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Photography Techniques
Intermediate Skills
Contents
Articles
Bokeh 1
Macro photography 5
Fill flash 12
Light painting 12
Panning (camera) 15
Star trail 17
Time-lapse photography 19
Panoramic photography 27
Cross processing 33
Tilted plane focus 34
Harris shutter 37
References
Article Sources and Contributors 38
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 39
Article Licenses
License 41
Bokeh
1
Bokeh
Coarse bokeh on a photo shot with an 85mm lens
and 70mm entrance pupil diameter, which
corresponds to f/1.2
In photography, bokeh (Originally /bok/,
[1]
/boke/ BOH-kay
also sometimes heard as /bok/ BOH-k,
[]
Japanese:[boke]) is the
blur,
[2][3]
or the aesthetic quality of the blur,
[][4][5]
in out-of-focus areas
of an image. Bokeh has been defined as "the way the lens renders
out-of-focus points of light".
[6]
However, differences in lens
aberrations and aperture shape cause some lens designs to blur the
image in a way that is pleasing to the eye, while others produce
blurring that is unpleasant or distracting"good" and "bad" bokeh,
respectively.
[2]
Bokeh occurs for parts of the scene that lie outside the
depth of field. Photographers sometimes deliberately use a shallow
focus technique to create images with prominent out-of-focus regions.
Bokeh is often most visible around small background highlights, such as specular reflections and light sources,
which is why it is often associated with such areas.
[2]
However, bokeh is not limited to highlights; blur occurs in all
out-of-focus regions of the image.
Origin
The term comes from the Japanese word boke ( or ), which means "blur" or "haze", or boke-aji (
), the "blur quality". The Japanese term boke is also used in the sense of a mental haze or senility.
[7]
The term
bokashi ( ) is related, meaning intentional blurring or gradation.
The English spelling bokeh was popularized in 1997 in Photo Techniques magazine, when Mike Johnston, the editor
at the time, commissioned three papers on the topic for the March/April 1997 issue; he altered the spelling to suggest
the correct pronunciation to English speakers, saying "it is properly pronounced with bo as in bone and ke as in
Kenneth, with equal stress on either syllable".
[3]
The spellings bokeh and boke have both been in use at least since
1996, when Merklinger had suggested "or Bokeh if you prefer."
[8]
The term bokeh has appeared in photography
books at least since 1998.
[]
It is sometimes pronounced /bok/ (boke-uh).
[]
Description
The depth of field is the region where the size of
the circle of confusion is less than the resolution
of the human eye.
An extremely shallow depth of field, a common
effect in macrophotography, emphasizes bokeh.
Bokeh
2
200mm lens at f/2.
An example of the bokeh produced by the Canon
85mm prime f/1.8 lens. The polygonal shapes are
due to the 8-bladed aperture diaphragm being
slightly closed. At its full aperture (f/1.8) these
shapes would be smooth and not polygonal.
The bokeh produced by a catadioptric lens (also
called a mirror lens).
Catadioptric lens bokeh seen in more detail.
Though difficult to quantify, some lenses have subjectively more-pleasing out-of-focus areas. "Good" bokeh is
especially important for macro lenses and long telephoto lenses, because they're typically used in situations that
produce shallow depth of field. Good bokeh is also important for medium telephoto lenses (typically 85150mm on
35mm format). When used in portrait photography (for their "natural" perspective), the photographer usually wants
a shallow depth of field, so that the subject stands out sharply against a blurred background.
Bokeh characteristics may be quantified by examining the image's circle of confusion. In out-of-focus areas, each
point of light becomes an image of the aperture, generally a more or less round disc. Depending how a lens is
corrected for spherical aberration, the disc may be uniformly illuminated, brighter near the edge, or brighter near the
center. Lenses that are poorly corrected for spherical aberration will show one kind of disc for out-of-focus points in
front of the plane of focus, and a different kind for points behind. This may actually be desirable, as blur circles that
are dimmer near the edges produce less-defined shapes which blend smoothly with the surrounding image. Lens
manufacturers including Nikon, Minolta, and Sony make lenses designed with specific controls to change the
rendering of the out-of-focus areas.
Bokeh
3
An example of the creative application of bokeh.
The shape of the aperture has an influence on the subjective quality of
bokeh as well. For conventional lens designs (with bladed apertures),
when a lens is stopped down smaller than its maximum aperture size
(minimum f-number), out-of-focus points are blurred into the
polygonal shape formed by the aperture blades. This is most apparent
when a lens produces hard-edged bokeh. For this reason, some lenses
have many aperture blades and/or blades with curved edges to make
the aperture more closely approximate a circle rather than a polygon.
Minolta has been on the forefront of promoting and introducing lenses
with near-ideal circular apertures since 1987, but most other
manufacturers now offer lenses with shape-optimized diaphragms, at
least for the domain of portraiture photography. In contrast, a
catadioptric telephoto lens renders bokehs resembling doughnuts,
because its secondary mirror blocks the central part of the aperture
opening. Recently, photographers have exploited the shape of the
bokeh by creating a simple mask out of card with shapes such as hearts
or stars, that the photographer wishes the bokeh to be, and placing it
over the lens.
[9]
Leica lenses, especially vintage ones, are often claimed to excel in bokeh quality because they used to have 11, 12,
or 15 blades. Because of this, the lenses don't need to reach high apertures to get better circles (instead of polygons).
In the past, high aperture lenses (f/2, f/2.8) were very expensive due to their complex mathematical design and
manufacturing know-how, at a time when all computations and glass making were done by hand. And Leica could
reach a good bokeh at f/4.5. Today it is much easier to make f/1.8 lens, and a 9-bladed lens at f/1.8 is enough for an
85mm lens to achieve a great bokeh.
The Minolta/Sony STF 135mm f/2.8 [T4.5] (with STF standing for smooth trans focus) is a lens specifically
designed to produce pleasing bokeh. Is possible to choose between two diaphragms: one with 9 and anothter with 10
blades. An apodization filter is used to soften the aperture edges which results in a smooth defocused area with
gradually fading circles. Those qualities make it the only lens of this kind currently on the market.
The Nikon 105mm DC and 135mm (9-bladed) DC lenses (DC stands for "Defocus Control") have a control ring
that permits the over-correction or under-correction of spherical aberration to change the bokeh in front of and
behind the focal plane.
Emulation
Bokeh
4
Bokeh can be simulated by convolving
the image with a kernel that
corresponds to the image of an
out-of-focus point source taken with a
real camera. Unlike conventional
convolution, this convolution has a
kernel that depends on the distance of
each image point and at least in
principle has to include image points
that are occluded by objects in the
foreground.
[10]
Also, bokeh is not just
any blur. To a first approximation,
defocus blur is convolution by a uniform disk, a more computationally intensive operation than the "standard"
Gaussian blur; the former produces sharp circles around highlights whereas the latter is a much softer effect.
Diffraction may alter the effective shape of the blur. Some graphics editors have a filter to do this, usually called
"Lens Blur."
[11]
An alternative mechanical mechanism has been proposed for generating bokeh in small aperture cameras such as
compacts or cellphone cameras, called image destabilisation,
[12][13]
in which both the lens and sensor are moved in
order to maintain focus at one focal plane, while defocusing nearby ones. This effect currently generates blur in only
one axis.
Other applications
In 2009,
[14]
a research group at MIT Media Lab showed that the bokeh effect can be used to make imperceptibly
small barcodes, or bokodes. By using barcodes as small as 3mm with a small lens over them, if the barcode is
viewed out of focus through an ordinary camera focused at infinity, the resulting image is large enough to scan the
information in the barcode.
[15]
References
[15] Mohan, A., Woo, G, Hiura, S, Smithwick, Q, Raskar, R. Bokode: Imperceptible Visual Tags for Camera Based Interaction from a Distance
(http:/ / web.media.mit. edu/ ~ankit/ bokode/ ). ACM SIGGRAPH 2009.
External links
Aperture Simulator (http:/ / www. screamyguy. net/ iris/ index. htm) Java iris and effect simulator
How to evaluate bokeh (http:/ / www. rickdenney. com/ bokeh_test. htm)
Understanding Bokeh (http:/ / www. luminous-landscape. com/ essays/ bokeh. shtml)
Bokeh in olypedia.de (http:/ / olypedia. de/ Bokeh) (German)
Macro photography
5
Macro photography
Photomacrograph of a common yellow dung fly
(Scathophaga stercoraria) made using a lens at its
maximum 1:1 reproduction ratio, and a 1824mm
image sensor, the on-screen display of the photograph
results in a greater than life-size image.
Macro photography (or photomacrography
[1]
or
macrography,
[2]
and sometimes macrophotography
[3]
), invented
by Fritz Goro,
[4]
is extreme close-up photography, usually of very
small subjects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is
greater than life size (though macrophotography technically refers
to the art of making very large photographs).
[2][5]
By some
definitions, a macro photograph is one in which the size of the
subject on the negative or image sensor is life size or greater.
[]
However in other uses it refers to a finished photograph of a
subject at greater than life size.
[]
The ratio of the subject size on the film plane (or sensor plane) to
the actual subject size is known as the reproduction ratio.
Likewise, a macro lens is classically a lens capable of
reproduction ratios greater than 1:1, although it often refers to any
lens with a large reproduction ratio, despite rarely exceeding 1:1.
[][][][6]
Apart from technical photography and film-based processes, where the size of the image on the negative or image
sensor is the subject of discussion, the finished print or on-screen image more commonly lends a photograph its
macro status. For example, when producing a 64inch (1510cm) print using 135 format film or sensor, a life-size
result is possible with a lens having only a 1:4 reproduction ratio.
[][]
Reproduction ratios much greater than 1:1 are considered to be photomicrography, often achieved with digital
microscope (photomicrography should not be confused with microphotography, the art of making very small
photographs, such as for microforms).
Due to advances in sensor technology, todays small-sensor digital cameras can rival the macro capabilities of a
DSLR with a true macro lens, despite having a lower reproduction ratio, making macro photography more widely
accessible at a lower cost.
[][]
In the digital age, a "true" macro photograph can be more practically defined as a
photograph with a vertical subject height of 24mm or less.
[]
Equipment and techniques
Canon MP-E 65 mm macro lens. Small front lens
elements are typical of macro lenses.
"Macro" lenses specifically designed for close-up work, with a long
barrel for close focusing and optimized for high reproduction ratios,
are one of the most common tools for macro photography. (Unlike
most other lens makers, Nikon designates its macro lenses as "Micro"
because of their original use in making microform.) Most modern
macro lenses can focus continuously to infinity as well and can provide
excellent optical quality for normal photography. True macro lenses,
such as the Canon MP-E 65mm f/2.8 or Minolta AF 3x-1x 1.7-2.8
Macro, can achieve higher magnification than life size, enabling
photography of the structure of small insect eyes, snowflakes, and
other minuscule objects. Others, such as the Infinity Photo-Optical's TS-160 can achieve magnifications from 0-18x
on sensor, focusing from infinity down to 18mm from the object.
Macro lenses of different focal lengths find different uses:
Macro photography
6
Extension tubes for extreme macro use with
SLRs. Note the pen placed through the tube to
illustrate that it does not contain any lens
elements.
Bellows fitted between an SLR and reversed lens
Typical close-up lens
Wide-angle lens used as a reversed lens in front
of a macro lens
Continuously-variable focal length suitable for virtually all macro
subjects
4565mm product photography, small objects that can be
approached closely without causing undesirable influence, and
scenes requiring natural background perspective
90105mm insects, flowers, and small objects from a
comfortable distance
150200mm insects and other small animals where additional
working distance is required
Extending the distance between the lens and the film or sensor, by
inserting either extension tubes or a continuously adjustable bellows, is
another equipment option for macro photography. The further the lens
is from the film or sensor, the closer the focusing distance, the greater
the magnification, and the darker the image given the same aperture.
Tubes of various lengths can be stacked, decreasing lens-to-subject
distance and increasing magnification. Bellows or tubes eliminate
infinity focus. They can be used in conjunction with some other
techniques such as reversing the lens.
Placing an auxiliary close-up lens (or close-up "filter") in front of the
camera's lens is another option. Inexpensive screw-in or slip-on
attachments provide close focusing. The possible quality is less than
that of a dedicated macro lens or extension tubes, with some
two-element versions being very good while many inexpensive single
element lenses exhibit chromatic aberration and reduced sharpness of
the resulting image. This method works with cameras that have fixed
lenses, and is commonly used with bridge cameras. These lenses add
diopters to the optical power of the lens, decreasing the minimum
focusing distance, and allowing the camera to get closer to the subject.
They are typically designated by their diopter, and can be stacked (with
an additional loss of quality) to achieve the desired magnification.
Photographers may employ view camera movements and the
Scheimpflug principle to place an object close to the lens in focus,
while maintaining selective background focus. This technique requires
the use of a view camera or perspective control lens with the ability to
tilt the lens with respect to the film or sensor plane. Lenses such as the
Nikon PC-E and Canon TS-E series, the Hartblei Super-Rotator, the
Schneider Super Angulon, several Lensbaby models, the Zoerk Multi
Focus System, and various tilt-shift adapters for medium format, allow
the use of tilt in cameras with fixed lens mounts. Traditional view
cameras permit such adjustment as part of their design.
Ordinary lenses can be used for macro photography by using a
"reversing ring." This ring attaches to the filter thread on the front of a
lens and makes it possible to attach the lens in reverse. Excellent
Macro photography
7
quality results up to 4x life-size magnification are possible. For cameras with all-electronic communications between
the lens and the camera body specialty reversing rings are available which preserve these communications. When
used with extension tubes or bellows, a highly versatile, true macro (greater than life size) system can be assembled.
Since non-macro lenses are optimized for small reproduction ratios, reversing the lens allows it to be used for
reciprocally high ratios.
Macro photography may also be accomplished by mounting a lens in reverse, in front of a normally mounted lens of
greater focal length, using a macro coupler which screws into the front filter threads of both lenses. This method
allows most cameras to maintain the full function of electronic and mechanical communication with the normally
mounted lens, for features such as open-aperture metering. The magnification ratio is calculated by dividing the focal
length of the normally mounted lens by the focal length of the reversed lens (e.g., when an 18mm lens is reverse
mounted on a 300mm lens the reproduction ratio is 16:1). The use of automatic focus is not advisable if the first lens
is not of the internal-focusing type, as the extra weight of the reverse-mounted lens could damage the autofocus
mechanism. Working distance is significantly less than the first lens.
Increasingly, macro photography is accomplished using compact digital cameras and small-sensor bridge cameras,
combined with a high powered zoom lens and (optionally) a close-up diopter lens added to the front of the camera
lens. The deep depth of field of these cameras is an advantage for macro work.
[][]
The high pixel density and
resolving power of these cameras' sensors enable them to capture very high levels of detail at a lower reproduction
ratio than is needed for film or larger DSLR sensors (often at the cost of greater image noise). Despite the fact that
many of these cameras come with a "macro mode" which does not qualify as true macro, some photographers are
using the advantages of small sensor cameras to create macro images that rival or even surpass those from DSLRs.
[]
Macro photography techniques
Optical scheme of
close-up macro
photography
Reversed-lens macro
photography optical
scheme
Optical scheme of macro
photography using reversed lens
and telephoto lens
Optical scheme of macro
photography using infinity
corrected microscope
objective and telephoto lens
Optical scheme of macro
photography using extension tube
Macro photography
8
Macro photography lenses
For those looking to purchase a Macro lens, here is a list of Macro lenses produced by major DSLR manufactures.
Lens focal length Reproduction Ratio Closest Focus
Canon EF Compact f/2.5 50mm 1:2 (half life size) 6in.
Canon EF-S f/2.8 USM 60mm 1:1 (life size) 8in.
Canon MP-E f/2.8 1-5x 65mm 5:1 (life size) 7in.
Canon EF f/2.8 USM 100mm 1:1 (life size) 5.9in.
Canon EF f/2.8L IS USM 100mm 1:1 (life size) 12in.
Canon EF f/3.5L USM 180mm 1:1 (life size) 10in.
Nikon AF-S DX f/2.8G 40mm 1:1 (life size) 6.4in.
Nikon AF Nikkor f/2.8D 60mm 1:1 (life size) 8.75in.
Nikon AF-S Nikkor f/2.8G ED 60mm 1:1 (life size) 6in.
Nikon AF-S DX Nikkor f/3.5G ED VR 85mm 1:1 (life size) 9in.
Nikon AF-S VR Nikkor f/2.8G IF-ED 105mm 1:1 (life size) 12in.
Nikon AF Nikkor f/4D IF-ED 200mm 1:1 (life size) 9in.
Nikon PC-E Nikkor f/2.8D ED 45mm 1:2 (half life size) 9.9in.
Nikon PC-E Nikkor f/2.8D 85mm 1:2 (half life size) 15in.
Pentax DA 35mm f/2.8 Macro Limited 35mm 1:1 (life size) 5.4in.
Pentax D-FA 50mm f/2.8 Macro 50mm 1:1 (life size) 7.67in.
Pentax D-FA 100mm f/2.8 Macro WR 100mm 1:1 (life size) 9.9in.
Sony DT 30mm f/2.8 Macro Lens 30mm 1:1 (life size) 4.8in.
Sony 50mm f/2.8 Macro Lens 50mm 1:1 (life size) 7.8in.
Sony 100mm f/2.8 Macro Lens 100mm 1:1 (life size) 14.4in.
[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]
Macro photography
9
35 mm equivalent magnification
35mm equivalent magnification: The photograph
on top was taken with a full-frame (35mm)
sensor digital SLR camera and a 100mm macro
lens at 1:1 magnification. The photograph on the
bottom was taken with a Micro Four Thirds (2x
crop) sensor camera and a 50mm macro lens at
1:2 magnification. The subject height in both
images is 24mm. Photographs taken with these
two set-ups will be practically indistinguishable
at the same print size, lending the photograph on
the bottom its 1:1 35mm equivalent reproduction
ratio status.
35mm equivalent magnification, or 35mm equivalent reproduction
ratio, is a measure that indicates the apparent magnification achieved
with a small sensor format, or "crop sensor" digital camera compared
to a 35mm-based image enlarged to the same print size.
[][]
The term is
useful because many photographers are familiar with the 35mm film
format.
[][][][][][]
While a "true" macro lens is defined as a lens having a reproduction
ratio of 1:1 on the film or sensor plane, with small sensor format digital
cameras an actual reproduction ratio of 1:1 is rarely achieved or needed
to take macro photographs. What macro photographers often care
about more is simply knowing the size of the smallest object that can
fill the frame.
[]
For example, the 12 megapixel Micro Four Thirds
Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH1 camera with a 2x crop sensor only
requires a 1:2 reproduction ratio to take a picture with the same subject
size, resolution, and apparent magnification as a 12 megapixel
"full-frame" Nikon D700 camera, when the images are viewed on
screen or printed at the same size. Thus a Four Thirds system macro
lens like the Olympus Zuiko Digital 35 mm F3.5 Macro lens with a
true maximum image magnification of 1.0x is rated as having a "2.0x
35mm equivalent magnification".
[]
To calculate 35mm equivalent reproduction ratio, simply multiply the
actual maximum magnification of the lens by the 35mm conversion
factor, or "crop factor" of the camera. If the actual magnification
and/or crop factor are unknown (such as is the case with many compact
or point-and-shoot digital cameras), simply take a photograph of a mm
ruler placed vertically in the frame focused at the maximum magnification distance of the lens and measure the
height of the frame. Since the object height of a 1.0x magnified 35mm film image is 24mm, calculate 35mm
equivalent reproduction ratio and true reproduction ratio by using the following:
[]
(35 mm equivalent reproduction ratio) = 24 / (measured height in mm)
(True reproduction ratio) = (35mm equivalent reproduction ratio) / Crop factor.
Since digital compact camera sensor sizes come in a wide diversity of sizes and camera manufacturers rarely publish
the macro reproduction ratios for these cameras, a good rule of thumb is that whenever a 24mm vertical object just
fits, or is too tall to fit in the camera viewfinder, you are taking a macro photograph.
[]
Macro photography
10
35mm equivalent reproduction ratio: the photograph on the left was taken with a full-frame
(35mm) sensor digital SLR camera and a 100mm macro lens at 1:1 magnification. The photograph
on the right was taken with a Micro Four Thirds (2x crop) sensor camera and a 50mm macro lens
at 1:2 magnification. The photographs are practically indistinguishable and therefore equivalent.
Technical considerations
Depth of field
Shallow depth of field
Limited depth of field is an important consideration in macro
photography. Depth of field is extremely small when focusing on close
objects. A small aperture (high f-number) is often required to produce
acceptable sharpness across a three-dimensional subject. This requires
either a slow shutter speed, brilliant lighting, or a high ISO. Auxiliary
lighting (such as from a flash unit), preferably a ring flash is often used
(see Lighting section).
Like conventional lenses, macro lenses need light, and ideally would
provide similar f/# to conventional lenses to provide similar exposure
times. Macro lenses also have similar focal lengths, so the entrance
pupil diameter is comparable to that of conventional lenses (e.g., a 100mm f/2.8 lens has a 100mm/2.8 = 35.7mm
entrance-pupil diameter). Because they focus at close subjects, the cone of light from a subject point to the entrance
pupil is relatively obtuse (a relatively high subject numerical aperture to use microscopy terms), making the depth of
field extraordinarily small. This makes it essential to focus critically on the most important part of the subject, as
elements that are even a millimetre closer or farther from the focal plane might be noticeably blurred. Due to this, the
use of a microscope stage is highly recommended for precise focus with large magnification such as photographing
skin cells. Alternatively, more shots of the same subject can be made with slightly different focusing lengths and
joined afterwards with specialized focus stacking software which picks out the sharpest parts of every image,
artificially increasing depth of field.
Compact digital cameras and small-sensor bridge cameras have an incidental advantage in macro photography due to
their inherently deeper depth of field.
[]
For instance, some popular bridge cameras produce the equivalent
magnification of a 420mm lens on 35-mm format but only use a lens of actual focal length 89mm (1/1.8-type
CCD) or 72mm (1/2.5-type CCD). (See crop factor.) At the same f/#, that corresponds to an entrance pupil 89/420
= 0.21 times the sizemuch smaller. Since depth of field appears to decrease with the actual focal length of the lens,
not the equivalent focal length, these bridge cameras can achieve the magnification of a 420mm lens with the
greater depth of field of a much shorter lens. High-quality auxiliary close-up lenses can be used to achieve the
needed close focus; they function identically to reading glasses. This effect makes it possible to achieve very high
quality macro photographs with relatively inexpensive equipment, since auxiliary closeup lenses are cheaper than
dedicated SLR macro lenses. However, the amount of light gathered goes by the area of the entrance pupil, so with
Macro photography
11
the smaller entrance pupil only 4.5% as much light is captured; alternately the full-frame camera would produce the
same image by stopping down, increasing the f/# by a factor of 420/89 = 4.7 (e.g., from f/2.8 to f/13.16).
Lighting
The problem of sufficiently and evenly lighting the subject can be difficult to overcome. Some cameras can focus on
subjects so close that they touch the front of the lens. It is difficult to place a light between the camera and a subject
that close, making extreme close-up photography impractical. A normal-focal-length macro lens (50mm on a 35mm
camera) can focus so close that lighting remains difficult. To avoid this problem, many photographers use telephoto
macro lenses, typically with focal lengths from about 100 to 200mm. These are popular as they permit sufficient
distance for lighting between the camera and the subject.
Ring flashes, with flash tubes arranged in a circle around the front of the lens, can be helpful in lighting at close
distances.
[]
Ring lights have emerged, using white LEDs to provide a continuous light source for macro
photography, however they are not as bright as a ring flash and the white balance is very cool.
[]
Good results can also be obtained by using a flash diffuser. Homemade flash diffusers made out of white Styrofoam
or plastic attached to a camera's built-in flash can also yield surprisingly good results by diffusing and softening the
light, eliminating specular reflections and providing more even lighting.
References
[4] http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1986/ 12/ 19/ obituaries/ fritz-goro-85-photographer-recorded-science-advances. html
[7] Canon U.S.A. : Consumer & Home Office : EF Lens Lineup (http:/ / www. usa. canon. com/ cusa/ consumer/ products/ cameras/
ef_lens_lineup)
[8] Macro Lenses from Nikon (http:/ / www. nikonusa. com/ en/ Learn-And-Explore/ Article/ gnhy8b3m/ macro-lenses.
html?icid=promo-tech-NIKKOR-Macro)
[9] Pentax U.S.A. : PENTAX Digital Camera Lens Lineup (http:/ / www. pentaximaging. com/ camera-lenses#anchor2)
[10] Macro Lenses | Sony | Sony Store USA (http:/ / store. sony. com/ webapp/ wcs/ stores/ servlet/ CategoryDisplay?catalogId=10551&
storeId=10151& langId=-1& categoryId=32332)
External links
Photo.net how-to (http:/ / photo. net/ learn/ macro/ ) Guide to macro photography
Make your own reversing ring (http:/ / photocritic. org/ macro-photography-on-a-budget/ ) out of a Pringles can
by Haje Jan Kamps
Information on inverted lenses (http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~flash19901/ tech tips. htm)
Macro Photography Ideas and Tutorials (http:/ / www. seeinginmacro. com/ category/
macro-photography-tips-and-tutorials/ ) - Seeing In Macro (http:/ / www. seeinginmacro. com)
Macro Photography Tutorial (http:/ / www. pixalo. com/ community/ tutorials-guides/
macro-photography-tutorial-24240. html)
Insects-macrophotography (http:/ / www. nature-pictures. org/ en/ Insects-macrophotography/ ) Photos of insects
Inexpensive Macro Photography (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ inexpensivemacrophotography/ ) DSLR with
Manual Focus Lens
Macro Photography Tips (http:/ / www. macro-photography. eu)
Use of Microscope Stage for Microphotography (http:/ / www. microscopy-uk. org. uk/ mag/ indexmag.
html?http:/ / www. microscopy-uk. org. uk/ mag/ artsep01/ vrcoolpix2. html)
Macro Photography Tips (http:/ / www. macro-photography. eu)
How to use a macro reverse ring (http:/ / www. ares-foto. de/ blog/ montage-eines-makro-umkehrringes/ )
Fill flash
12
Fill flash
Left: without flash. Right: with fill flash
Fill flash is a photographic technique used to brighten deep shadow
areas, typically outdoors on sunny days, though the technique is useful
any time the background is significantly brighter than the subject of the
photograph, particularly in backlit subjects. To use fill flash, the
aperture and shutter speed are adjusted to correctly expose the
background, and the flash is fired to lighten the foreground.
Most point and shoot cameras include a fill flash mode that forces the
flash to fire, even in bright light.
Depending on the distance to the subject, using the full power of the
flash may greatly overexpose the subject especially at close range.
Certain cameras allow the level of flash to be manually adjusted e.g. 1/3, 1/2, or 1/8 power, so that both the
foreground and background are correctly exposed, or allow an automatic flash exposure compensation.
Light painting
Pure Energy and Neurotic Man, a light painting
by Barbara Morgan, (1940)
Light painting is a photographic technique in which exposures are
made by moving a hand-held light source or by moving the camera.
The term light painting also encompasses images lit from outside the
frame with hand-held light sources. Light Painting Photography can be
traced back to the year 1914 when Frank Gilbreth, along with his wife
Lillian Moller Gilbreth, used small lights and the open shutter of a
camera to track the motion of manufacturing and clerical workers. Man
Ray, in his 1935 series "Space Writing," was the first known art
photographer to use the technique and Barbara Morgan began making
light paintings in 1940.
Techniques
By moving the light source, the light can be used to selectively
illuminate parts of the subject or to "paint" a picture by shining it
directly into the camera lens. Light painting requires a slow shutter
speed, usually a second or more. Light painting can take on the
characteristics of a quick pencil sketch.
Light painting by moving the camera, also called camera painting, is the antithesis of traditional photography. At
night, or in a dark room, the camera can be taken off the tripod and used like a paintbrush. An example is using the
night sky as the canvas, the camera as the brush and cityscapes (amongst other light sources) as the palette. Putting
energy into moving the camera by stroking lights, making patterns and laying down backgrounds can create abstract
artistic images.
Light painting
13
Example of light painting moving the camera
Light painting can be done interactively using a webcam. The painted
image can already be seen while drawing by using a monitor or
projector.
Another technique used in the creation of light art is the projection of
images on to irregular surfaces (faces, bodies, buildings etc.), in effect
"painting" them with light. A photograph or other fixed portrayal of the
resulting image is then made.
History
In 1949 Pablo Picasso was visited by Gjon Mili, a photographer and
lighting innovator, who introduced Picasso to his photographs of ice
skaters with lights attached to their skates. Immediately Picasso started
making images in the air with a small flashlight in a dark room. This
series of photos became known as Picasso's "light drawings." Of these
photos, the most celebrated and famous is known as "Picasso draws a
centaur in the air."
[1]
During the 1970's and 80's Eric Staller
[2]
used
this technology for numerous photo projects. Picasso and Mili's images
should be regarded as some of the first light drawings. Now, with
modern light painting, one uses more frequently choreography and performance to photograph and organize.
Since spring 2007 the term Light art performance photography or LAPP has been in use, used to describe the work
of the Light Painting team of LAPP-PRO. In this photography the integration of the background, the execution of
performance and choreography is a very important element.
[3]
This artform is currently enjoying a surge in popularity, partly due to the increasing availability of dSLR cameras,
advances in portable light sources such as LEDs, and also in part due to the advent of media sharing websites by
which practitioners can exchange images and ideas.
Equipment
Orb created by swinging a light source, domes
created by spinning a wheel with light source
attached
A variety of light sources can be used, ranging from simple flashlights
to dedicated devices like the Hosemaster, which uses a fiber optic light
pen.
[4]
Other sources of light including candles, matches, fireworks,
lighter flints, glowsticks, and Poi are also popular.
A tripod is usually necessary due to the long exposure times involved.
Alternatively, the camera may be placed on or braced against a table or
other solid support. A shutter release cable or self timer is generally
employed in order to minimize camera shake. Color Gels can also be
used to color the light sources.
Light painting
14
Gallery
Portrait illuminated by light
painting with a sparkler
Star image produced with light
painting
Long exposure
photo of a light
show dance using
finger lights.
Stick figure
image produced
with light
painting.
Light painting with steel wool Urban Light
Painting by
Lichtfaktor
Light Painting with steel wool Minimalist light painting: full
moon on dark night
References
[2] Eric Staller - Light Drawings (http:// ericstaller. com/ studio work/ light drawings/ )
External links
Article in Amateur Photographer magazine on the fundamental basics of Light Painting (http:/ / www.
amateurphotographer. co. uk/ how-to/ photo-techniques/ 539651/
light-painting-masterclass-with-michael-bosanko)
Diverse light painting techniques by Michael Bosanko (http:/ / www. michaelbosanko. com/
light-sculptures-light-graffiti)
Light Graffiti Photography - Jasper Geenhuizen (http:/ / www. lightgraffiti. nl/ )
Light Painting Photography - Comprehensive Light Painting Resource (http:/ / lightpaintingphotography. com)
SWISS LAPP - Light Art Photography Team (http:/ / www. swiss-lapp. ch)
PBS Arts - Off Book on light painting (http:/ / vimeo. com/ 26634967)
Light Art Photographer Jan Leonardo Wllert | euromaxx (http:/ / vimeo. com/ 52911250)
Lichtfaktor - Light painting artists collective (http:/ / www. lichtfaktor. com)
Light Painting World Alliance - non-profit organization united all light painters in the globe (http:/ / lpwalliance.
com)
Painting with Light - How it all began - Historical article about light painting's roots (http:/ / lpwalliance. com/
index2. php?type=publicationview& id=15)
The Graffiti Light Project - Light Painting Exhibition and Event Team (http:/ / graffitilight. com)
LightArt-Photography - Light Painting and Light Art Photography since 2005, Founder Of The LAPP Technique
(http:/ / www. lightart-photography. de)
Panning (camera)
15
Panning (camera)
Example of a panning technique photo (shutter speed: 1/80)
In photography, panning refers to the rotation in a
horizontal plane of a still camera or video camera.
Panning a camera results in a motion similar to that of
someone shaking their head from side to side or of an
aircraft performing a yaw rotation. Or to that of an
opening door if the door stays facing one way.
Filmmaking and professional video cameras pan by
turning horizontally on a vertical axis, but the effect
may be enhanced by adding other techniques, such as
rails to move the whole camera platform. Slow panning
is also combined with zooming in or out on a single
subject, leaving the subject in the same portion of the
frame, to emphasize or de-emphasize the subject
respectively.
In still photography, the panning technique is used to
suggest fast motion, and bring out the subject from
other elements in the frame. In photographic pictures it
is usually noted by a foreground subject in action
appearing still (i.e. a runner frozen in mid-stride) while
the background is streaked and/or skewed in the
apparently opposite direction of the subject's travel,
similar to speed lines, and is often used in sports
photography, primarily of racing.
In video display technology, panning refers to the
horizontal scrolling of an image that is wider than the
display.
For 3D modeling in computer graphics, panning means moving parallel to the current view plane.
[1]
In other words,
the camera moves perpendicular to the direction it is pointed, and this direction does not change.
The term panning is derived from panorama,
[citation needed]
a word originally coined in 1787 by Robert Barker for the
18th century version of these applications, a machine that unrolled or unfolded a long horizontal painting to give the
impression the scene was passing by; Barker also invented the cyclorama in which a large painting encircles an
audience.
Panning (camera)
16
Achieving a smooth pan in photography
Panning shot of a chicken running. Notice the slow shutter speed of
1/40
When photographing a moving subject, the panning
technique is achieved by keeping the subject in the
same position of the frame for the duration of the
exposure. The length of the exposure must be long
enough to allow the background to blur due to the
movement of the camera as the photographer follows
the subject in the viewfinder.
The exact length of exposure required will depend on
the speed at which the subject is moving, the focal
length of the lens and the distance from the subject and
background. An F1 car speeding along a straight might
allow the photographer to achieve a blurred background
at 1/250th of a second, while the photographer might
need to go as slow as 1/40th to achieve the same
amount of blur for a picture of a running man.
[2]
The faster shutter speed allowed by fast moving subjects are easier to capture in a smoothly panned shot. With
slower moving subjects, the risk is that the panning motion will be jerky, and it is also harder to keep the subject in
the same position of the frame for the longer period of time.
To aid in capturing panned pictures, photographers use aids such as tripods and monopods, which make it easy to
swing the camera along one plane, while keeping it steady in the others. A low budget option is to tie a piece of
string around the lens, then to drop the other end to the floor and step on it to pull it taut. This will allow a little bit
more stability and allow for smoother blur.
[3]
References
External links
Media related to Panning at Wikimedia Commons
Star trail
17
Star trail
A star trail photograph showing the apparent
motion of stars around the north celestial pole;
Polaris is the bright star near the pole, just above
the jet trail.
A star trail is a type of photograph that utilizes long-exposure times to
capture the apparent motion of stars in the night sky due to the rotation
of the Earth. A star trail photograph shows individual stars as streaks
across the image, with longer exposures resulting in longer streaks.
Typical exposure times for a star trail range from 15 minutes to several
hours, requiring a 'bulb' setting on the camera to open the shutter for a
longer period than is normal.
Star trails have been used by professional astronomers to measure the
quality of observing locations for major telescopes.
Capturing star trail images
Star trails photographed in earth orbit from the
International Space Station.
Star trail photographs are captured by placing a camera on a tripod,
pointing the lens toward the sky, and allowing the shutter to stay open
for a long period of time.
[1]
Star trails are considered relatively easy for
amateur astrophotographers to create.
[2]
Photographers generally make
these images by using a SLR camera with its lens focus set to infinity.
A cable release allows the photographer to hold the shutter open for the
desired amount of time. Typical exposure times begin at 15 minutes
and can be many hours long, depending on the desired length of the
star trail streaks on the image.
[3]
Even though star trail pictures are
created under low-light conditions, the long exposure times allow for
fast films, such as ISO 200 and ISO 400, to be used.
[2]
Wide-apertures,
such as f/5.6 and f/4, are recommended for star trails.
[4][1]
Because exposure times for star trail photographs can be several hours long, camera batteries can be easily depleted.
Mechanical cameras that do not require a battery to open and close the shutter have an advantage over more modern
film and digital cameras which utilize battery power. On these cameras, the Bulb, or B, exposure setting is used to
keep the shutter open.
[5]
Another problem that digital cameras encounter is an increase in detector noise with
increasing exposure time.
[1]
American astronaut Don Pettit recorded star trails with a digital camera from the International Space Station in earth
orbit between April and June, 2012. Pettit described his technique as follows: "My star trail images are made by
taking a time exposure of about 10 to 15 minutes. However, with modern digital cameras, 30 seconds is about the
longest exposure possible, due to electronic detector noise effectively snowing out the image. To achieve the longer
exposures I do what many amateur astronomers do. I take multiple 30-second exposures, then 'stack' them using
imaging software, thus producing the longer exposure."
[]
Star trail
18
Rotation of the Earth
Star trails photographed by facing northwest.
Star trail photographs are possible because of the rotation of the Earth
on its axis. The apparent motion of the stars is recorded as streaks on
the film or detector.
[1]
For observers in the northern hemisphere,
aiming the camera towards the north creates an image with concentric
circular streaks centered around the north celestial pole (very close to
Polaris).
[2]
For observers located in the southern hemisphere, this same
effect is achieved by aiming the camera south. In this case, the streak
are centered on the south celestial pole. Aiming the camera towards the
east or west creates straight-line streaks that are angled with respect to
the horizon. The size of the angle depends on the photographer's
latitude.
[1]
Astronomical site testing
Star trails over the ESO 3.6 m Telescope.
[6]
Star trail photographs can be used by astronomers to determine the
quality of a location for telescope observations. Star trail observations
of Polaris have been used to measure the quality of seeing in the
atmosphere, and the vibrations in telescope mounting systems.
[7]
The
first recorded suggestion of this technique is from E.S. Skinner's 1931
book A Manual of Celestial Photography.
[8]
References
External links
4 Steps To Creating Star Trails Photos Using Stacking Software (http:/ / www. psq. org. au/ CreatingStarTrails.
pdf)
Star trail photography (http:/ / www. weatherscapes. com/ techniques. php?cat=astronomy& page=startrails)
Time-lapse photography
19
Time-lapse photography
A sunset time-lapse
Moving clouds time-lapse
Time lapse video of mung bean seeds germinating
Time-lapse photography is a technique
whereby the frequency at which film frames
are captured (the frame rate) is much lower
than that used to view the sequence. When
played at normal speed, time appears to be
moving faster and thus lapsing. For
example, an image of a scene may be
captured once every second, then played
back at 30 frames per second. The result is
an apparent 30-times speed increase.
Time-lapse photography can be considered
the opposite of high speed photography or
slow motion.
Processes that would normally appear subtle
to the human eye, e.g. the motion of the sun
and stars in the sky, become very
pronounced. Time-lapse is the extreme
version of the cinematography technique of
undercranking, and can be confused with
stop motion animation.
History
Some classic subjects of timelapse
photography include:
cloudscapes and celestial motion
plants growing and flowers opening
fruit rotting
evolution of a construction project
people in the city
The technique has been used to photograph
crowds, traffic, and even television. The
effect of photographing a subject that
changes imperceptibly slowly, creates a
smooth impression of motion. A subject that
changes quickly is transformed into an
onslaught of activity.
The first use of time-lapse photography in a
feature film was in Georges Mlis' motion
picture Carrefour De L'Opera (1897).
Time-lapse photography of biological
Time-lapse photography
20
The ALMA timelapse
[1]
phenomena was pioneered by Jean
Comandon
[2][3]
in collaboration with Path
Frres from 1909, by F. Percy Smith in 1910
and Roman Vishniac from 1915 to 1918.
Time-lapse photography was further
pioneered in the 1920s via a series of feature
films called Bergfilms (Mountain films) by
Arnold Fanck, including The Holy Mountain
(1926).
From 1929 to 1931, R. R. Rife astonished
journalists with early demonstrations of high
magnification time-lapse
cine-micrography
[4][5]
but no filmmaker can be credited for popularizing time-lapse more than Dr. John Ott, whose
life-work is documented in the DVD-film "Exploring the Spectrum".
Ott's initial "day-job" career was that of a banker, with time-lapse movie photography, mostly of plants, initially just
a hobby. Starting in the 1930s, Ott bought and built more and more time-lapse equipment, eventually building a large
greenhouse full of plants, cameras, and even self-built automated electric motion control systems for moving the
cameras to follow the growth of plants as they developed. He time-lapsed his entire greenhouse of plants and
cameras as they worked - a virtual symphony of time-lapse movement. His work was featured on a late 1950s
episode of the request TV show, You Asked For It.
Ott discovered that the movement of plants could be manipulated by varying the amount of water the plants were
given, and varying the color-temperature of the lights in the studio. Some colors caused the plants to flower, and
other colors caused the plants to bear fruit. Ott discovered ways to change the sex of plants merely by varying the
light source color-temperature.
By using these techniques, Ott time-lapse animated plants "dancing" up and down in synch to pre-recorded music
tracks.
His cinematography of flowers blooming in such classic documentaries as Walt Disney's Secrets of Life (1956),
pioneered the modern use of time-lapse on film and television. Ott wrote several books on the history of his
time-lapse adventures, My Ivory Cellar (1958), "Health and Light" (1979), and the film documentary "Exploring the
Spectrum" (DVD 2008).
A major refiner and developer of time-lapse is the Oxford Scientific Film Institute in Oxford, United Kingdom. The
Institute specializes in time-lapse and slow-motion systems, and has developed camera systems that can go into (and
move through) impossibly small places. Most people have seen at least some of their footage which has appeared in
TV documentaries and movies for decades.
PBS's NOVA series aired a full episode on time-lapse (and slow motion) photography and systems in 1981 titled
Moving Still. Highlights of Oxford's work are slow-motion shots of a dog shaking water off himself, with close ups
of drops knocking a bee off a flower, as well as time-lapse of the decay of a dead mouse.
The first major usage of time-lapse in a feature film was Koyaanisqatsi (1983). The non-narrative film, directed by
Godfrey Reggio, contained much time-lapse of clouds, crowds, and cities filmed by cinematographer Ron Fricke.
Years later, Ron Fricke produced a solo project called "Chronos" shot on IMAX cameras, which is still frequently
played on Discovery HD. Fricke used the technique extensively in the documentary Baraka (1992) which he
photographed on Todd-AO (70 mm) film. The most recent film made entirely in time-lapse photography is Nate
North's film Silicon Valley Timelapse, which holds the distinction of being the first feature length film shot almost
entirely in 3 frame high dynamic range.
Countless other films, commercials, TV shows and presentations have included time-lapse.
Time-lapse photography
21
For example, Peter Greenaway's film A Zed & Two Noughts featured a sub-plot involving time-lapse photography of
decomposing animals and included a composition called "Time-lapse" written for the film by Michael Nyman. More
recently, Adam Zoghlin's time-lapse cinematography was featured in the CBS television series Early Edition,
depicting the adventures of a character that receives tomorrow's newspaper today. David Attenborough's 1995 series,
The Private Life of Plants, also utilised the technique extensively.
Terminology
The frame rate of time-lapse movie photography can be varied to virtually any degree, from a rate approaching a
normal frame rate (between 24 and 30 frames per second) to only one frame a day, a week, or more, depending on
subject.
The term "time-lapse" can also apply to how long the shutter of the camera is open during the exposure of each
frame of film (or video), and has also been applied to the use of long-shutter openings used in still photography in
some older photography circles. In movies, both kinds of time-lapse can be used together, depending on the
sophistication of the camera system being used. A night shot of stars moving as the Earth rotates requires both forms.
A long exposure of each frame is necessary to enable the dim light of the stars to register on the film. Lapses in time
between frames provide the rapid movement when the film is viewed at normal speed.
As the frame rate of time-lapse approaches normal frame rates, these "mild" forms of time-lapse are sometimes
referred to simply as fast motion or (in video) fast forward. This type of borderline time-lapse resembles a VCR in
a fast forward ("scan") mode. A man riding a bicycle will display legs pumping furiously while he flashes through
city streets at the speed of a racing car. Longer exposure rates for each frame can also produce blurs in the man's leg
movements, heightening the illusion of speed.
Two examples of both techniques are the running sequence in Terry Gilliam's The Adventures of Baron Munchausen
(1989) in which Eric Idle outraces a speeding bullet, and Los Angeles animator Mike Jittlov's 1980 short and
feature-length film, both titled The Wizard of Speed and Time, released to theaters in 1987 and to video in 1989.
An animated example is the clip from the show "The Simpsons" in which Homer Simpson takes a picture of himself
a day for 39 years, although it is intended to be a comedy, thus not realistic.
When used in motion pictures and on television, fast motion can serve one of several purposes. One popular usage is
for comic effect. A slapstick style comic scene might be played in fast motion with accompanying music. (This form
of special effect was often used in silent film comedies in the early days of the cinema; see also liquid electricity).
Another use of fast motion is to speed up slow segments of a TV program that would otherwise take up too much of
the time allotted a TV show. This allows, for example, a slow scene in a house redecorating show of furniture being
moved around (or replaced with other furniture) to be compressed in a smaller allotment of time while still allowing
the viewer to see what took place.
The opposite of fast motion is slow motion. Cinematographers refer to fast motion as undercranking since it was
originally achieved by cranking a handcranked camera slower than normal. Overcranking produces slow motion
effects.
Time-lapse photography
22
How time-lapse works
Film is often projected at 24 frame/s, meaning 24 images appear on the screen every second. Under normal
circumstances, a film camera will record images at 24 frame/s. Since the projection speed and the recording speed
are the same, the images onscreen appear to move at normal speed.
Even if the film camera is set to record at a slower speed, it will still be projected at 24 frame/s. Thus the image on
screen will appear to move faster.
The change in speed of the onscreen image can be calculated by dividing the projection speed by the camera speed.
So a film recorded at 12 frames per second will appear to move twice as fast. Shooting at camera speeds between 8
and 22 frames per second usually falls into the undercranked fast motion category, with images shot at slower speeds
more closely falling into the realm of time-lapse, although these distinctions of terminology have not been entirely
established in all movie production circles.
The same principles apply to video and other digital photography techniques. However, until very recently, video
cameras have not been capable of recording at variable frame rates.
Time-lapse can be achieved with some normal movie cameras by simply shooting individual frames manually. But
greater accuracy in time-increments and consistency in exposure rates of successive frames are better achieved
through a device that connects to the camera's shutter system (camera design permitting) called an intervalometer.
The intervalometer regulates the motion of the camera according to a specific interval of time between frames.
Today, many consumer grade digital cameras, including even some point-and-shoot cameras have hardware or
freeware intervalometers available. Some intervalometers can be connected to motion control systems that move the
camera on any number of axes as the time-lapse photography is achieved, creating tilts, pans, tracks, and trucking
shots when the movie is played at normal frame rate. Ron Fricke is the primary developer of such systems, which
can be seen in his short film Chronos (1985) and his feature film Baraka (1992, released to video in 2001).
Time-lapse photography
23
Short and long exposure time-lapse
Exposure time in frame interval
As mentioned above, in addition to modifying the
speed of the camera, it is important to consider the
relationship between the frame interval and the
exposure time. This relationship controls the amount of
motion blur present in each frame and is, in principle,
exactly the same as adjusting the shutter angle on a
movie camera. This is known as "dragging the shutter".
A film camera normally records images at twenty four
frames per second. During each 1/24th of a second, the
film is actually exposed to light for roughly half the
time. The rest of the time, it is hidden behind the
shutter. Thus exposure time for motion picture film is
normally calculated to be one 48th of a second (1/48 second, often rounded to 1/50 second). Adjusting the shutter
angle on a film camera (if its design allows), can add or reduce the amount of motion blur by changing the amount of
time that the film frame is actually exposed to light.
Blurring vs. exposure times
In time-lapse photography, the camera
records images at a specific slow
interval such as one frame every thirty
seconds (1/30 frame/s). The shutter
will be open for some portion of that
time. In short exposure time-lapse the
film is exposed to light for a normal
exposure time over an abnormal frame
interval. For example, the camera will
be set up to expose a frame for 1/50th of a second every 30seconds. Such a setup will create the effect of an
extremely tight shutter angle giving the resulting film a stop-animation or claymation quality.
In long exposure time-lapse, the exposure time will approximate the effects of a normal shutter angle. Normally, this
means the exposure time should be half of the frame interval. Thus a 30second frame interval should be
accompanied by a 15second exposure time to simulate a normal shutter. The resulting film will appear smooth.
The exposure time can be calculated based on the desired shutter angle effect and the frame interval with the
equation:
Long exposure time-lapse is less common because it is often difficult to properly expose film at such a long period,
especially in daylight situations. A film frame that is exposed for 15seconds will receive 750 times more light than
its 1/50th of a second counterpart. (Thus it will be more than 9 stops over normal exposure.) A scientific grade
neutral density filter can be used to compensate for the over-exposure.
Time-lapse photography
24
Time-lapse camera movement
Some of the most stunning time-lapse images are created by moving the camera during the shot. A time-lapse
camera can be mounted to a moving car for example to create a notion of extreme speed.
However, to achieve the effect of a simple tracking shot, it is necessary to use motion control to move the camera. A
motion control rig can be set to dolly or pan the camera at a glacially slow pace. When the image is projected it
could appear that the camera is moving at a normal speed while the world around it is in time lapse. This
juxtaposition can greatly heighten the time-lapse illusion.
The speed that the camera must move to create a perceived normal camera motion can be calculated by inverting the
time-lapse equation:
Baraka was one of the first films to use this effect to its extreme. Director and cinematographer Ron Fricke designed
his own motion control equipment that utilized stepper motors to pan, tilt and dolly the camera.
The short film A Year Along the Abandoned Road shows a whole year passing by in Norway's Brfjord at 50,000
times the normal speed in just 12 minutes. The camera was moved, manually, slightly each day, and so the film gives
the viewer the impression of seamlessly travelling around the fjord as the year goes along, each day compressed into
a few seconds.
A panning time-lapse can be easily and inexpensively achieved by using a widely available Equatorial telescope
mount with a Right ascension motor (*360 degree example using this method
[6]
). Two axis pans can be achieved as
well, with contemporary motorized telescope mounts.
A variation of these are rigs that move the camera during exposures of each frame of film, blurring the entire image.
Under controlled conditions, usually with computers carefully making the movements during and between each
frame, some exciting blurred artistic and visual effects can be achieved, especially when the camera is mounted on a
tracking system that enables its own movement through space.
The most classic example of this is the slit-scan opening of the stargate sequence toward the end of Stanley
Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), created by Douglas Trumbull.
Related techniques
Bullet time
Motion control photography
High-dynamic-range (HDR) time-lapse
The most recent development in time-lapse cinematography is the addition of High-dynamic-range imaging
(photographic technique) to time-lapse. One of the first experiments was an 11-second series completed in
un-automated form by Nicholas Phillips
[7]
on July 8, 2006 . Modern time-lapse enthusiasts have started to follow
suit as of May 2007. Ollie Larkin (work
[8]
) and Jay Burlage (work
[9]
) have both shot and processed HDR
time-lapse footage in High definition, with motion control, using digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras. The first
example of this technique in a full length film can be seen in Silicon Valley Timelapse (2008). In 2013, it became
possible to create HDR time-lapse video automatically on the iPhone using the Thalia Lapse HD/R application.
[10]
One method using a DSLR involves bracketing for each frame. Three photographs are taken at separate exposure
values (capturing the three in immediate succession) to produce a group of pictures for each frame representing the
highlights, mid-tones, and shadows. The bracketed groups are consolidated into individual frames (see HDR). Those
frames are then sequenced into video. Time Lapse is also used for travel videoclips where the viewer can experience
a faster traveling speed than the normal one, for example, traveling from Los Angeles to New York in 5 minutes.
Time-lapse photography
25
However, the number of images required to be taken is relatively high. For a 30 fps video of HDR (each frame
tonemapped with 3 images), 5,400 original images (60303) are required for each minute.
Cameras that support time-lapse still image capture with a built-in
intervalometer
Canon P&S (point and shoot) digital cameras with CHDK third party custom script installed onto the memory
card.
GoPro Cameras (HD Hero 3, HD Hero 2, HD Hero, HD Hero 960)
Nikon 1 J1, Nikon 1 V1, Nikon 1 J2, Nikon 1 V2, Nikon 1 J3, Nikon 1 S1
Nikon D200,
[11]
Nikon D300,
[12]
Nikon D300s,
[12]
Nikon D5000, Nikon D5100, Nikon D5200,
[13]
Nikon D7000,
Nikon D7100
Nikon D700,
[12]
Nikon D800, Nikon D800E,
[14]
Nikon D600
Nikon D2H,
[15]
Nikon D2X,
[16]
Nikon D2Xs,
[15]
Nikon D3,
[12]
Nikon D3s,
[12]
Nikon D4
[17]
Olympus SP-560 UZ
[18]
Panasonic Lumix DMC-GH3,
[19]
Panasonic Lumix DMC-LX7
[20]
Pentax Optio 555, and waterproof W series (W10, W20, W60, W90, WG-1, etc.)
Pentax Q, Pentax Q10, Pentax K-01
Pentax K-5,
[21]
Pentax K-5 II, Pentax K-r,
[22]
Pentax K-30
[23]
Ricoh CX, GXR, GR DIGITAL and Caplio series
Cameras that support automatic and autonomous time-lapse video creation
Brinno TLC100,
[24]
Brinno TLC200,
[25]
Brinno TLC200 f1.2,
[26]
Brinno TLC200 Pro
[27]
Brinno Time Lapse Bike Camera BBC100,
[28]
Brinno Time Lapse Construction Camera BCC100
[29]
Nikon D4,
[14]
Nikon D800, Nikon D800E,
[14]
Nikon D600,
[30]
Nikon D5200,
[13]
Nikon D7100
Pentax X-5,
[31]
Pentax K-01, Pentax K-30
Nexus 4
iPhone
[10]
Notes
[2] http:/ / translate. google. co. uk/ translate?hl=en& sl=fr& u=http:/ / www. pasteur. fr/ infosci/ archives/ cdj0. html&
ei=NnokTPKnPNjNjAep4NiNAQ& sa=X& oi=translate& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBkQ7gEwAA& prev=/
search%3Fq%3DJean%2BComandon%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG%26prmd%3Dv
[6] http:/ / www. youtube.com/ watch?v=zhRz5oMhu_c
[7] http:/ / theplaceofdeadroads. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 07/ hdr-time-lapse. html
[8] http:/ / ollielarkin. co. uk/ blog/ lapses-in-light/
[9] http:/ / www. hdrtimelapse. com
[10] http:/ / www. thaliacam.com/ lapse/ ios. html
[11] http:/ / www. kenrockwell. com/ nikon/ d200/ users-guide/ menus-shooting. htm
[12] http:/ / philipbloom.net/ 2010/ 01/ 17/ dslr-timelapses-addictive-frustrating-and-often-rewarding/
[13] Nikon unveils 24.1MP D5200 DSLR with optional Wi-Fi (http:/ / www. dpreview. com/ news/ 2012/ 11/ 06/ nikon-announces-nikon-d5200)
Dpreview
[14] http:/ / neilvn. com/ tangents/ 2012/ 04/ 22/ nikon-d4-nikon-d800-time-lapse-photography-review/
[15] http:/ / www. imaging-resource. com/ PRODS/ D2XS/ D2XSA5. HTM
[16] http:/ / www. bythom. com/ d2xreview. htm
[17] Lapsing With the Nikon D800 (http:/ / duncandavidson. com/ blog/ 2012/ 06/ d800_lapse_test)
[19] http:/ / www. photographyblog. com/ reviews/ panasonic_lumix_dmc_gh3_review/
[20] http:/ / www. photographyblog. com/ reviews/ panasonic_lumix_dmc_lx7_review
[21] http:/ / www. pentax. jp/ english/ support/ man-pdf/ k-5. pdf
[22] http:/ / www. pentax. jp/ english/ support/ man-pdf/ k-r. pdf
Time-lapse photography
26
[23] http:/ / blog.neocamera. com/ pentax-k-30-makes-pro-features-more-affordable-than-ever/
[24] http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ TLC100. html
[25] http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ TLC200. html
[26] http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ TLC200f1. 2. html
[27] [27] The world's 1st instant HDR time lapse video camera:
http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ TLC200pro. html
[28] http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ bike-camera. html
[29] http:/ / www. brinno. com/ html/ construction-camera.html
[30] http:/ / www. techradar.com/ news/ photography-video-capture/ cameras/ nikon-d600-announced-1096672
[31] http:/ / www. pentax. jp/ english/ support/ man-pdf/ x-5. pdf
References
ICP Library of Photographers. Roman Vishniac. Grossman Publishers, New York. 1974.
Roman Vishniac. Current Biography (1967).
My Ivory Cellar John Ott. (1958)
"Health and Light" John Ott. (1979)
Exploring the Spectrum John Ott. (1973, 2008) DVD-film version available since 2008. http:/ / www. amazon.
com/ Exploring-Spectrum-Effects-Artificial-Organisms/ dp/ B0015I0HKO
External links
HD Construction time lapse movies (http:/ / www. vimeo. com/ panterratv)
A collection of 55 timelapse video clips from the BBC natural history archive (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ nature/
collections/ p0085nk0)
BBC Time lapse photography tutorial (http:/ / timothyallen. blogs. bbcearth. com/ 2009/ 02/ 24/
time-lapse-photography/ )
Time Lapse using mobile devices (http:/ / www. lapseit. com)
Time-lapse Photography (http:/ / watch. opb. org/ video/ 2288686259) Documentary produced by Oregon Field
Guide
Beginner Guide To Time-Lapse With an Intervalometer & DSLR (http:/ / www. fastforwardtime. co. uk/
time-lapse-guide)
Candle timelapse video (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=1VtDpPxwQsU)
Panoramic photography
27
Panoramic photography
Panoramic photography is a technique of photography, using specialized equipment or software, that captures
images with elongated fields of view. It is sometimes known as wide format photography. The term has also been
applied to a photograph that is cropped to a relatively wide aspect ratio. While there is no formal division between
"wide-angle" and "panoramic" photography, "wide-angle" normally refers to a type of lens, but using this lens type
does not necessarily make an image a panorama. An image made with an ultra wide-angle fisheye lens covering the
normal film frame of 1:1.33 is not automatically considered to be a panorama. An image showing a field of view
approximating, or greater than, that of the human eye about 160 by 75 may be termed panoramic. This
generally means it has an aspect ratio of 2:1 or larger, the image being at least twice as wide as it is high. The
resulting images take the form of a wide strip. Some panoramic images have aspect ratios of 4:1 and sometimes 10:1,
covering fields of view of up to 360 degrees. Both the aspect ratio and coverage of field are important factors in
defining a true panoramic image.
A panorama of Sydney featuring (from left) the Sydney Opera House, the central
business district skyline, and the Sydney Harbour Bridge.
Photo-finishers and manufacturers of Advanced Photo System (APS) cameras use the word "panoramic" to define
any print format with a wide aspect ratio, not necessarily photos that encompass a large field of view. In fact, a
typical APS camera in its panoramic mode, where its zoom lens is at its shortest focal length of around 24mm, has a
field of view of only 65, which many photographersWikipedia:Avoid weasel words would only classify as
wide-angle, not panoramic.
[citation needed]
History
One of the first recorded patents for a panoramic camera was submitted by Joseph Puchberger in Austria in 1843 for
a hand-cranked, 150 field of view, 8-inch focal length camera that exposed a relatively large Daguerreotype, up to
24 inches (610mm) long. A more successful and technically superior panoramic camera was assembled the next
year by Friedrich von Martens in Germany in 1844. His camera, the Megaskop, added the crucial feature of set gears
which offered a relatively steady panning speed. As a result, the camera properly exposed the photographic plate,
avoiding unsteady speeds that can create an unevenness in exposure, called banding. Martens was employed by
Lerebours, a photographer/publisher. It is also possible that Martens camera was perfected before Puchberger
patented his camera. Because of the high cost of materials and the technical difficulty of properly exposing the
plates, Daguerreotype panoramas, especially those pieced together from several plates (see below) are rare.
[citation
needed]
An 1851 panoramic showing San Francisco from Rincon Hill by photographer Martin Behrmanx. It is believed that the panorama initially had eleven
plates, but the original daguerreotypes no longer exist.
Panoramic photography
28
After the advent of wet-plate collodion process, photographers would take anywhere from two to a dozen of the
ensuing albumen prints and piece them together to form a panoramic image (see: Segmented). This photographic
process was technically easier and far less expensive than Daguerreotypes. Some of the most famous early
panoramas were assembled this way by George N. Barnard, a photographer for the Union Army in the American
Civil War in the 1860s. His work provided vast overviews of fortifications and terrain, much valued by engineers,
generals, and artists alike. (see Photography and photographers of the American Civil War)
[citation needed]
Following the invention of flexible film in 1888, panoramic photography was revolutionised. Dozens of cameras
were marketed, many with brand names heavily indicative of their time. Cameras such as the Cylindrograph,
Wonder Panoramic, Pantascopic and Cyclo-Pan, are some examples of panoramic cameras.
[citation needed]
View from the top of Lookout Mountain, Tennessee, Albumen prints, February, 1864, by George N. Barnard
Center City Philadelphia panorama, from 1913.
In the 1970s and 1980s, a school of art photographers took up panoramic photography, inventing new cameras and
using found and updated antique cameras to revive the format. The new panoramists included Kenneth Snelson,
David Avison, Art Sinsabaugh, and Jim Alinder.
[1]
Panoramic cameras and methods
Short rotation
A 1900 advertisement for a short rotation panoramic camera
Short rotation, rotating lens and swing lens
cameras have a lens that rotates around the
camera's rear nodal point and use a curved
film plane.
[]
As the photograph is taken, the
lens pivots around its nodal point while a slit
exposes a vertical strip of film that is
aligned with the axis of the lens. The
exposure usually takes a fraction of a
Panoramic photography
29
second. Typically, these cameras capture a field of view between 110 to 140 and an aspect ratio of 2:1 to 4:1. The
images produced occupy between 1.5 and 3 times as much space on the negative as the standard 24mm x 36mm 35
mm frame.
Cameras of this type include the Widelux, Noblex, and the Horizon. These have a negative size of approximately
24x58 mm. The Russian "Spaceview FT-2", originally an artillery spotting camera, produced wider negatives, 12
exposures on a 36-exposure 35mm film.
A negative from a 35 mm swing lens camera
Short rotation cameras usually offer few shutter speeds and have poor
focusing ability. Most models have a fixed focus lens, set to the
hyperfocal distance of the maximum aperture of the lens, often at
around 10 meters (30ft). Photographers wishing to photograph closer
subjects must use a small aperture to bring the foreground into focus,
limiting the camera's use in low-light situations.
The distortion of architectural subjects is severe when using a
rotating lens camera
Rotating lens cameras produce distortion of straight
lines. This looks unusual because the image, which was
captured from a sweeping, curved perspective, is being
viewed flat. To view the image correctly, the viewer
would have to produce a sufficiently large print and
curve it identically to the curve of the film plane. This
distortion can be reduced by using a swing-lens camera
with a standard focal length lens. The FT-2 has a
50mm while most other 35mm swing lens cameras
use a wide-angle lens, often 28mm].
[citation needed]
Short rotation of Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive made with a Sony
Cyber-shot, showing that faults can get the panoramic picture when objects are in
fast motion during image capture. Some accessories can be used to prevent this
type of failure.
When objects are in fast motion during
image capture, some faults can happen in
single machines. In this case, some
accessories can be used to prevent this kind
of failure happen.
Full rotation
360-degree panoramic projection of the VLT
survey telescope.
[2]
Rotating panoramic cameras, also called slit scan or scanning cameras
are capable of 360 or greater degree of rotation. A clockwork or
motorized mechanism rotates the camera continuously and pulls the
film through the camera, so the motion of the film matches that of the
image movement across the image plane. Exposure is made through a
narrow slit. The central part of the image field produces a very sharp
picture that is consistent across the frame.
[citation needed]
Panoramic photography
30
Digital rotating line cameras image a 360 panorama line by line. The camera's linear sensor has 10,000 CCD
elements. Digital cameras in this style are the Panoscan and Eyescan. Analogue cameras include the Cirkut,
Hulcherama, Leme, Roundshot and Globuscope.
Fixed lens
Fixed lens cameras, also called flatback, wide view or wide field, have fixed lenses and a flat image plane. These are
the most common form of panoramic camera and range from inexpensive APS cameras to sophisticated 6x17 cm and
6x24 cm medium format cameras. Panoramic cameras using sheet film are available in formats up to 10x24 inches.
APS or 35mm cameras produce cropped images in a panoramic aspect ratio using a small area of film. Advanced
35mm or medium format fixed-lens panoramic cameras use the full height of the film and produce images with a
greater image width than normal.
[citation needed]
Because they expose the film in a single exposure, fixed lens cameras can be used with electronic flash, which would
not work consistently with rotational panoramic cameras.
With a flat image plane, 90 is the widest field of view that can be captured in focus and without significant
wide-angle distortion or vignetting. Lenses with an imaging angle approaching 120 degrees require a center filter to
correct vignetting at the edges of the image. Lenses that capture angles of up to 180, commonly known as fisheye
lenses exhibit extreme geometrical distortion but typically display less brightness falloff than rectilinear
lenses.
[citation needed]
Examples of this type of camera are: Hasselblad X-Pan (35mm), Linhof 612PC, Horseman SW612, Linhof
Technorama 617, Tomiyama Art Panorama 617 and 624, and Fuji G617 and GX617 (Medium format (film)).
The panomorph lens provides a full hemispheric field of view with no blind spot, unlike catadioptric lenses.
[citation
needed]
Segmented
Example of a segmented panorama. Taken with a Nikon Coolpix 5000 and stitched with PTgui.
Segmented panoramas, also called stitched panoramas, are made by joining multiple photographs with slightly
overlapping fields of view to create a panoramic image. Stitching software is used to combine multiple images. In
order to correctly stitch images together without parallax error, the camera must be rotated about the center of its
entrance pupil.
[][3][4]
Some digital cameras can do the stitching internally, either as a standard feature or by installing
a smartphone app.
Panoramic photography
31
Upper Falls on the Genesee River, downtown Rochester, New York. Taken with a Sony A700. 2 rows of 5 images per row, stitched as a mosaic using
PTGui.
The Giza Pyramids in Cairo, Egypt
Catadioptric cameras
Lens and mirror based (catadioptric) cameras consist of lenses and curved mirrors that reflect a 360 degree field of
view into the lens' optics. The mirror shape and lens used are specifically chosen and arranged so that the camera
maintains a single viewpoint. The single viewpoint means the complete panorama is effectively imaged or viewed
from a single point in space. One can simply warp the acquired image into a cylindrical or spherical panorama. Even
perspective views of smaller fields of view can be accurately computed.
The biggest advantage of catadioptric systems is that because one uses mirrors to bend the light rays instead of lenses
(like fish eye), the image has almost no chromatic aberrations or distortions. Because the complete panorama is
imaged at once, dynamic scenes can be captured without problems. Panoramic video can be captured and has found
applications in robotics and journalism.
[citation needed]
There are even inexpensive add-on catadioptric lenses for
smartphones, such as the GoPano micro and Kogeto Dot.
A panoramic photograph of the Camp Nou stadium, Barcelona in January 2011
Panoramic photography
32
3D Panorama
Some cameras offer 3D features that can be applied when taking panoramic photographs. The technology enables the
camera to take shots from different angles and combine them, creating a multidimensional effect. Some cameras use
two different lenses to achieve the 3D effect, while others use one. Cameras such as Samsung NX1000,
[5]
and Sony
Cyber-shot DSC-RX1
[6]
offer the 3D Panorama mode.
References
[1] http:/ / www. kennethsnelson.net/ articles/ camera_arts_charles_hagen. htm
[4] [4] Item #6.
Further reading
Johnson, R. Barry (2008). "Correctly making panoramic imagery and the meaning of optical center". SPIE Proc.
7060: 70600F.170600F.8. ISSN 0277-786X (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0277-786X). OCLC 278726950
(http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 278726950).
External links
Panoramic/360 photography techniques and styles (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Photography/
Techniques_and_Styles/ Panoramic_and_360/ ) at the Open Directory Project
Panoramic image galleries (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Recreation/ Travel/ Image_Galleries/ Panoramic/ / ) at the
Open Directory Project
A timeline of panoramic cameras 18431994 (http:/ / www. panoramicphoto. com/ timeline. htm)
Stanford University CS 178 interactive Flash demo (http:/ / graphics. stanford. edu/ courses/ cs178/ applets/
projection. html) explaining the construction of cylindrical panoramas.
How to build a panoramic camera (http:/ / www. funsci. com/ fun3_en/ panoram2/ pan2_en. htm) with intricate
technical details and optical specifications for constructing a swing-lens panoramic camera.
A home-made panoramic head bracket for taking panoramic photographs. (http:/ / www. peterloud. co. uk/
nodalsamurai/ nodalsamurai. html)
IVRPA (http:/ / ivrpa. org/ ) - The International VR Photography Association
Cross processing
34
Processes
Cross processing usually involves one of the two following methods.
Processing positive color reversal film in C-41 chemicals, resulting in a negative image on a colorless base.
Processing negative color print film in E-6 chemicals, resulting in a positive image but with the orange base of a
normally processed color negative.
However, cross processing can take other forms, such as negative color print film or positive color reversal film in
black and white developer.
Other interesting effects can be obtained by bleaching color films processed in black and white chemistry using a
hydrochloric acid dichromate mixture or using potassium triiodide (KI
3
) solution. If these bleached films are then
re-exposed to light and re-processed in their intended color chemistry, subtle, relatively low contrast, pastel effects
are obtained.
[1]
Cross processing effects can be simulated in digital photography by a number of techniques involving the
manipulation of contrast/brightness, hue/saturation and curves in image editors such as Adobe Photoshop or GIMP.
However, these digital tools lack the unpredictable nature of regular cross processed images.
References
External links
Cross processing in Gimp tutorial (http:/ / www. gimpforphotos. com/ tutorial-intermediate/ cross-processing.
html)
Tilted plane focus
"Tilted plane photography" is a method of employing focus as a descriptive, narrative or symbolic artistic device.
It is distinct from the more simple uses of selective focus which highlight or emphasise a single point in an image,
create an atmospheric bokeh, or miniaturise an obliquely-viewed landscape. In this method the photographer is
consciously using the camera to focus on several points in the image at once while de-focussing others, thus making
conceptual connections between these points.
Limits to focus in imaging
Focus is relative to spatial depth. Selective focus in photography is usually associated with depth of field. A pinhole
camera generates an image of infinite relative focus, from a point just outside the camera opening out to infinity.
Lenses focus more selectively so that, for objects near the lens, the distance between lens and sensor or film is
increased and is shortened for more distant objects, to a point beyond which all is in focus. In telephoto lenses this
point may be tens or hundreds of metres from the camera. Wide-angle lenses distinguish differences in depth only up
to a short distance, beyond which all is in focus.
Tilted plane focus
35
Depth of field
Depth of field is an effect that permits bringing objects into focus at varying distances from the camera, and at
varying depth between each other, into the field of view. A short lens, as explained above, will bring objects into
focus that are relatively close to the camera, but it will also keep focus at greater distances between objects. A
telephoto lens will be very shallow in its gamut of focus.
Reducing the size of the aperture of the lens deepens the focus. At a pinhole size this will increase in effect, though
the closer the objects are to the camera, the shorter the distance between focussed objects.
Plane of focus
Because focus depends on the distance between lens and the sensor or film plane, focus in the space in front of the
camera is not on a point but rather on a plane parallel to the film plane.
[1]
Spherical construction of lenses, rather
than the ideal parabolic construction which is rarely and expensively achieved, means that this plane is slightly
concavemore so in simple single element lenses and increasingly so with lenses of lower quality construction and
materials. Compound lenses are built to correct this "spherical aberration" or "curvature of field".
Example of tilted plane focus: here used for
emphasis and metaphor, a 135mm lens at full
aperture (f3.5) with extreme tilt and swing
permits focus on specific details such as the
foreground sack and slaughtered dingoes through
to a section of the tennis-court mesh and the
distant tethered goat. Shot on a 1963 Linhof
Technica III 4"x 5" drop-bed field camera.
("Accomplices" 1994 James McArdle).
Tilting the plane of focus
Varying the distance between the lens and sensor or film plane across
the field of view permits focussing on objects at varying distances from
the camera. One means of achieving this is to tilt the lens and/or the
sensor or film plane in relation to each other. This will mean that
individual points in the picture plane will focus on different points of
depth, with the effect that the plane of sharp focus will tilt.
This technique is based on the principle of Scheimpflug which,
traditionally, is combined with small aperture to increase the gamut of
focus beyond that achievable by depth of field alone. Usually no
out-of-focus artifacts are desired in the image resulting from
Scheimpflug adjustments. Here the converse is true. With the lens at
full aperture, the photographer selects points in depth in the scene on
which to focus and throws other points out-of-focus. This increases the
contrast between the sharp and blurred areas and the selected
application of focus and blur remains apparent to the viewer.
Tilted plane focus on smaller formats
A view camera permits full, incrementally calibrated control over this technique, though it is possible to achieve with
other cameras and formats. It is possible to achieve similar effects on a 35mm camera or digital single-lens reflex
camera (DSLR). The lens (preferably a long lens of around 80mm) of a manual single-lens reflex camera (SLR) is
set to infinity and shutter speed is set for the correct exposure at the widest aperture. Then the lens is removed and
held against the lens mount opening and tilted. It is possible to see the tilted plane effect through the viewfinder.
Despite the fact that the lens is separated from the camera body, there is little flare or fogging, and this can be
avoided by placing a foam rubber 'donut' between the lens and camera body. Using a lens made for a medium-format
camera will provide wider coverage, and therefore more scope for tilting the lens still further off-axis, with a
capacity to focus closer and less likelihood of flare and light leaks, as the back of the lens will in most cases be larger
than the lens mount.
Tilted plane focus
36
A commercial option is the Lensbaby, although it does not permit the same degree of manipulation of the lens to
off-axis positions or tilts required for the technique. A better but more expensive option is to use tilt/shift lenses (e.g.
Canon 24mm TS-E).
History
"Prayer and Praise" Julia Margaret Cameron,
British, Freshwater, Isle of Wight, 1865.
Albumen print 11 1/16 x 8 15/16 in. Note that the
camera in this instance is tilted down toward the
scene from a point above the subjects' heads. It is
this angle which has forced the plane of focus
obliquely into the scene, and direction of the
adult models by the photographer would be
necessary to ensure focus where it is placed
precisely on their eyes
Julia Margaret Cameron was a strong advocate of this use of selective
focus. For example in "Prayer and Praise", produced in 1865, there is a
deliberate placement of focus at more than three points: on the face and
parts of the body of the foreground child; and faces of mother and
father; while a second child's face is thrown radically out of
focus.
[2]
</ref>
References
Notes
[1] Faris-Belt, A. "The Elements of Photography: Understanding and Creating
Sophisticated Images". Focal Press, 2008. ISBN 0-240-80942-4, ISBN
978-0-240-80942-7 extract (http:/ / books. google. com. au/
books?id=ay8Jp1VWVVwC& pg=PA120& dq=tilted+ "plane+ of+ focus"& hl=en&
ei=vEWvS6uPHMGTkAWvp93FDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=1& ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=tilted "plane of focus"& f=false)
[2] "Moreover, effects of photographic focus are very much at play in Prayer and Praise,
and they help to mount a phenomenological proof of the truth of the enacted scene. It
is in the flesh of the baby, pressed to the photograph's surface, that the range from
out-offocus to in-sharp-focus is most insistently displayed: note the hands and
blurred upper line of the torso in contrast to the neck and underarm creases, the
child's rounded facial features, somehow both blurred and distinct, and the punctal
effect of the bit of hair. Thus the child's body serves to embody the photographic
action of bringing into being, as well as the optical properties of the lens-and thereby
serves simultaneously to embody the incorporeal means of the photograph and its
own fleshy, somatic corporeality, as well as the oscillation between the two. The
qualities of focus also serve to enhance another property of the medium: that of light, and the contrast between light and dark. Again that
contrast is condensed in the corporeality/incorporeality of the child's body, and in the meeting between mother and child: her dark drapery and
light hand, and his light body."<ref name=Armscup>Armstrong, 'C. Cupid's Pencil of Light: Julia Margaret Cameron and the Maternalization
of Photography'. In "October", Vol. 76 (Spring, 1996), pp. 114-141. The MIT Press
Citations
Bibliography
Robin Gower (1991) Professional Photography, Australia, October, p.15
Greg Neville (1990) 'A World of Fragments and Isolated Parts', The Age Melbourne, 9 August 1990, p.14
Glenda Thompson (1990) 'The Bulletin/Mumm Cordon Rouge Champagne Photographic Awards', The Bulletin,
Sydney, 6 November, p.94-98
Harris shutter
37
Harris shutter
The Harris shutter is a strip device with three color filters, invented by Robert S. "Bob" Harris of Kodak, for
making color photographs with the different primary color layers exposed in separate time intervals in
succession.
[1][2]
The term Harris shutter is also applied to the technique or effect.
The effect is produced by re-exposing the same frame of film through red, green and blue filters in turn, while
keeping the camera steady. This will generate a rainbow of colour around any object that moves within the frame.
Some good candidates for subjects include waterfalls (pictured, left), clouds blowing over a landscape or people
walking across a busy town square.
Traditionally, the technique is either achieved using a camera that allows in-register multiple exposures, and
changing filters on the front of the lens. Another alternative was to make a drop through filter that consisted of the
three coloured gels and two opaque sections that is literally dropped through a filter holder during exposure.
With the advent of digital photography, the process has become a lot simpler the photographer can simply take
three colour photographs on location, and then use software to take the Red channel from one exposure, combine
with the blue and green channels from the other two photos to good effect this even allows for correction of
movement if the camera is inadvertently moved between exposures.
[3]
Another advantage of digital processing is that
different results can be obtained by re-assigning the RGB channel of each layer.
Rushing water
captured with
Harris shutter
Waterfall
demonstrating
the Harris
shutter
technique
Example with large scale
movement of elements
(produced from 3 digital
colour images)
Example using a driving truck
References
External links
Shutterbug (http:/ / shutterbug. com/ refreshercourse/ lens_tips/ 101/ index2. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
38
Article Sources and Contributors
Bokeh Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=563647233 Contributors: 2012rc, ASK, Acroterion, Adoniscik, Al Fecund, Allanc, Andrewburdett, Andy Jones, Ashkenazzi,
Autopilot, Baffle gab1978, BenFrantzDale, Bensin, Berylcloud, BillyPreset, Bjdehut, Brighterorange, Carlossuarez46, Carnildo, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Chtfn, Cmglee, Cojoco,
Connelly, Cormaggio, Coughinink, DaMavster, Dan aka jack, Daniel Flather, Davidaelliott, Davidhorman, Deflective, Deon, Dicebourbon, Dicklyon, Discpad, Dmmaus, Dominique R, Doviende,
Dr.K., Dumbo HR, Durova, Dysprosia, Ed g2s, Eequor, Egil, Ehn, Enochlau, Ericd, Fabricator4, Filu, Fir0002, Fireworks, Foobaz, Fraggle81, Fukumoto, Furrykef, Fuzheado, GMacE,
Genotypewriter, Girolamo Savonarola, Glimz, Gmaxwell, Guyburns, H, Hellbus, Heron, Hooperbloob, Horaczko, Hugh2414, Hugowolf, Hustvedt, I do not exist, Imohano, Imroy, Interiot,
InverseHypercube, Iridium77, JWCreations, Janggeom, Jogloran, Johann3s, Jone, Julieahn08140, Kjkrum, Kusunose, Kwamikagami, Kwenchin, Kyle Schmidt, Laitche, Landrumkelly, Laug,
Lawrencekhoo, Legalbadger, LordAmeth, Lotje, LuoShengli, MER-C, MHuyck, Ma Baker, Mactographer, Mark Foskey, Martin Kraus, Mattdm, Matthiaspaul, Mattisse, Mattu.sandhu.sibia,
Maximus Rex, Mellery, Mindmatrix, Mortense, Morven, Nbarth, Newone, Nicopriest, Ninly, NordicTurtle, Oda Mari, OlavN, Olegivvit, Olivier200, Orange32, Ost316, Pearle, PetroleumJelliffe,
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Sdason, Seaphoto, Seor Service, Shell Kinney, Siebrand, Skarebo, Smial, Someguy1221, Spacecat2, Spencer313@yahoo.com, Srleffler, StTheo, Starwiz, Stybn, TangoFett, Tbhotch, Teslacuted,
Th1rt3en, The wub, TheMindsEye, Thegreenj, TimBray, Trovatore, Ubub92, Ukt-zero, Ulmanor, Valerius Tygart, Vitz-RS, Walvis, WilliamSommerwerck, Woohookitty, XJaM, Y2kcrazyjoker4,
YuriSanCa, Yurik, Zachlipton, Zarek, Zilledefeu, , 148 anonymous edits
Macro photography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=567023038 Contributors: $01734071290912$, 7, Aashish.59, Abrahami, Acceptable, Adamrice, Alanbrowne, AlixW,
Alvesgaspar, Amberroom, Amethystus, Aminyllah, Andrewa, Angerdan, AnonyGnome, AntOnTrack, Arielasteif, Arpingstone, Atulsnischal, Awm, Axilera, Az7997, B137, B2photographs,
Badon, BenFrantzDale, Bernopedia, Bidiot, BigBen212, Bigbluefish, BjKa, Blue Marble, Bookworming, BuBZ, Celuici, Chic happens, Chris Pine, Chzz, Circeus, Cogiati, ComputerHotline,
Craigboy, Crazymapleleaf, Cyclonenim, D-Rock, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DSiegfried, Dale Arnett, DanieleProcida, Dawidl, Dejvid, DerGolgo, Dicklyon, Digitalmoron, Diliff, Discospinster,
Dougofborg, Dschwen, Ed g2s, Edvvc, Ekabhishek, Emil76, Epbr123, EricPaynter, Erniehatt, Excirial, Fg2, Fgcurtis, Filu, Finlay McWalter, Fir0002, Flash19901, ForrestCroce, Fountains of
Bryn Mawr, Frander, Fredkamphues, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Gimlei, Graceofrox, Gsarwa, Guy Van Hooveld, H, Haakon, Hacksawbob, Helmut Schtz, Hooperbloob, Howcheng,
IanBailey, Immunize, Imohano, Imroy, Imv, Isis4563, Jamoche, Jason Quinn, Jaspinall, Jaymargolis, Jeffmedkeff, Jenoptik, JerryFriedman, Jethrothompson, Jhkauf, Jim77742, Jlencion,
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Hardy, Mindmatrix, Misterx2000, MrOllie, Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Mumiemonstret, Musiphil, Namzie11, Naturphoto, Nburden, NeotonicDragon3, NikOly, Niksilver, Nokia ST, NrDg,
Nv8200p, Nyttend, Ohnoitsjamie, Oxymoron83, Paintman, Pathaugen, Peterlewis, Pf soycd, Philip Trueman, Pinethicket, Pol098, Qazwsx13, Rama, Rd232, Red, Rich Farmbrough,
RikLittlefield, Rjwilmsi, Robertppt, Rockfang, Rror, SKPhoton, Sander123, Sango123, Sbn1984, Scarian, Sciurin, SharQ, Shawnc, Signalhead, Simplymono, Skarebo, Skirtley, Smial, Smyth,
Solah, Solipsist, Some jerk on the Internet, Sormus, Soumyasch, Speed8ump, Spiff, Splette, Srleffler, Steroid Maximus, Stimpy, Stover98074, StudioLoft, Stybn, Sujit kumar, Sylvain Bui, T
Long, Tagremover, Tamasflex, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The JPS, The Utahraptor, The wub, TheMandarin, TheMindsEye, Thegreenj, Thelittlegreyman, Thereyoflite, Titodutta, TobiasK,
Tommy2010, Tomwins76, Tricajus, TuomTuo, Tyw7, Uncle Dick, WarthogDemon, Wikieditor06, WikipedianMarlith, Y6y6y6, Ycdkwm, Yerpo, Yousif keasou, Z10x, Zelmerszoetrop, 262
anonymous edits
Fill flash Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=541120550 Contributors: Alansohn, BenFrantzDale, Cherry blossom tree, DavidDouthitt, Dom De Felice, Fang Aili, Gsarwa,
Hbdragon88, Hooperbloob, Jacobolus, Johnteslade, Ksempac, Nbarth, Nyttend, Ocaasi, Rigadoun, Shanel, Vuelhering, Ycdkwm, , 11 anonymous edits
Light painting Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=561993842 Contributors: AThing, Aashish.59, Akustikbasti, AlexandreRangel, Andy Smith, Anelsonbones, ArcadiaVideo,
Archijack, Atomicvelvetsigh, Auroracrowley, BD2412, Billinghurst, Billyfishzwei, Camerafiend, ChrisGualtieri, Ckatz, Clook, Clubmarx, CommonsDelinker, Cosmokid8, Csloomis, Deor,
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Leearmlene, Lightmouse, Lightpainting-Forum, Lucafoto, Luigonzle, Mandarax, Mbosanko, Mikhail Churkin, Mindmatrix, Morganfw, Mr Photon, Mr Poortom, Mrnerd1billion, Myrabella,
Nbarth, Noyolcont, PokeYourHeadOff, Port23user, Pthurgood, QuiteUnusual, Rfkphoto, Rjwilmsi, Rror, Sdkstudios, Sebbarre, Sehrbaz, Skrapion, Slepukhin, Snigbrook, Some jerk on the
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Waheedwasi, Wenrolland, Wikipelli, Wirehead, Xyzzyplugh, Yurin8or, 125 anonymous edits
Panning (camera) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565283556 Contributors: A8UDI, Alvesgaspar, Amigadave, Andonic, AngMo, AngMoKio, Candyman777, Dicklyon,
DocWatson42, ESCapade, Erichaines, Fir0002, Fotoitz, Girolamo Savonarola, Hooperbloob, InverseHypercube, Isorhythmic, JnRouvignac, JordoCo, Julian Herzog, Kadellar, Kjetil r, Kollision,
Lee2008, Lightmouse, Manamarak, Martarius, Mike Payne, Myrabella, Nbarth, Okanu Lacoy, Parsecboy, Pengo, Pokipsy76, Qkowlew, Rwalker, Samkass, The High Fin Sperm Whale,
Thegreenj, XenonEngine, Yrtunes, , 34 anonymous edits
Star trail Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=565668215 Contributors: Allen3, Astrocog, Jmencisom, John of Reading, Martarius, Neelix, NitPicker769, O'Dea
Time-lapse photography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568397572 Contributors: 16@r, AJRG, Ahpook, Antipoietes, Anttonij, Bamboolemur, BartBenjamin, Bbalasub,
Bdiscoe, Bernardissimo, Bhdrhntbk, Bilby, Bobblewik, Bozoid, Brandspank, Bunthorne, CONANIM, Caddymob, Cburnett, Ceyhanburak, Chris 42, Chris the speller, ChrisLawson, Ckatz,
Cmdrjameson, Cmglee, Cogiati, DadaNeem, David Latapie, Demeo@mind.net, Derivadow, Dicklyon, Duncancumming, Dysprosia, Eastlaw, Ecksemmess, Emurphy42, Energman, EryZ, Farski,
Fish and karate, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Framegrabberdan, Frank Gosebruch, FreedomSeven, Frozen4322, Gaius Cornelius, Galvanist, Garychou1980, GeeJo, Ggreybeard, Girolamo
Savonarola, Gsarwa, Guanaco55, Haeinous, Helpsome, Hu12, I8bozo, Itu, Ixfd64, Jamengr, James.Denholm, JeremyA, JhanCRUSH, Jmencisom, Johnstone2000, Katana, Krisholmes, Ksempac,
LRT505, LWizards, Luis Caldevilla, Mahanga, MakeRocketGoNow, Mark Arsten, Marshcmb, Maslisko, Mboverload, McGeddon, Mgl linares, Mikmekmok, Modemac, Momo san, Nathanc78,
Nethawk, Nickfankhauser, Nikkimaria, Nikosguard, Nuno Tavares, Pbroks13, Petro111, Petru Dimitriu, Plowboylifestyle, Prsephone1674, Qkowlew, Qutezuce, RandolphRoanoke,
Rcsprinter123, Reify-tech, Rich Farmbrough, RickK, Rsanchezsaez, Salish88, Samsara, Schizodelight, Seaphoto, Seishirou Sakurazuka, Sesamevoila, Shoeshirt, Slokunshialgo, Smalljim,
Sneakygreek, SoHome, Solipsist, SteinbDJ, SteveCrook, Stj6, Tagremover, Timelapse org, Timelapse.com, Tomwsulcer, Tpodr, Tyrenius, Unixplumber, Upshot, Vegpuff, Wavelength, William
Avery, Wilson44691, Wjh31, Woohookitty, Xb2u7Zjzc32, XtUProductions, YoungKeely, Zbxgscqf, , 223 anonymous edits
Panoramic photography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=569519462 Contributors: 360spin, ABF, Akinoame, Alain.marchildon, Albany NY, Alexclassics,
AlistairMcMillan, Anaxial, Andrevruas, Anoldtreeok, Anton017, Aquilina, Arielgm, Art LaPella, Ascorbic, BAxelrod, Baffle gab1978, Barek, Bazonka, Bcwhite, Bento00, Bethmenzies, Bjenks,
Bkalafut, Bobanny, Bobbyshiwo, Bodnotbod, Bosna Sarajevo, Brambleclawx, Cambridgeincolour, Catnipping, Celuici, Charlespeifer, Chillum, Chuq, Cirkut8, Clngre, Colonies Chris, Cooperin,
Creamaster, Cxixer, DJfoto, Damiens.rf, David H Braun (1964), Delengar, Deli nk, Dennis Kwaria, Dicklyon, Diliff, DocWatson42, Download, Dpbsmith, DrSlony, DuncanHill, Ebraminio,
Einemnet, Eionm, Electricsheepdog, Eloquence, Europanorama, Focusredsea, Foogus, Fotodudenz, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Frosted14, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Gaius Cornelius, GameKeeper,
Gaspa35, Glacialfox, GraemeL, Grant-o, GreatWhiteNortherner, Gringer, Gruyer, Gs1060rs, Gsarwa, Guthrun, Helloari, Hoary, Hooperbloob, Ian Pitchford, Imroy, InvictaHOG, Irresisti, Jackie,
JamesBWatson, Janke, Janus8463, Jawed, Jgritz, Jim.henderson, Jimmoorephoto, Jmencisom, John Spikowski, Johnpseudo, Johnvrooyen, JossDude, Jp498, Jpbowen, Jsimpson1100, JustAGal,
Karimsaad, KeepJev, KhmerLit, Kostmo, Kubikuk, L Kensington, Lightmouse, Lizstephens, Luciater, MER-C, Mackenzie42, Mactographer, Magnus Manske, MarcLevoy, Marcok, Martarius,
MattWright, Mean as custard, Menschenfresser, Mgora1, Micheletb, Mikefar, MisfitToys, Miskatonic, Mononomic, Monterey Bay, Mordani, Mr Rhys, Mr Smiley, Mumiemonstret, Nathan
Johnson, Nbarth, Newdv, NickW557, Nikthestunned, Of, Oicumayberight, Okseduard, Panograph, Panoramikz, Pelex, Penyulap, PhotoDocumentalist, PoccilScript, Quadell, Qutezuce, RA0808,
RHaworth, Rahul.swaminathan, Ralf Roletschek, Rikipedia8, Riyonosuke, Robert1947, Roguegeek, Roycruse, Roypea, Rror, SarahStierch, Sarregouset, SchreiberBike, Shibui44, Singularity42,
Sohollywood, Sole Soul, Solipsist, Srleffler, Stalagmite, Starwiz, Stas1995, Steeev, Styles66, Taosupremo, Tedder, That Guy, From That Show!, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That
Should Not Be, TheMindsEye, Thebassman, ThomazWMHarrell, Tonimathias, Tony Wills, Topory, Toto-tarou, Triplestop, Tripper44, Truth2244, Valternet, Virtualtour, Vrphotographer, Waldir,
Wangi, Wavelength, Werratal, WikHead, Witchcrafts, Woohookitty, Wuz, XJaM, YorkshirePuddingLunch, Zalunardo8, ZimZalaBim, , 238 anonymous edits
Cross processing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=567922743 Contributors: A876, ABCD, Abdull, Ajuk, Amycaek, Brain, Brienapplegate, Calrion, Cheesegirl, Danlovatt,
Dazp1970, Enquire, Fortdj33, Frazzydee, Girolamo Savonarola, Hbdragon88, Herlordship, Hooperbloob, I-boy, Imroy, Jackspub, Kid-A, Kodama, Kri, Kriskrug, KudzuVine, Loker, Lopifalko,
Mactographer, MadmanNova, Melaen, Mr Stephen, Oolong, OwenBlacker, Quibik, Rannphirt anaithnid, Rapido, Rdfr, Rkarlsba, RodC, Sardanaphalus, Sherool, Slowbro, SteveHopson,
Talu42, TheMindsEye, Tide rolls, Toresbe, Triona, VMS Mosaic, Velella, WalrusMan118, William Allen Simpson, Wongchingku, Wongm, Ynhockey, 83 anonymous edits
Tilted plane focus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=560321200 Contributors: BenFrantzDale, BlueBonnet, CennoxX, Ettrig, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Jamesmcardle,
JeffConrad, Kubigula, KumiokoCleanStart, Kwenchin, PigFlu Oink, Rich Farmbrough, Slpayne, Speed8ump, 3 anonymous edits
Harris shutter Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=498189181 Contributors: Baffle gab1978, BruceMcAdam, Chillum, Dicklyon, Dipics, Dpenguinman, DrSlony, Ksempac,
LyleStuart, Ocee, Ratarsed, TheAlphaWolf, TheJordanD, 3 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
39
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
Image:Josefina with Bokeh.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Josefina_with_Bokeh.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Contributors: carlosluis
Image:Cirles of confusion lens diagram.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cirles_of_confusion_lens_diagram.png License: GNU Free Documentation License
Contributors: User:Brion VIBBER
Image:DOF-ShallowDepthofField.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DOF-ShallowDepthofField.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
32bitmaschine, Ligar, Polarlys, 2 anonymous edits
File:Thumbs up for bokeh.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thumbs_up_for_bokeh.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Daniel Flather
Image:Bokeh Example.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bokeh_Example.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: JWCreations
Image:Bahnhof Dortmund Brackel Spiegeltele DSC02359 smial wp.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bahnhof_Dortmund_Brackel_Spiegeltele_DSC02359_smial_wp.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Smial (talk)
Image:Donut bokeh.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Donut_bokeh.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: image transfre par Jean-Jacques
MILAN 11:31, 8 December 2007 (UTC)
File:Christmas Tree Lights Bokeh.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Christmas_Tree_Lights_Bokeh.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Rushilf
Image:Faux-bokeh-comparison.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faux-bokeh-comparison.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Faux-bokeh-original.png: BenFrantzDale Faux-bokeh-final.png: BenFrantzDale derivative work: cmglee
Image:Scatophaga stercoraria macro Luc Viatour.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scatophaga_stercoraria_macro_Luc_Viatour.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Luc Viatour
Image:Canon MP-E65mm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canon_MP-E65mm.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Richard
Bartz, Munich aka Makro Freak
Image:ExtensionTube5733.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ExtensionTube5733.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Fg2
Image:Automatik-Balgengeraet mit Kamera, Objektiv und Umkehrring.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Automatik-Balgengeraet_mit_Kamera,_Objektiv_und_Umkehrring.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: User
Smial on de.wikipedia
File:Close-Up lens Canon 500D 58 mm.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Close-Up_lens_Canon_500D_58_mm.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Aka, Darkone, Jovianeye, Juiced lemon, NeverDoING, Smial
File:MacroPlusRetrolens.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MacroPlusRetrolens.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Christian
Fischer
Image:Close-up.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Close-up.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Tamasflex
Image:RevLensMac.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RevLensMac.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Tamasflex
Image:RevLensTeleMacro.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RevLensTeleMacro.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Tamasflex
Image:InfObTeleMacro.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:InfObTeleMacro.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Tamasflex/Rik
Littlefield
Image:ExTubeMacro.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ExTubeMacro.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Tamasflex
Image:35mm Equivalent Reproduction Ratio.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:35mm_Equivalent_Reproduction_Ratio.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution
3.0 Contributors: DSiegfried
Image:Full-Frame and Micro Four Thirds Macro Equivalent Images - Columbine Flower.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Full-Frame_and_Micro_Four_Thirds_Macro_Equivalent_Images_-_Columbine_Flower.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Contributors: David Siegfried
File:Housefly on a leaf crop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Housefly_on_a_leaf_crop.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Herald Alberich, Leonardorejorge,
Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Simuliid
Image:Fill flash.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fill_flash.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: MiZe
File:Pure Energy and Neurotic Man 1940.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pure_Energy_and_Neurotic_Man_1940.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Contributors: Barbara Morgan
Image:Designer dream sml.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Designer_dream_sml.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Sdkstudios
File:Light painting gnangarra-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_painting_gnangarra-1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Gnangarra
File:Painted Light Portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Painted_Light_Portrait.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Robert
Knapp Photographer www.modernartphotograph.com
Image:Star_image_produced_using_light_painting_technique.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Star_image_produced_using_light_painting_technique.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Mr Poortom
File:Lightshow2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightshow2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: EvilCouch, Mwtoews, Sfan00
IMG, Titaniumpen, 6 anonymous edits
File:Lightpainting_Strich.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightpainting_Strich.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jacques Kohler
File:Light_Painting_2_-_Booyeembara_Park.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Light_Painting_2_-_Booyeembara_Park.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: JJ Harrison ( jjharrison89@facebook.com)
File:Urban Light Painting by LICHTFAKTOR.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Urban_Light_Painting_by_LICHTFAKTOR.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Jenslicht
File:Steel Wool Spinning.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steel_Wool_Spinning.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Pthurgood
File:Full moon on dark night.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Full_moon_on_dark_night.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Luigonzle
Image:Pan1.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pan1.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Eamonltd at en.wikipedia
File:DTM Mercedes W204 DiResta09 amk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DTM_Mercedes_W204_DiResta09_amk.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: AngMoKio
File:Chicken February 2009-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chicken_February_2009-1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Alvesgaspar
file:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Commons-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Anomie
File:Circumpolar Star Trails With High Flyer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Circumpolar_Star_Trails_With_High_Flyer.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Tequask
File:International Space Station star trails - JSC2012E052684.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:International_Space_Station_star_trails_-_JSC2012E052684.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: ComputerHotline, INeverCry, O'Dea, rico Jnior Wouters
File:2012-03-14 21-42-55-file-etoiles-14f-2min-3d.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2012-03-14_21-42-55-file-etoiles-14f-2min-3d.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Beria, ComputerHotline, Hydrel, Saibo, Thierry Caro, Tomer T
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
40
File:Star trails over the ESO 3.6-metre telescope.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Star_trails_over_the_ESO_3.6-metre_telescope.jpg License: unknown
Contributors: ComputerHotline, Jmencisom
File:Sunset Time Lapse 31-12-2009.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sunset_Time_Lapse_31-12-2009.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: XtUProductions
File:Moving clouds timelapse 1152x694x10fps.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moving_clouds_timelapse_1152x694x10fps.ogv License: Public Domain
Contributors: Stefan von Halenbach (SvonHalenbach (talk))
File:Mung bean germination.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mung_bean_germination.ogv License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
Wjh31
File:The ALMA Time-lapse Compilation 2012.ogv Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_ALMA_Time-lapse_Compilation_2012.ogv License: unknown Contributors:
Jmencisom
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en:User:Cburnett
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