MATRICES

Compiled by Dr. S.S. Chauhan

An m x n matrix is an array of mxn objects
in m rows and n columns and is represented
in the form

Definition
] [
3 2 1
3 33 32 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
n m
mn m m m
n
n
n
ij
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a A

(
(
(
(
(
(

= =

3
Squarematrix:
If m = n, then the matrix is a square
matrix
Elements a
ij
for i=j called diagonal
elements and

is called the trace of A.
Types of Matrices
...
11 22
1
+ + +
=
=

n
ii nn
i
a a a a
Partitioned matrices:
(

=
(
(
(

=
22 21
12 11
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
A A
A A
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A
submatrix
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

=
3
2
1
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
r
r
r
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A
| |
4 3 2 1
34 33 32 31
24 23 22 21
14 13 12 11
c c c c
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A =
(
(
(

=
Then (1) A+B = B + A
(2) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C
(3) ( cd ) A = c ( dA )
(4) 1A = A
(5) c( A+B ) = cA + cB
(6) ( c+d ) A = cA + dA
scalar : , , , , If d c M C B A
n m
e
Properties of matrix addition and scalar multiplication:
6
A square matrix whose elements a
ij
= 0,
for i > j is called upper triangular and if
i<j, then lower triangular.
calar c M A
n m
s : , If

e
A A
n m
= +

0 (1) Then
n m
A A

= + 0 ) ( (2)
n m n m
or A c cA

= = = 0 0 0 ) 3 (
Notes:
(1) 0
mn
: the additive identity for the set of all mn matrices
(2) A: the additive inverse of A
Properties of zero matrices:
A A
T T
= ) ( ) 1 (
T T T
B A B A + = + ) ( ) 2 (
) ( ) ( ) 3 (
T T
A c cA =
) ( ) 4 (
T T T
A B AB =
Properties of transposes:
| | | |
1 n Eliminatio Jordan - Gauss
| |

A I I A
Ex 2: (Find the inverse of the matrix)
(

=
3 1
4 1
A
Sol:
I AX =
(

=
(

1 0
0 1
3 1
4 1
22 21
12 11
x x
x x
(

=
(

+ +
1 0
0 1
3 3
4 4
22 12 21 11
22 12 21 11
x x x x
x x x x
Find the inverse of a matrix by Gauss-Jordan Elimination:
(

1 1 0
3 0 1
0 3 1
1 4 1
) 1 (
) 4 (
21
) 1 (
12
,

r r
(

1 1 0
4 0 1
1 3 1
0 4 1
) 2 (
) 4 (
21
) 1 (
12
,

r r
1 , 3
21 11
= = x x
1 , 4
22 12
= = x x
) (
1 1
4 3
1 -
22 21
12 11 1
AA I AX
x x
x x
A X = =
(

=
(

= =

Thus
(2)
1 3
0 4

(1)
0 3
1 4

22 12
22 12
21 11
21 11
=
= +
=
= +

x x
x x
x x
x x

1 1 1 0
4 3 0 1
1 0 3 1
0 1 4 1
1
ination JordanElim Gauss
,
) 4 (
21
) 1 (
12

A I I A
r r

If A cant be row reduced to I, then A is singular.

Note:
Rank of a Matrix
A number r is said to be rank of a
matrix A, if there exists
a non zero minor of order r and all
minors of
order r+1 vanish.
Or equivalently
The maximum number of linearly
independent rows.
-
I A =
0
(1)
0) ( ) 2 (
factors
> = k A AA A
k
k

integers : , ) 3 ( s r A A A
s r s r +
=
rs s r
A A = ) (
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
k
n
k
k
k
n
d
d
d
D
d
d
d
D

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
) 4 (
2
1
2
1
Power of a square matrix:
Thm 1: (Systems of equations with unique solutions)
If A is an invertible matrix, then the system of linear equations
Ax = b has a unique solution given by

b A x
1
=
Pf:
( A is nonsingular)
b A x
b A Ix
b A Ax A
b Ax
1
1
1 1

=
=
=
=
This solution is unique.
. equation of solutions two were and If
2 1
b Ax x x =
2 1
then Ax b Ax = =
2 1
x x =
(Left cancellation property)
2.4 Elementary Matrices
Row elementary matrix:
An nn matrix is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained
from the identity matrix I
n
by a single elementary operation.
Three row elementary matrices:
) ( ) 1 ( I r R
ij ij
=
) 0 ( ) ( ) 2 (
) ( ) (
= = k I r R
k
i
k
i
) ( ) 3 (
) ( ) (
I r R
k
ij
k
ij
=
Interchange two rows.
Multiply a row by a nonzero
constant.
Add a multiple of a row to
another row.
Note:
Only do a single elementary row operation.
Notes:
A R A r
ij ij
= ) ( ) 1 (
A R A r
k
i
k
i
) ( ) (
) ( ) 2 ( =
A R A r
k
ij
k
ij
) ( ) (
) ( ) 3 ( =
EA A r
E I r
=
=
) (
) (
Thm 2.12: (Representing elementary row operations)
Let E be the elementary matrix obtained by performing an
elementary row operation on I
m
. If that same elementary row
operation is performed on an mn matrix A, then the resulting
matrix is given by the product EA.
If A is an nn matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.
(1) A is invertible.
(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every n1 column matrix b.
(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution.
(4) A is row-equivalent to I
n
.
(5) A can be written as the product of elementary matrices.
Thm 2.15: (Equivalent conditions)
LU A=
L is a lower triangular matrix
U is an upper triangular matrix
If the nn matrix A can be written as the product of a lower
triangular matrix L and an upper triangular matrix U, then
A=LU is an LU-factorization of A
Note:
If a square matrix A can be row reduced to an upper triangular
matrix U using only the row operation of adding a multiple of
one row to another row below it, then it is easy to find an LU-
factorization of A.
LU A
U E E E A
U A E E E
k
k
=
=
=
1 1
2
1
1
1 2

LU-factorization:
Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors
Definition. A nonzero vector x is an eigenvector of a
square matrix A if there exists a scalar such that Ax =
x. Then is an eigenvalue of A.
Note: The zero vector can not be an eigenvector even
though A0 = 0. But = 0 can be an eigenvalue.


Properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
Property 1: The sum of the eigenvalues of
a matrix equals the trace of the matrix.
Property 2: A matrix is singular if and only
if it has a zero eigenvalue.
Property 3: The eigenvalues of an upper
(or lower) triangular matrix are the
elements on the main diagonal.
Property 4: If is an eigenvalue of A and
A is invertible, then 1/ is an eigenvalue
of matrix A
-1
.
Property 5: If is an eigenvalue of A then k is
an eigenvalue of kA where k is any arbitrary
scalar.
Property 6: If is an eigenvalue of A then
k
is
an eigenvalue of A
k
for any positive integer k.
Property 7: If is an eigenvalue of A then is
an eigenvalue of A
T
.
Property 8: The product of the eigenvalues
(counting multiplicity) of a matrix equals the
determinant of the matrix.
References
Elementary Linear Algebra
R. Larsen et al. (6
th
Edition)

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