SHOCK WAVES

COMPRESSIBILITY
An aeroplane flying at low, subsonic, speeds causes air-pressure changes
as a result of its movement but they are relatively small. It is convenient,
therefore, to treat the air as though it could not be compressed.
However, the air-pressure changes caused by the movement of an
aeroplane at high speed, close to the speed of sound, are considerable
and cannot be ignored. The air is compressible and its effect on the
aeroplane must be accounted for when it is travelling at high speed.
An aeroplane moving through the air creates a pressure wave around it,
which is propagated away from it in all directions simultaneously at the
speed of sound.
For an aeroplane flying at a relatively low speed, less than the speed of
sound, the air-pressure wave ahead of the aeroplane can move away
from the aeroplane. Consequently, air-pressure, air-density, air-
temperature and air-velocity changes take place ahead of the leading
edge of the wings and are a gradual process.
If, however, the aeroplane is travelling at the speed of sound then the
air-pressure wave ahead of the aeroplane is unable to move away from
the aeroplane and a wave of compressed air builds up at the leading
edge of the wing. This means that the rise of static air pressure, air
density, air temperature and the local speed of sound together with the
decrease of the Mach number and total pressure take place rapidly
almost instantaneously across the depth of the compression wave.
This phenomenon is often referred to as the normal shockwave or the
shock front, which is positioned at ninety degrees to the direction of
travel of the aeroplane. The air behind the shockwave travels at
subsonic speeds. The compression of a normal shockwave is greater
than that of an oblique shockwave at the same Mach number.

SHOCKWAVE FORMATION
To an observer on the ground there is no perceptible noise ahead of the
aircraft but as the shockwave passes overhead, at the aeroplanes ground
speed, there is an intense bang followed by the normal aircraft noise.
A second bang may then be heard that originates from the shockwave
formed around the wings and fuselage.
An aeroplane does not have to be flying at the local speed of sound for the
airflow over the wings to be supersonic.
A normal shockwave can develop at any time the aeroplane is in the transonic
speed range. The function of the wing is to accelerate the air passing over its
upper surface. The airflow may be subsonic at the leading edge of the wing
but can be accelerated to become supersonic by the trailing edge of the wing,
despite the fact that the aeroplane is flying at a speed of less than Mach 1.0.
This is transonic flight, which usually occurs between Mach 0.75 and Mach
1.2.
At speeds less than Mach 0.75 all of the airflow over the wing is subsonic and
as the aeroplane accelerates the first shockwave will form on the upper
surface at the wing root. The onset of the formation of the shockwave is
delayed if the wings have a low thickness/chord ratio. Such a wing also
diminishes the large transonic variations of Cl and Cd. A normal shockwave
can occur at several different points at the same time on an aeroplane in
transonic flight, whereas at speeds in excess of Mach 1.2 all of the airflow
around the aeroplane is supersonic.
When the air over the upper surface of the wing becomes sonic, a shockwave
forms because the pressure waves over the rear of wing at the wing root are
attempting to move forward and meet the air moving aft from the leading
edge at exactly the same speed but in the opposite direction. The meeting
point is usually just aft of the point of maximum camber because this is where
the air over the upper surface of the wing is accelerating at the greatest rate.
The meeting point of the two air-pressure waves is the shockwave and is
where the airflow changes from being sonic or supersonic to become
subsonic. Air passing through the shockwave experiences an increase of
pressure, temperature and density. If the aeroplane speed continues to
increase the area of supersonic air on top of the wing spreads backward
towards the trailing edge, resulting in the shockwave moving aft. Refer the
figure given below.

The curvature of the underside of a wing is usually less than that of the upper
surface, therefore the acceleration of the airflow is less, consequently the
airflow does not become sonic until the aeroplane is travelling at a higher
airspeed. Therefore, at lower airspeeds the only shockwave occurs on the
upper surface and first appears at the wing root. At speeds above this, a
shockwave forms beneath the lower surface of the wing ahead of the upper
surface shockwave. The meeting point of the two pressure waves occurs
nearer the trailing edge. Refer the figure given below.

If the aeroplane continues to accelerate then both the upper surface and the
lower surface shockwaves will move aft. When the aeroplanes speed reaches
Mach 1 both shockwaves reach the trailing edge of the wing together. Refer
the figure given below.

The profile of the pressure distribution over the upper surface of the wing
during acceleration is irregular but when all of the airflow is supersonic the
profile becomes rectangular.
As the speed increases to approximately Mach 1.05 a second shockwave
forms ahead of the leading edge of the wing and is maintained in this position
by the higher stagnation pressure. This shockwave is known as the detached
bow wave and remains just ahead of the leading edge until further
acceleration, to approximately Mach 1.3, causes it to attach itself to the
leading edge to become the attached bow wave. Both the leading-edge and
the trailing-edge shockwaves remain in their positions irrespective of any
further speed increase. If the speed does increase further then both
shockwave profiles will just become more oblique. Refer the figure given
below.

AIR-PRESSURE-WAVE PATTERNS
The changing pressure-wave pattern with the increasing speed of an
aeroplane is three-dimensional and is shown in Figure 15.2. The speed of
propagation in the diagram is a and is equal to the local speedof sound. The
vector v shows the speed of the aeroplane. There are three speeds depicted;
subsonic,sonic and supersonic.
SUBSONIC
The length of the vector v in Figure 15.2(a) is less than the length of a,
therefore, although the pressure waves are compressed ahead of the
aeroplane, they maintain their separation.

SONIC
In Figure 15.2(b) the length of vector v is equal to the length of a. This
shows that the air-pressure waves do not move ahead of the aeroplane but
compress to form a straight-line Mach wave at right angles to the direction of
movement of the aeroplane and is referred to as a normal shockwave. It is a
plane of discontinuity normal to the local airflow direction at which the
compression of the air and the loss of total pressure are greater than those of
an oblique shockwave. The loss of total pressure in the shockwave is due to the
conversion of the flo kinetic energy into heat energy. This effect can be
minimized if the airflow just ahead of the shockwave is only just supersonic.
The total temperature of a normal shockwave is higher than that of the
oblique shockwave. The air behind the shockwave is subsonic and, although
there are large variations to the lift and drag, the direction of the airflow is
unchanged. This can cause variations to the pitching moment and to the
trim of the aeroplane; it may also affect the operation of the controls. Shock-
induced separation can occur behind a strong normal shockwave
independent of the angle of attack.

SUPERSONIC
The length of v in Figure 15.2(c) is longer than the radius a, indicating that
the aeroplane is travelling faster than the speed of sound. This produces a
boundary beyond which no pressure wave passes; this is the oblique Mach
wave. It is a three-dimensional boundary and is therefore conic in shape and
within which all disturbances caused by the aeroplanes movement are
contained. The aeroplane centre of pressure is further aft than at subsonic
speeds and the speed of the airflow after passing through an oblique
shockwave is greater than that of the speed of sound. The air temperature
increase is less than a normal shockwave.