICLS
l1A Worklng Croup 8esearch (1999) hLLp://www.oLa-eng.com/pdf_flle/Culdellnes.pdf Cu1LlnL 1C
uLSlCn LlnlnC . november 1999.
8ocsclence(2013) hLLp://www.rocsclence.com/hoek/pdf/3_8ock_mass_classlflcaLlon.pdf 8ock mass
classlflcaLlon
8ocsclence(2013) hLLp://www.rocsclence.com/hoek/pdf/3_8ock_mass_classlflcaLlon.pdf 8ock 1unnelllng
CuallLy lndex, C
lPWA (2009) hLLps://www.fhwa.doL.gov/brldge/Lunnel/pubs/nhl09010/appe.cfm L.2 AnalyLlcal LlasLlc
Closed lorm SoluLlons for Cround SupporL lnLeracLlon
alassl(n.d.) ueslgn of Llnlng of 1unnels LxcavaLed ln Soll and SofL 8ock vol.13
81S and lCL (2004) 1he 1unnel Llnlng ueslgn Culde. 1homas 1elford, London
lPWA (2003) hLLp://Lam.LransporLaLlon.org/uocumenLs/1AM20llles20-
20ManagemenL20SysLems/MalnL.pdf Plghway and 8all 1ranslL 1unnel MalnLenance and
8ehablllLaLlon Manual.
1C8 (2006) 1ransporLaLlon SecurlLy: Maklng LransporLaLlon Lunnels safe and secure, volume 12
ulLlmaLe LlmlL SLaLe Analysls of a SegmenLed 1unnel Llnlng. Ar[an LuLLlkholL uelfL, !uly 4, 2007 Snap
Lhrough of a [olnL
volume 13, number 3, 2000 1unnLLLlnC Anu unuL8C8Cunu SACL 1LCPnCLCC?
AnagnosLou C, 1988 ueslgn/ConsLrucLlon MeLhods - 1unnelllng ln Swelllng 8ocks. key quesLlons ln 8ock
Mechanlcs, Cundall eL al. 8alkema, 8oLLerdam.
hLLp://www.lgL.eLhz.ch/resources/publlcaLlons/63/papers/33/88-3.pdf
1revor Crr eL Lrlc larrell (1999) CeoLechnlcal ueslgn Lo Lurocode 7, 89*:'3&3 '/ 2-3&3 ;< = -$. 2 pg 29.
Srlnger-verlag London LlmlLed, CreaL 8rlLaln.
Andrew 8ond eL Andrew Parrls (2008) uecodlng Lurocode 7, 8-*)#-5 /->)'*3 :% ?@A. 1aylor & lrancls,
Cxon.
30

Carrle Wllllams (2007) 4&3&-*>1 B&)1'.3. !ournal of 8uslness & Lconomlc 8esearch - March 2007 volume
3, number 3. age 66
aLrlck 8eynolds (AugusL 2010) 1unnel1alk C#)& #$D&3)#%-)#'$ -$. %&'5'%#>-5 &E:&>)-)#'$37
hLLp://www.LunnelLalk.com/Crossrall-Aug10-SlLe-lnvesLlgaLlon-and-geology.php
1unnel Cnllne (2013) Crossrall: Mega lnfrasLrucLure ro[ecL 1aklng Shape. lssue: leb 2013.
hLLp://www.Lunnel-
onllne.lnfo/en/arLlkel/Lunnel_Crossrall_Mega_lnfrasLrucLure_ro[ecL_Laklng_Shape_1623339.hLml
1ranslL CooperaLlve 8esearch rogramme (2006) 8eporL 86, volume 12. Modes of 1unnel lallure.
81S eL lCL (2004) 1unnel llnlng deslgn gulde
8onald 8rlnkgreve (1999) 8eyond 2000 ln CompuLaLlonal CeoLechnlcs. B'.&3 '/ F-#59*& /'* - 09$$&57 age
117. 8oLLerdam, neLherlands,
k.!. 8akker, SLrucLural ueslgn of Llnlngs for 8ored 1unnels ln SofL Cround, Peron, vol. 48 (2003) no. 1, pp.
33-63.
C.8.M 8lom (2002) ueslgn phllosophy of concreLe llnlngs for Lunnels ln sofL solls. uelfL, neLherlands. 01&
3$-: )1*'9%1 :*',5&(
Ar[an LuLLlkholL uelfL, !uly 4, 2007. ulLlmaLe LlmlL SLaLe Analysls of a SegmenLed 1unnel Llnlng
hLLp://homepage.LudelfL.nl/p3r3s/MSc_pro[ecLs/reporLLuLLlkholL.pdf
Crandorl eL al 1993. Lvlnos-Mornos 1unnel - Creece: ConsLrucLlon of a 30 km Long Pydraullc 1unnel ln
Less Lhan 1hree ?ears under Lhe MosL Adverse Ceologlcal CondlLlons. 8CCLLulnCS Cl 1PL 8Alu
LxCAvA1lCn Anu 1unnLLlnC CCnlL8LnCL, comp, 747-768
8ocsclence (2009) Cvercomlng squeezlng ln Lhe ?acambu-Culbor Lunnel, venezuela.
hLLp://www.rocsclence.com/llbrary/rocnews/sprlng2009/1op-ro[ecL-venezuela.pdf
uavld Chapman, nlcole MeL[e and Alfred SLark (2010) lnLroducLlon Lo 1unnel ConsLrucLlon. Madlson
Avenue, new?ork. 1unnel SupporL 8eslsLance MeLhod. g 76
norconsulL (n.d) AnalyLlcal and numerlcal Modelllng.
hLLp://www.Lunnelrescue.com/1emaark/AnalyLlcal20and20numerlcal20Modelllng.pdf
erazzelll eL AnagnosLou (n.d) Comparlng Lhe llmlL equlllbrlum meLhod and Lhe numerlcal sLress analysls
meLhod of Lunnel face sLablllLy assessmenL. "GBG0 HIJG"G=4GJB BH0KLM .
hLLp://www.Lunnel.eLhz.ch/publl/publl2011/pp_comparlng_Lhe_llmlL
kalnraLh-8eumayer, S., CschwandLner, C. and Caller, 8. (2009), 1he convergence conflnemenL meLhod as
an ald ln Lhe deslgn of deep Lunnels. Ceomechanlcs and 1unnelllng, volume 2, lssue 3, pages 333-
360, CcLober 2009
31

oLLs, u.M. and Zdravkovlc, L. (2001). F#$#)& &5&(&$) -$-5+3#3 #$ %&')&>1$#>-5 &$%#$&&*#$%N -::5#>-)#'$.
1homas 1elford, London.
P.uuddeck & !.Lrdmann (1982) SLrucLural deslgn models for Lunnels.
hLLp://www.scrlbd.com/doc/94867732/uuddeck-Lrdmann-1982

u.S. Army Corps of Lnglneers (30 May 97) Lnglneerlng and ueslgn: 1unnLLS Anu SPAl1S ln 8CCk.
Manual no. 1110-2-2901. 9-4. ueslgn of ermanenL ConcreLe Llnlngs.
lfLlmle, 1. 1994. refabrlcaLed llnlng, concepLlonal analysls and comparaLlve sLudles for opLlmal soluLlon.
8*'>7 '/ )1& G0; G$)&*$-)#'$-5 2'$%*&33 O09$$&55#$% -$. P*'9$. 2'$.#)#'$3O< ;:*#5 ?QQR< 2-#*'< H%+:)< 339 -
346. 8oLLerdam: 8alkema.
Mulr-Wood, A. M. 1973. 1he clrcular Lunnel ln elasLlc ground. P&')&>1$#S9& 23(1), 113-127.
uuddeck, P. and Lrdman, !. 1983. Cn sLucLural deslgn models for Lunnels ln sofL soll. J$.&*%*'9$. C:->&7
9(3-6), 246-233.
M.8.Cwomuglsha (2013) uLSlCn Anu S1A8lLl1? LvALuA1lCn Cl A 1unnLL S18uC1u8L. 23
rd
CcLober
2013
















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av(1-k) ko ko2 n2 L I v (1+v) (S-6v) n3 ko3 Lg Mu|r Moment
!"#$%! &$'' #!$()!' )$**&( !$()+,)- )$))(#% )$! #$! &$* )$*&)'*" ""$-&**-' #$#)+,)' &$)(+,)#
)$"&*'%(' &)"*$-%(* #'-$)(
#$%"+,)#
av(1-k) ko ts L v 1+v 1-v2 Lg n 1op 8ottom Mu|r Ax|a| Crown
!"#$%! &$'' )$% !$()+,)- )$! #$! )$%( ##)))) )$%" *$'%+,)! #$*!+,)#
&"$#-*&!% "'-$&(
av(1-k) ko (1+v) Lg ko3 L I 1op 8ottom Mu|r Ax|a| Ax|s
!"#$%! &$'' #$! ##)))) ""$-&**-' !$()+,)- )$))(#% !$(!+,)# &$"!+,)# *$'%+,)! ('*$)%
av(1-k) k k4 L I Lk3]LI 1+v S-6v 1op 8ottom Mu|r D|sp|acement
!"#$%! &$'' #'*$*!& !$()+,)- )$))(#% &$)(+,)# #$! &$*)+,)) %$*-+.)" "$)!+,)# "$#)+.)&
'$*!+,)#
o ko ko2 v 3-2v 3-4v Curt|s Iu|| 8end
#*"$" &$'' #!$()!' !$#! )$! !$( !$! !&!&$%)# '*)$%-'!'
#$#*#*#*!
!$')'"'"' #('$-&"(")*
&$')'"'"'
o ko 3-4v 1+ v Curt|s Iu|| Ax|a|
#*"$" &$'' !$! !$#! &$#! )$"!" ('"$(! &!-$&#
)$*"*
)$#!&'"&#
#$#!&'"&# !%#$&#%"*#&
o ko ko2 3-4v S-6v 42 Curt|s 2ero 8end
#*"$" &$'' #!$()!' !$! &$* *$"* !$#! ##(#$%')'
)$#-%#'&# !)*$#(-)!--
o ko 3-4v S-6v 2 42 Curt|s 2ero Ax|a|
#*"$" &$'' !$! &$* !$#! *$"* &!-$&#
)$#-%#'&# '*$(&*'%%&'
M k2 L I
'--$))('- #!$()!' !$()+,)- )$))(#%
"**$&&'#*
ko ko^4 LI 3-4v o]2 S-6v 42 I|rst 1op bottom D|sp|acement
&$'' #'*$*!&)# #$(#+,)' !$! %!$! &$* *$"* '$"*+.)' ()*$'! #!$!* "%$''&-"( %%$#)-"%! S.43L-03
S.43L-03
33




Mulr and CurLls


av(1-k) ko ko2 n2 L I v (1+v) (S-6v) n3 ko3 Lg Mu|r Moment
!"#$%! &$'' #!$()!' )$**&( !$()+,)- )$))(#% )$! #$! &$* )$*&)'*" ""$-&**-' #$#)+,)' &$)(+,)#
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!"#$%! &$'' )$% !$()+,)- )$! #$! )$%( ##)))) )$%" *$'%+,)! #$*!+,)#
&"$#-*&!% "'-$&(
av(1-k) ko (1+v) Lg ko3 L I 1op 8ottom Mu|r Ax|a| Ax|s
!"#$%! &$'' #$! ##)))) ""$-&**-' !$()+,)- )$))(#% !$(!+,)# &$"!+,)# *$'%+,)! ('*$)%
av(1-k) k k4 L I Lk3]LI 1+v S-6v 1op 8ottom Mu|r D|sp|acement
!"#$%! &$'' #'*$*!& !$()+,)- )$))(#% &$)(+,)# #$! &$*)+,)) %$*-+.)" "$)!+,)# "$#)+.)&
'$*!+,)#
o ko ko2 v 3-2v 3-4v Curt|s Iu|| 8end
#*"$" &$'' #!$()!' !$#! )$! !$( !$! !&!&$%)# '*)$%-'!'
#$#*#*#*!
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o ko 3-4v 1+ v Curt|s Iu|| Ax|a|
#*"$" &$'' !$! !$#! &$#! )$"!" ('"$(! &!-$&#
)$*"*
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#$#!&'"&# !%#$&#%"*#&
o ko ko2 3-4v S-6v 42 Curt|s 2ero 8end
#*"$" &$'' #!$()!' !$! &$* *$"* !$#! ##(#$%')'
)$#-%#'&# !)*$#(-)!--
o ko 3-4v S-6v 2 42 Curt|s 2ero Ax|a|
#*"$" &$'' !$! &$* !$#! *$"* &!-$&#
)$#-%#'&# '*$(&*'%%&'
M k2 L I
'--$))('- #!$()!' !$()+,)- )$))(#%
"**$&&'#*
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&$'' #'*$*!&)# #$(#+,)' !$! %!$! &$* *$"* '$"*+.)' ()*$'! #!$!* "%$''&-"( %%$#)-"%! S.43L-03
S.43L-03
36













ALnulx C - uuuuLCk Anu L8uMAnn C8APS
















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llgure 24: Poop forces conLlnuum model and full bond
















llgure 23: Poop forces for conLlnuum model and LangenLlal sllp
38














llgure 26: Maxlmum bendlng momenLs as a funcLlon of flexlblllLy sLlffness raLlo















llgure 26: Maxlmum bendlng momenLs for conLlnuum model
39


llgure 27: 8adlal dlsplacemenLs for conLlnuum model
llgure 28: Maxlmum bendlng momenL for conLlnuum and bedded beam models
llgure 28: 8adlal dlsplacemenLs for conLlnuum model