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DIODE AS A TEMPERATURE

SENSOR



The project report is submitted to the Mahatma
Gandhi University in partial fulfillment of requirements for
the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Physics.


Submitted by
BEFIN SKARIA
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

St. Aloysius College
2014

ST. ALOYSIUS COLLEGE, EDATHUA
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS


Certificate

This is to certify that the work done described in this
dissertation titled DIODE AS A TEMPERATURE SENSOR is an
authentic record of the work done by BEFIN SKARIA, doing B.Sc.
program in Physics during the year 2011-2014 in St. Aloysius College,
Edathua.


Prof. Lizy Xavier Prof. K. C. Mathai
(Project guide) (Head of the department)


Dr. Jochan Joseph
Examiners (Teacher in charge)






DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the dissertation title DIODE
AS A TEMPERATURE SENSOR is an authentic record of the work
done by me in the department of Physics, St. Aloysius College, Edathua
under the supervision of Prof. Lizy Xavier and has not been submitted
previously for the award of any other degree.






BEFIN SKARIA





ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to take this opportunity on my record of my deep
sense of gratitude to Prof. K. C. Mathai, Head of the Department.
I am extremely grateful to Prof. Lizy Xavier for helping me
through the course of this work for necessary books and reference
materials she gave proper support and guidance to achieve the goal of
this project.
I express my profound sense of gratitude to all the teachers in
Department of Physics for their inspiring advice and they motivated us
to successfully to complete our project work.
Moreover, I express my regards to all others who helped to
make this project work success.


CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Diode Characteristics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors
1.3 (a) N-type Semiconductors
1.3 (b) P-type Semiconductors
1.4 Majority & Minority Carriers
1.5 P-N Junction Diodes
1.6 Forward Biasing
1.7 Reverse Biasing
1.8 Types of Diodes
1.9 Diode Equation

Chapter 2 Diode as a Temperature Sensor
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theory
2.3 Constant Current Source

Chapter 3 Diffusion Capacitance
3.1 Junction Capacitance
3.2 Theory
3.3 Diffusion Capacitance

Observations
Conclusion
Bibliography







CHAPTER 1
DIODE CHARACTERISTIC

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In electronics, a Diode is a two-terminal electronic
component with asymmetric conductance; it has low (ideally zero),
resistance to current flow in one- direction and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other. Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic
devices. The first semiconductor diodes called cats whisker diodes,
developed around 1906 where made of mineral crystals such as galena.
Today most diodes are made of silicon but other
semiconductors such as germanium or selenium are sometimes used. A
semiconductor diode, the most common type today is a crystalline
piece of semiconductor material with a P-N junction connected to two
electrical terminals. The most common function of a diode is to allow
an electric current to pass in one direction called forward direction.
While blocking current in the opposite direction (Reverse direction).
By explaining the concepts of semiconductors, the band
structure consists of valance band and conduction bond. The energy
band occupied by the valance electrons is called valance band. It is the
highest occupied band. If valance electrons acquire sufficient energy to
overcome their binding energy, they will leave the valance bond. Such
electrons are called free electron. The energy band occupied by these
free electrons are called conduction band. Depending upon electrical
properties material can be classified as insulators, conductors and
semiconductors.
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity
lies between those of insulators and conductors. The conductivity of
semi conductor increases with temperature. At room temperature they
have partially filled valance and conduction bands with a narrow
energy gap between them. Eg. Germanium and silicon.

Semiconductors are two types:
1.2 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as
intrinsic semiconductor. Germanium (32G73) and Silicon (14Si28) are
commonly used intrinsic semiconductors. At sufficiently low
temperature there is no free electron in a semiconductor are not free to
wonder about as they are in metals, but rather are trapped in a bond
between two adjacent ions.
Electron hole pairs
As the atmospheric temperature, the ambient temperature
increases some of the electrons acquire enough heat energy to break
away from the valance bond and move to the conduction band. When
an electron breaks away from the covalent bond and becomes free, a
vacancy is left behind in the valance bond. This vacancy is termed as
hole. Thus in a semiconductor electrons and holes are produced in pairs
by thermal agitation.



1.3EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be
increased by adding a little amount of suitable impurities. The process of
adding impurity to a semiconductor is known as doping. The amount of
impurity added is extremely small; say 1 to 2 atoms of impurity for 10
6

atoms of semi conductor. Depending upon the type of impurity added
extrinsic semiconductors are of two types.

1.3 (a) N-type Semiconductor

When pentavalent impurity atoms like arsenic, antimony,
phosphorous, or bismuth having five valance electrons are added to
Germanium or Silicon, covalent bonds are established between the
atoms of germanium or Silicon and the impurity. Four of the five
electrons of each impurity atom from covalent bonds with four of the
Germanium or Silicon atoms. The 5
th
electron is free to wander within
the crystal. The presence of these five electrons increases the
conductivity of the crystal. Such crystals with excess free electrons is
called N-type semiconductors.

1.3(b) P-type semiconductors

In P-type semiconductor, if trivalent impurity atoms like
Boron, Indium, aluminum, or Gallium have three valance electrons are
introduced into Germanium or Silicon; covalent bonds are established
between the atoms of Germanium or Silicon and the impurity. The three
valance electrons of the impurity atoms form covalent bonds with three
of neighboring Germanium or Silicon atoms. This deficiency is known as
hole. Due to thermal agitations the covalent bonds of an adjacent atom
may break and an electron thus released may fill the hole. Thus a new
hole is formed. So the hole moves from one place to another.

1.4 MAJORITY CARRIERS AND MINORITY CARRIERS
In an N-type semiconductor since the free electrons out
number the holes, electrons are called majority carriers and the holes
minority carriers. But in the case of P-type semiconductor, holes
outnumber free electrons, Hence here holes are called the majority
carriers and free electrons the minority carriers.

1.5 P-N JUNCTION DIODES


Junction Diode Symbol

If one side of a semiconductor crystal is doped with acceptor
impurity atoms and the other side of the same crystal is doped with
donor impurity atoms a P-N junction is formed. A P-N junction is
known as a semiconductor diode or crystal diodes. When a P type
semiconductor is properly joined to an N type semiconductor. We get P-
N junction diode. The contact surface of two types of extrinsic
semiconductors is called PN junction. When P-N junction is formed.
Majority carrier from the P region and that of N region will immediately
cross each other across the junction by diffusion. At the junction each
electron will recombine with a hole releasing a certain amount of
energy. This process is called electron hole pair recombination. The
recombination process will now create a thin layer of immobile ions of
the junction. This layer is called depletion layer.
The width of the depletion layer depends on the doping level,
the heavier the doping the thinner is depletion layer.

1.6 FORWARD BIASING
When a P-N junction is forward based, the positive
potential drives, the holes from the P-region and negative potential
P N
drives the electrons from the N-region towards the junction. Thus they
recombine and stimulate current flow from P to N side across the
junction. This process reduces the width of the depletion layer and
causes a reduction in electrical resistance of the crystal. The current
continues as long as the forward potential is maintained.


1.7 REVERSE BIASING
When the PN junction is reversed biased the holes in the P-
region migrates towards the negative terminal of the external power
source and the electrons in the N-region migrate to the positive
terminal. This creates a widening of the depletion layer and an increase
of resistance prevents the electron hole recombination at the junction.
Hence no current will flow across the junction as long as it reverse
biased.



1.8 Types of Diodes
There are several types of P_N-junction diodes which
emphasize, either a different physical aspect of diode often by
geometric scaling, doping level, choosing the right electrodes.
1. Silicon Diodes
A Silicon diode is a semiconductor that has positive and
negative polarity, and can allow electrical current to flow in one
direction while restricting it in another. The element Silicon, in its
pure form acts as an electrical insulator. To enable it to conduct
electricity, minute amount of other elements in a process known as
doping-are added to it. When a Silicon diode is made it has both
positive and negative side and a connection between the two known
as the P-N junction. The two differently charged sides are a result of
different elements being added to the Silicon.
2. Germanium Diodes
Germanium diodes are part of an electrical circuit and
conduct electrical signal through the diode travelling in one
direction only. Diodes such as the germanium diode are constructed
out of a semiconductor material and impurities are added to the
Germanium so it will allow the right amount of current to pass
through, Though not as popular as the Silicon diode, a germanium
diode does have certain advantages over Silicon, less energy lost in a
Germanium diode as the current passes through as compared to the
loss in a Silicon diode. This makes it an ideal choice for dealing with
signals caused by small currents where a large loss of energy could
disrupt the signal.
1.9 DIODE EQUATION
As the mechanisms of diffusion and mobility of the carriers are affected
by the lattice vibrations in crystals, they are related to the temperature
in the form of Einsteins relation,

---(1)


Where,

is the diffusion constant for holes


De is the diffusion constant for electrons

Is the charge mobility


K is the Boltzman constant
T is the temperature in Kelvin
V
T
=


The net hole current density across the junction
Jn =

nEeDh

(2)
Where P hole density

- Conc. of hole w.r to distance x

- Conc. of electrons w.r to distance x


Similarly the net electron current density
Je = ne

E + eDe


Where n = electron density
For an unbiased PN junction the net hole current across the junction is
zero.
Now Jn = 0, and Je = 0
When Jn = 0, equ (2) becomes
Pe

E - e

= 0

(-Edx)
Integrating,

= -


But

= V
B
, the potential barrier

V
B
log

V
B

= exp [

V
B
]

exp [

V
B
]
From eq (1)

= V
T

Pn = Ppexp[-

] --(3)
Similarly by putting Je = 0 we get

exp[-

]
By Law of mass action

2
where

is the electron density in intrinsic


semiconductor


much below room temperature conc. percentage ionization of the
donor level can be expected and for the n material

= N
D
, the donor atom density and
Pn =


Similarly for P- material
Pp = N
A
, the acceptor atom density


Now eqn. (3) becomes

= N
A
exp [-

= 2.303 x

log


Let the PN junction be subjected to forward voltage +ve. The barrier
potential becomes (Vb-V). The reduced barrier potential allows
increased rate of diffusion of holes from P-region to N-region. Those
current across the forward biased junction is due to the minority
carriers.
Hence an expression for the Diode current is obtainable by
calculating the increase in the minority carrier density on the
application of a forward bias. The hole density increase to

= Pp exp [

]
= Pp exp [

] exp [

] -- (4)
Subtracting eq 3 from 4

= Pp exp [

] exp (

) 1]
Similarly


exp [

] exp [

]
The hole current in flowing from p to n region,


Where, A is the cross sectional area of junction

is the drift velocity of holes


Or,

)-1]
Where

)
Similarly electron current,

)-1]
Where,

is the drift velocity of electrons


The total current I=

) --(5)
For forward bias,

) --(6)
For reverse bias,
If V>>

,
the exponential term becomes negligible small compared to unity. Now
equation (5) becomes,

)-1] --(7)
Where

, T is expressed in Kelvin.
Equation (7) gives the relation between current I and voltage V across the
pn junction.

)-1]
Where the factor =1 for Ge, and =2 for Si.







CHAPTER 2
DIODE AS A TEMPERATURE SENSOR

2.1 Introduction
Temperature sensor is devices used to measure the
temperature of a medium. There are mainly two kinds of temperature
sensors)
1. Contact Sensors
2. Non-contact Sensors
A temperature sensor is a device typically a thermocouple or
RTD that provides for temperature measurement through an electrical
signal.
A thermocouple (T/C) is made from two dissimilar metals
that generate electrical voltage in direct proportion into charges in
temperature. An RTD (Resistance temperature defector) is a variable
resistor that will change its electrical resistance in direct proportion to
charges in temperature in a precise, repeatable and nearly linear
manner.
+ -
+
-

The charge of biasing voltage (forward or reverse)
changes the width of the depletion region and the current through the
diode. As the rise is temperature in capable of bringing more and more
electron from the valance bond to the conduction based of the

semiconductor material of the diode, the current through th PN junction
charges. All these information are contained in the diode equation.

)-1]
Neglecting one we get,

)]
Where I is the diode current through the forward biased PN
junction at temperature T (in Kelvin scale) and biasing voltage V.

, e,
k and n denote the reverse saturation current, electronic charge,
Boltzmans constant and ideality factor respectively.
The ordinary semiconductor diode may be used as a
temperature sensor. The diode is the lowest cost temperature sensor
and can produce more than satisfactory results if you are prepared to
undertake a two point calibration and provide a stable excitation
current. Almost any Silicon diode is ok. The forward biased voltage
across a diode has a temperature efficient of about 2.3mv and in
reasonably linear.
One advantage of the diode as a temperature sensor is that it
can be electrically robust to voltage spikes induced by lightning strike.
This is particularly true if power diodes (eg. IN4001) and is used to
limit power dissipation during high peak currents.
To improve the performance of the diode as a temperature
sensor, two diode voltages (v1 and v2) can be measured at different
currents (I1 and I2), typically selected to be about 1:10 ratio. The
absolute temperature can be calculated from the equation:
T =


The result is in Kelvins (k). This is the method employed by most
integrated circuit temperatures sensors and explain why some output a
signal proportional to absolute temperature.
2.2 Theory
P-N junction diode have negative co-efficient of resistance ie,
as temperature increases resistance of diode decreases, when a diode is
forward biased the width of depletion region decreases and current
began to flow through it. The diode current include contribution from
recombination current and diffusion current. As rise in temperature is
capable of bringing more and more electrons from valance bond to
conduction band of semiconductor material of diode current through
P-N junction changes. The relation between current I passing through
the diode at temperature, T and biasing voltage is given by diode
equation.

)-1] --(1)
Where

the reverse saturation current, e is is the electronic


charge, k- Boltzmann constant and s is the ideality factor.
Taking logarithm,

--(2)

--(3)

(since, e=

)

As T varies the variation of lnI is very small. Hence ln I is
taken as constant for variation of T from room temperature to C or
303K to 403K. Therefore if T is kept constant,

Multiplying by T we get,
V= --(4)

i.e., if v is plotted against T we get a straight line. Thus curve is called
calibration graph as they can be used for measurement of unknown
temperature.

2.3 Constant current source
Constant current source can source a current that is fixed by
circuit elements.
In constant source circuit in fig(1) the base emitter junction of the
transistor is stiffly biased by a sensor diode. Since base voltage is a
constant.







CHAPTER 3
DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE

3.1 Junction Capacitance
We know that the depletion layer is between p and n
region. When it is reverse biased, the diode act as a capacitor. The p
and n region are then like the plates of a capacitor and depletion layer
like the dielectric. The external circuit can change this capacitor by
removing the valence electrons from the p side and adding free
electrons to n side. The diode capacitance is called the junction
capacitance which refers to the transition from p type to n type
material.
3.2 Theory
As a p-n diode is forward biased, the minority carrier
distribution in the quasi neutral region increases dramatically. In
addition, to preserve quasi- neutrality, the majority carrier density
increases by the same amount. This effect leads to an additional
capacitance called the diffusion capacitance.
The diffusion capacitance is calculated from the change with voltage,
where the charge, DQ is due to the excess carriers. Unlike a parallel
plate capacitor, the positive and negative charge is not partially
separated. Instead, the electrons and holes are separated by the energy
band gap. Nevertheless, these voltage dependent charges yield a
capacitance just as the one associated with a parallel plate capacitor.
The total capacitance of the junction equals the sum of
the junction capacitance and the diffusion capacitance. For reverse
biased voltages and small forward bias voltage, one finds that the
junction capacitance is dominant. As the forward bias voltage is further
increased the diffusion capacitance increases exponentially and
eventually becomes larger than the junction capacitance.
When p-n junction is forward biased, the depletion
capacitance of the junction increases due to the decrease on the width
of depletion layer. In addition, due to the motion and storage of
minority carriers on either side of the junction, a capacitance known as
the storage or diffusion, capacitance is introduced. The storage or
diffusion capacitance takes into account of the capacitive effects of the
carrier injected into each side of the junction when it is forward biased.
The introduction of the diffusion capacitance leads to the restriction of
the diode at high frequency operations. The diffusion capacitance is
important at low frequencies and forward biased conditions.
In a forward biased p-n junction diode electron density and hole
density co exist in the neutral n region. When the forward bias changes
due to the ac component voltage the minority carrier concentration
also changes. This charge dQ is alternately being charged and
discharged through the junction as the voltage across the junction
changes. This charge is stored minority carriers as a function of the
change in voltage is the diffusion capacitance.
If the change in the number of holes stored per unit area of the n
layer is dQp. When the applied forward bias changes by dV, the
diffusion capacitance due to the scored holes on the n side is
-- (1)
The diffusion (storage) capacitance per unit area due to electrons on
the p side is,
-- (2)
In a forward biased diode the two capacitors Cp and C.
behave as if they are connected in parallel to each other. Hence the
total diffusion capacitance per unit area in the junction is
-- (3)
3.3 Diffusion Capacitance
For the diode IN4007 try with C = 0.01, 0.02, 0.03 etc.
Capacitance Width of the split trace
Cd


Cd + C


Cd + C + C


Cd + C + C + C



1) Cd =


2) Cd =


3) Cd =



PROJECT METHOD
The change of biasing voltage changes the width of the
depletion region and the current through the diode. We know that the
diode current include contributions from generation recombination
current and diffusion current. As the rise in temperature is capable of
bringing more and more electrons from the valance band to the
conduction bond of the semiconductor material of the diode, the
current through the P-N junction changes.
From the diode equation we can see that diode current
depends on absolute temperature. As a project we undertake the work
of studying how the diode voltage varies with temperature for a given
forward biased voltage due to represent it. Graphically for doing this
project we need a DC o/p regulator, diodes (Silicon, Germanium),
resistance of 3.3ohm and a digital multimeter.
Made the forward current at a constant value. Voltage across
the diode at room temperature is found by using multimeter. Then the
temperature of the diode is varied by heating it by beeping it in an oil
bath. The voltage across the diode is noted at each temperature
beeping the forward current constant. Then plot the graph with
temperature T along x-axis and voltage across the diode along y-axis.
We got a straight line. For each value of the applied voltage v, we get a
straight line. These graphs are called calibration graphs as they can be
used for the measurement of unknown temperature say, the melting
point of wax.
The simplest for the determination of diffusion
capacitance is to use the principle of formation of lissajous figure o a
CRO. By adjusting the rheostat, a fixed voltage is applied to the diode
and resistor. The horizontal and vertical gain controls of the CRO are
adjusted to get the diode pattern on the screen. Here the splitting of
horizontal area is due to diffusion capacitance

and vertical area is


due to transition capacitance

. When the capacitance value of the


capacitor connected becomes equal to the diffusion capacitance and
the width get doubled. The experiment is repeated with the capacitors
of diffusion capacitance.















OBSERVATIONS








V-I Characteristics
Silicon Germanium
Voltage
(Volts)
Current
(mA)
0 0
.1 .2
.2 .5
.3 1.2
.4 2
.5 2.9
.6 3.8
.8 6



Voltage
(Volts)
Current
(mA)
0 0
.1 .1
.2 .2
.3 .3
.4 .5
.5 2
.6 10.7
.8 20.7
V-I Characteristics (Constant Voltage)
Silicon
V = 6 V= 6.4 V = 7 V = 7.4
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Curr:
(mA)
30 10.5 30 11.3 30 12 30 12.4
35 10.6 35 11.4 35 12.1 35 12.4
40 10.9 40 11.5 40 12.2 40 12.5
45 11.1 45 11.6 45 12.3 45 12.6
Germanium
V = 6 V = 6.4 V = 7 V = 7.4
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Current
(mA)
Temp
(K)
Curr:
(mA)
30 10.5 30 11.3 30 12 30 12.4
35 10.6 35 11.4 35 12.1 35 12.4
40 10.9 40 11.5 40 12.2 40 12.5
45 11.1 45 11.6 45 12.3 45 12.6


Temperature Sensor of Diode
Diode-Silicon
Const. Current=6.8mA



Temperature
(
Rising Falling
Mean
(mV)
30 678 668 680
35 664 670 666
40 642 646 644
45 628 632 630
50 601 610 608
55 598 602 600
60 580 584 582
65 562 566 564
70 546 550 548
75 536 540 538
80 518 522 520
Temperature Sensor of Diode
Diode-Germanium
Const. Current=12.1mA





Temperature Rising Falling Mean
30 1296 1300 1298
35 1278 1282 1280
40 1262 1264 1264
45 1240 1244 1242
50 1220 1224 1222
55 1206 1210 1208
60 1188 1192 1190
65 1172 1176 1174
70 1156 1160 1158
75 1136 1140 1138
80 1116 1120 1118



Conclusion
Diode is used as a temperature sensor to measure
the unknown temperature by keeping voltage constant (or
current) for calibration and temperature measures.














Bibliography
1. S. Sankararaman Enjoy Physics through ProjectsA Play with
Diodes. Sastra vedi publications 2010.
2. Ittiavirah Kurian Electronis & Practicals
3. V. K Mehta Principles of Electronics S chand & company ltd. 1999
4. www.encyclopedia.com
5. www.wikipedia.com

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