EDC MAUALd

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
CYCLE I
1. P.N.JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS.
3. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER.
4. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH & WITHOUT FILTER
5. COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
CYCLE II
6. COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION CHARACTERISTICS.
7. FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS
8. H-PARAMETERS
9. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER.
10. COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER.
11. FET AMPLIFIER.
CYCLE III
12. VOLTAGE SERIES FEED BACK AMPLIFIER.
13. CURRENT SERIES FEED BACK AMPLIFIER
14. TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER.
15. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR.
16. WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR.
17. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR.
18. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR.
19. SCR CHARACTERISTICS
20. STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

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INTRODUCTION
Engineering: A profession in which a knowledge of mathematical, natural and
social sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with
judgment to develop ways to utilize economically the materials and forces of
nature for benefit of society.
Circuit: An interconnection of electrical devices in which there is at least one
closed path in which current may flow.
Passive and active elements:
An active element is defined as an element which is capable of furnishing an
average power greater than zero to some external device, where the average is
taken over an infinity time interval. Ideal sources are active elements, and an
operational amplifier is also an active device.
Passive element is defined as an element that cannot supply an average
power that is greater than zero over an infinite time interval. The resistor,
capacitor and inductor are passive elements. The resistor is a passive element
because the energy it received is usually transformed into heat. Both the inductor
and capacitor are also passive elements because which are capable of storing
finite amounts of energy, but they cannot provide an unlimited amount of energy
or finite average power over an infinity time interval
Resistors
Resistor is a component which opposes flow of current. The voltage and current
relation in resistor is given by the Ohms law V= IR. The resistance of a
conductor of length l and cross sectional area A is given by R = l /A, where
is the resistivity of the conductor.
When N number of resistors is connected in series the equivalent or total
resistance (R) is the sum of the individual resistances. R = R 1 +R2 + .. +RN .
When N resistors are connected in parallel the equivalent or total resistance
(R) is given by 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + . 1/RN
Tolerance: Tolerance is the range of resistance values which enables a user to
use a single resistor within its range. This is necessary because resistors cannot
manufacture for all values.
Let tolerance be x%, and the resistance be R. Then this resistor can be used
in the

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Range R+x%.
Color coding:
The resistance value of the resistor can be found by the color bands on a
resistor.
The first two color bands give the first two digits of the resistor. The third color
gives the power of 10, multiplied with the first two digits or the number of zeros
followed by the first two digits. The fourth band gives the tolerance value.
How to find Resistor values:
Color coding:
Step1: Learn the colors
The color 'Gold' is not featured in the above table. If the 3rd band is gold it means
multiplying by 0.1. Example, 1.2 ohm @ 5% would be brown-red-gold-gold. 12
multiplied by 0.1 gives 1.2 dont get confused by gold as a resistance or a tolerance
value. Just watch the location/position of the band.
Step 2: Learn the tolerances

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Step 3: Do the exercises below
1st band, denominator: Brown (1)

2nd band, denominator: Black (0)
3rd band, how many zeros (1)
4th band, tolerance in %: gold (5)
Answer: 1 0 1 = 100 ohm, 5% tolerance
Power rating of a resistor: It indicates the maximum power that a resistor can
handle.
While we design the circuit, the maximum current (which should not exceed) that
can flow through the resistor Imax is given by
IMAX
power rating ( given by manufacturer )

Re sistor Value

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Variable resistors:
There are two types of variable resistors, continuous and discrete variable
resistors
Potentiometers:
In potentiometers the variation of resistance is in
continuous manner. It has three leads. The maximum resistance can be obtained
by connecting the extreme leads to the circuit. In this case the resistance can not
be varied though the knob is turned. Variable resistance can be obtained by
connecting center lead with any one of the extreme leads. In this case the
variation in the resistance can be obtained by turning the knob.
Decade Resistance Box
In DRB, the variation in resistance is in discrete manner. The required
resistance is achieved by locating the knob at the required numerical positions.
The total resistance of DRB = sum of the product of the knob position
numbers and the multiplication factors.
Rheostat:
Rheostat is a continuously varying resistor, whose resistance can be varied
linearly. Rheostats have very high power ratings. These are used where precise
value of resistance is required.
Capacitor
A capacitor is used for storing charge. It consists of two conducting surfaces

separated by a thin insulating layer of a very large resistance. If we assume that
this resistance is infinite, then equal and opposite charges placed on the
capacitor plates can never re-combine, at least by any path between the
elements. Capacitance of the capacitor is given by the equation C = A/d and is
expressed in Farads
Where, A is the cross sectional area of the plates.
d is the distance between plates

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is the permittivity constant of the insulating material between the
plates.
For Air and Vacuum, = 0 = 8.84 PF/meter
C
We define capacitance C by voltage current relationship by
i
i = C dv/dt
+
The reactance offered by the capacitor is given by Xc = 1/2fC, so V
that it acts
as an open circuit to DC.
When the capacitors are connected in series then the equivalent or total
capacitance is
1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + . + 1/CN.
When the capacitors are connected in parallel then the equivalent or total
capacitance is
C = C1+C2+ . +CN.
Finite amount of energy ( CV 2) can be stored in a capacitor even if the
current through the capacitor is zero such as when the voltage across it is
constant.
It is impossible to change the voltage across the capacitor by finite amount in
zero time. For this requires an infinite current through the capacitor.
Inductors
The ability of conductor to produce voltage is known as inductance. A current
carrying conductor produces a magnetic field and that changing magnetic field
will induce a voltage. The inductance is expressed in Henries. We define the
inductance L by the voltage current relationship
i
L
V = L (di/dt)
V
Physical inductor may be constructed by winding a length of wire into coil.
The inductance of this coil is proportional to the square of the number of
complete turns made by conductor out of which it is formed. For example, an
inductor or coil that has the form of a long helix of very small pitch is found to
have an inductance of N2A/S.
Where A is the cross-sectional area, S is the Axial length of the coil, and (mu) is
the constant of the material inside the helix called the permeability, = o =
410-7 H / m2
The reactance offered by the inductor is given by X L = 2f L, where f is the
applied signal frequency, thus inductor acts as a short circuit to DC.

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When N inductors are connected in parallel then the equivalent or total
inductance is 1/L = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + . + 1/LN.
When N inductors are connected in series then the equivalent or total
capacitance is L = L1+L2+ . +LN.
An infinite amount of energy can be stored in an inductor even the voltage
across the inductor is zero, such when the current through it is constant.
It is possible to change the current through the inductor by finite amount in
zero time. For this requires an infinity voltage across the inductor.
D.C. Power supply.

The available power supplies in this laboratory are single channel and dual
channel power supplies. Dual power supply can be used as two independent
voltage/ current sources, where as a single voltage/current source can be
obtained form a single channel power supply.
The DC power supply can be used as either voltage source or current source.
The voltage which is obtained can be varied by varying the knobs coarse and
fine. Coarse knob is used to get the large range variation; where as the fine knob
is used to get small variation in voltage. The digital display it self indicates the
voltage drawn form the source.
To observe the voltage from channel 1 or channel 2 on single digital display,
the selector switch is to be placed in the respective position.
When we connect the DC power supply as DC current source the current which
is drawn from the source can be varied by varying the current knob.
To observe the current from channel 1 or channel 2 on single digital display,
the selector switch is to be placed in the respective position.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument which provides visual
presentation of any waveform applied to its input terminals, while the millimeter
provides numerical information about applied signal. The CRO allows the actual
form of the waveform to be displayed.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the CRO, providing visual display
of an input signal waveform.
The CRT contains four basic parts.
1. An electron gun to produce a stream of electrons.
2. Focusing and accelerating elements to provide a well defined beam of
electrons

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3. Horizontal and vertical deflection plates to control the path of the
electron beam.
4. An evacuated glass envelop with a phosphorescent screen which glows
visibly when struck by the electron beam.
The voltage to be measured is applied to the vertical defection plates, where as
the continuous sweep voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Measurement using calibrated CRO:
The oscilloscope tube face has been calibrated to compute the amplitude and
time measurement.
Amplitude measurement:
The amplitude of the voltage can be measured by using the scale-setting of
the scope (volts/div knob.) and the signal measured off the face of the scope.
The peak-to-peak amplitude = No. divisions between peak to peak of the
signal volts/division knob multiplication factor.
Time measurement:
The horizontal scale of the scope can be used to measure the time of the
applied signal. The time period of the periodic signal = No. of divisions during one
cycle time/division knob multiplication factor.
Frequency measurement:
The measurement of the repetitive waveform-period can be used to calculate
the signal frequency. Since the frequency is the reciprocal of the time period. f=1/T
Measurement of phase and frequency (Lissajous Patterns)
The patterns that appear on the screen of a CRT, when sinusoidal voltages
are simultaneously applied to horizontal and vertical plates are known as Lissajous
figures. When two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase with
each other are the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the pattern appearing on
the screen is a straight line as is clear from fig below.
ey
1
1
t
0
(0,2,4)
3
(voltage applied to y-plates, frequency = f)
ex
0
1
2

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3
(Voltage applied to
X-plates, frequency = f)
4
Fig 1.2 LISSAJOUS PATTERNS

When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with 90 0 or 2700 phase shift
displacement are applied to a CRO, the trace on the CRO is a circle. An ellipse is
formed if the two voltages are not equal and /or out of phase.
When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with a phase shift (not
equal to 00 or 900 )are applied to a CRO, we obtain an ellipse regardless of the two
amplitudes of the applied voltages, the ellipse provides a simple means of finding
phase difference between two voltages.
= sin-1 y1 / y2 = sin-1 x1 / x2.
y1
Major Axis.
y2
X
x1
x2
Fig: 1.3 PHASE SHIFT MEASUREMENT
Y

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Major axis
Y2
Y1
X
X1
X2
Fig: 1.4HASE SHIFT MEASUREMENT

If the major axis of the ellipse lies in the first and third quadrants as in fig:
1, the phase angle is either between 0 0 and 900 or 2700 and 3600. When the major
axis of the ellipse lies in second and fourth quadrants as in Fig: 2, the phase angle is
either between 900 and 1800 or between 1800 and 2700.
Bread board
A bread board has been designed for easy circuit connection. The figure below
represents a bread board.
I
II
III
IV
Bread board connection diagram

The upper and the lower parts of the bread board (I&IV) are similar and are
generally used for ground connections. The middle parts (II&III) are similar. Part I
consists of 100 holes in four groups with insulation in between succeeding horizontal
and vertical 25-hole groups. All 25 holes in each group are short circuited.
Part II of the bread board has 5 rows with 65 holes in each row. All holes are short
circuited horizontally and insulated vertically.

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Digital multimeter
Digital instrument are generally used to measure the parameters of the
interest in a laboratory are 1) voltage
2) current
3) power
4) frequency 5)
Logic.
The basic building block of a Digital instrument is shown below.
A/D converter
Signal
Processing
Digital display
In digital multimeters the measured quantity is displayed numerically instead of

deflection, as in conventional analog meters.
3 digit:
In our laboratory we use 3 digit multimeters. 3 indicates 3 digit display on
DMM. For example a 3 bit display on DMM for a 0 to 1V range will indicate values 0
to 999mV with a smallest increment of 1mV.
Normally a fourth digit capable of indicating 0 or 1 (hence called half digit) is placed
to the left. This permits the digital meter to read values above 999 up to 1999.
Half digit 0 or 1
full digit 0-9
Insulators, semiconductors and metals.
A very poor conductor of electricity is called an insulator. An excellent
conductor is a metal. A substance whose conductivity lies between an insulator and
a conductor is known as a semiconductor.
The forbidden energy gap is relatively high (approx. 6 eV) for an insulator,
where as it is relatively small (approx. 1eV) for a semiconductor. In a metal the
conduction and valance band overlap each other.
Semiconductors are of two types
1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor

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The semiconductor in pure form is known as intrinsic semiconductor. The
conduction level of the intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by increasing the
temperature. The semiconductor is thus said to have ve temperature co-efficient of
resistance. Negative temperature coefficient of resistance indicates the decrease in
resistance with increase in temperature (increase in conductance with increase in
temperature).
The conductance of the intrinsic semiconductor can also be increased by
adding some impure atoms to it. This process is called doping. The resultant
semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor.
The extrinsic semiconductors are divided into two types depending upon the
impure atoms added.
If trivalent (acceptor) atoms (Boron, Gallium, and Indium) are added to the
intrinsic semiconductor, p-type semiconductor is formed. If pentavalent (donor)
atoms (Arsenic, Antimony, and Phosphorus) are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor, n-type semiconductor is formed. The majority carriers in n-type
and p-type semiconductors are electrons and holes respectively, holes being the
absence of electrons. The minority carriers in n-type and p-types semiconductors
are holes and electrons respectively.
The current in semiconductor is due to two distinct phenomenons:
1.
current
Drift current, where carriers drift in an electric field (this conduction
Is also available in metals)2.

Diffusion current, where carriers diffuse if a concentration gradient
exists (a phenomenon which does not exist in metals).
The commonly available semiconductors materials are
Germanium and the difference between these two are given below.
Silicon and
Silicon:
1.
2.
3.
high PIV rating (upto 1000V)

higher current rating
wider temperature range (upto 2000 C)
Germanium:
1. Lower PIV rating (up to 400V)
2. Lower current rating
3. Lower temperature range (1000C)
The advantage of Germanium over Silicon is the lower forward bias voltage required
to reach the region of upward swing, 0.3V for Germanium and 0.7V for Silicon.
On the other hand, the reverse saturation current for silicon is less than that of
germanium,
Is (Si): Is (Ge) = 1: 103

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Which makes it advantageous to use Silicon diodes at higher temperatures?
Experiment No: 1
P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM : 1. To plot the V-I characteristics of the given semiconductor
Diode, both for Forward and reverse bias
2. To find out the cut-in voltage.
3. To calculate the dynamic forward and static resistances of the P-N
diode.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply
2. Voltmeters
3. Ammeters
COMPONENTS:
1. Semiconductor diode
2. Resistor
0-30V
0-1V
0-30V
0-10mA
0-500A
1N4007
470, 1k
1No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1No.
1No
P -N JUNCTION DIODE:
If donor impurities are introduced into one side and acceptors into the other
side of a single crystal of a semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed.
Junction
Acceptor ion
Donor ion
Hole
Electron
P-type
n-type
P N JUNCTION DIODE
Depletion
region
The region uncovered by +ve and ve ions is called the depletion region, the
space charge region or the transition region. The thickness of the region is the order
of the wavelength of the visible light (0.05 micron). When p-n junction is formed, the

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concentration of the holes in p side is much greater than that in the n-side; a very
large hole-diffusion current tends to flow across the junction from the p to n material.
Hence an electric field must buildup across the junction in such a direction that the
hole drift current will tend to flow across the junction from n to p side in order to
counter balance the diffusion current. This equilibrium condition of zero resultant
hole current results at potential barrier V o. The numerical value for V o is of the order
of magnitude of a few tenths of a Volt.
The p-n junction can be operated in two regions
1) Forward bias
2) Reverse bias
Forward bias:
When Positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type and Negative
terminal of the N-type of the PN junction diode, the bias applied is Forward bias as
shown below.
P
+
+
PN JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS

In forward bias the height of the potential barrier at the junction will be lowered by
the applied forward voltage V F. The holes cross the junction from p in to the n type
region and become a minority current in the P side. Similarly the electrons cross the
junction in reverse direction and become the minority carriers in p side. Holes
traveling from left to right constitute a current in the same direction as the electrons
moving from right to left. Hence the resultant current crossing the junction is the sum
of the hole and electron minority current.
VF Forward bias Voltage (measured in V)
IF Forward Bias Current (measured in mA) for VI characteristics
When VF<VO (Potential barriers) IF is almost Zero.
When VF>VO the holes moves from P-type and electrons Cross the junction.
There is a sudden increase in the Current at a Particular Voltage (V)
V is called as Cut in Voltage or ThresholdVoltagte or knee Voltage
More Current will flow in diode in case of Forward bias.
Reverse bias:
A reverse bias or off condition is established by applying the ve potential to
p-type material and +ve potential to n-type material as shown in the figure below
In the reverse bias both the holes p-type and the electrons in n-type will move
away from the junction. The height of the potential barrier increases. This increase in
the barrier serves to reduce the flow of majority carriers. Hence zero current results.
However the minority carriers are uninfluenced by the increase in height of the

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barrier. So a small current will flow due to these minority carriers and is called the
reverse saturation current.
+
V
PN JUNCTION
DIODE (measured
UNDER REVERSE
BIAS
VRReverse
bias voltage
in V)
IR Reverse bias current (measure in A)
The current flows in reverse direction. Due to minority carriers,
there is a small current in the reverse direction and is called as
reverse saturation current (Io).
Io depends upon temperature.
I = -I O at room
temperature
Volt-ampere characteristics:
I
(mA)
Ge
Si
Cut-in-Voltage V
VZ I (A)
The characteristics of the semiconductor diode can be defined by the following
equation for forward and reverse bias regions.
I = IO (e V / VT 1)
Where V = applied potential,
I = diode current
IO = reverse saturation current or a scale current which is a function of
donor and acceptor impurity concentration, diode temperature and area of the
junction etc.,
= emission co-efficient (empirical constant). This empirical constant
accounts for any recombination of hole and electrons, which may occur when the
carriers diffuse across the depletion region of the forward biased p-n junction.

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The value of lies in the range of 1 to 2 and depending upon the
1.
Size of the diode
2.
The semiconductor used to make it.
3.
The magnitude of the forward current.
4.
The value of Is.
5.
In general the value for silicon is 2 and for germanium is 1
VT = Volt equivalent temperature KT/Q
K = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 10 23 j / 0 K
T = Temperature in 0K
Q = charge = 1.603 10 19 coulombs.
If V is positive, I is flowing from p to n side and the diode is in the forward
bias. When the diode is reverse-biased and V is several times of VT, ID - Io. The
reverse current is therefore constant independent of applied reverse bias.
At a reverse biasing voltage V R, a large reverse current flows and the diode is
said to be in break down region.
Cut-in voltage (offset, break point or threshold voltage) (V):
The cut-in voltage is defined as the voltage across the diode below which the
current is very small (say less than 1% max rated value), and beyond V the current
raises very rapidly.
The temperature dependence of the V-I characteristics
The reverse saturation current Io doubles for every 10C raise in temperature.
If IO = IO1 at T = T1 then at temperature T, Io is given by Io (T) = I O1 2(T-T1)/10. The
diode voltage decreases with the temperature and is given as dv / dt = -2.5mv / 0C
Dynamic resistance VT / I
Diode equivalent circuits:
A
A
Diode
Rf Forward resistance
(In the order of 100)
B
B
Rr Forward resistance
(In the order of M)
B
Forward bias
Reverse bias
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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470
0-30V
0-10mA
+ A
470
+
1N4007
V 0-1V
0-30V
0-500uA
+ A
+
1N4007
V 0-30V
PROCEDURE
Fig-1
Fig -2
FORWARD BIAS:
FORWARD
BIAS
REVERSE BIAS
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig 1
2. Vary the supply voltage gradually, starting from zero. Increase the applied
voltage and note the voltmeter reading(V)
3. For each 0.1 V step in V note the corresponding forward current (I) till V
becomes say 0.7 V. I should not exceed 10mA.
4. Tabulate the result and draw the V-I characteristics under forward bias
conditions.
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig(2)
2. Measure the current (reverse current) and voltage by increasing the voltage
1V steps. Do up to 20V.
3. Tabulate the results and plot the
S.No V(volts)
I (mA)
reverse bias characteristics.
1
0
0
4. Here the reverse current will be in
2
0.1
0.25
micro amperes.
3
0.2
0.4
5.
The reciprocal of the slope of these
4
0.3
0.5
curves for both the conditions gives the
5
0.4
0.65
resistance for forward and reverse bias
6
0.5
1
conditions.
7
0.55
1.7
OBSERVATIONS:
8
0.6
4
9
0.62
6.1
10
0.64
8.5
S.No V(volts)
I (A)
11
0.66
12.5
1
1
0
2
2
0
Forward bias
3
3
0
Reverse bias
4
4
0
5
5
0
6
6
0
7
7
0
8
8
0
LENDI institute of Engineering, and
technology
9
9
0
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10
10
0

MODEL GRAPHS
V (volts)
Vr
If
Ir
I (mA)
I A
Vf
V (volts)
Forward bias characteristics

characteristics
Reveres
bias
CONCLUSION:
The ideal resistance of the diode in forward bias is 0
Practical dynamic resistance of the diode in forward bias is 20 which is very low
The ideal resistance of the diode in reverse bias is .
Practical dynamic resistance of the diode in reverse bias is 28.260k which is very
high
Equipment Limitation:
470: To limit the flow of current in the circuit and protect the diode.
Even though we can use above 470 resistances but the voltage drop across
resister will be more and it requires more power supply, because of equipment
limitation we are using 470 .

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Voltmeter (0-1) V: the minimum voltage required for the diode to starts conduction
is 0.6v. So the voltmeter range (0-1) V is sufficient.
Ammeter (0-10) mA: the maximum capability of the ammeter is (0-100) mA.
Because of equipment limitation we are using (0-10) mA.
Exercise: change the resistance to 1K in the forward bias and note the difference.
RESULTS:
1. Cut-in voltage = Si - 0.6v, Ge - 0.2v
2. Dynamic forward resistance = Vf / If =20
3. Static forward resistance = V/I =118.6
4. Dynamic reverse resistance = Vr / Ir =28.260k
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Draw the piece wise linear V-I characteristics of a p-n diode, what is the circuit
model for ON state and OFF state?
What is Hole? How does it contribute to conduction?
Define depletion region?
How diode acts as a switch?
What parameters in a germanium diode differ from those in a silicon
Diode?

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Experiment No: 2
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: 1. To plot the V-I characteristics of the given Zener diode, both for
Forward and reverse bias.
2. To study the performance of a Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply
2. Ammeters
3. Voltmeters
0-30V
0-10mA
0-100mA
0-1V
0-10V
1 No.
BZ 6.2 V
470, 1k
1No.
1No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Zener diode
2. Resistor
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:
470
0-30V
0-10mA
470
+ A
6Z2
Fig 1
FORWARD BIAS
+
V
0-1V
0-30V
0-100mA
+
A
+
6Z2
V 0-10V
Fig - 2
REVERSE BIAS
THEORY:
The diode which is designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities
to operate in the breakdown region is Zero diode.

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V-I characteristics:
In forward bias, the current is increases from Zero and at a certain Voltage (V)
the current states increase more. This is called knee Voltage.
VF Forward Voltage (measured in mA)
IF Forward Current (measured in mA)
In reverse bias at a particular voltage the current is remains constant. That
voltage is called Breakdown voltage. Break down voltage depends on amount of
doping.
VR Reverse Voltage (measured in Volts)
IR Reverse Current (measured in mA).
The location of the Zener region can be controlled by varying the doping
levels. An increase in the doping produces an increase in the number of added
impurities. Further, this will decrease the Zener potential. Zener diodes are available
in the Zener potential range of 1.8 V to 200V with power rating from to 50W.
Silicon is usually preferred in the manufacturing of Zener diodes because of its
higher temperature and current handling capabilities. The equivalent circuit of the
Zener diode in the Zener region is given below.
Vz
Vz
Rz
Complete
Approximated
Two processes which produce the breakdown region are Avalanche

multiplication and Zener breakdown which are explained below.
Avalanche breakdown:
The thermally generated electrons and holes acquire sufficient energy from
the applied potential to produce new carriers by removing the valance electrons from
their bonds. These new carriers in turn produce additional carriers again through the
process of disrupting bonds. This cumulative process is referred as avalanche
breakdown. Avalanche multiplication involves when the reference voltage is above
6V. The temperature co-efficient is positive (% change in reference voltage per
centigrade degree change in diode temperature)
A junction with broad depletion layer, and therefore low field intensity will
break down by the avalanche mechanism.
Zener breakdown:

..Jonnada
21

This process initiates breakdown through a direct rupture of the bonds
because of the existence of a strong electric field. Zener breakdown involves when
the reference voltage is below 6V. The temperature co-efficient is negative.
A junction having a narrow depletion layer width and high field intensity will
breakdown by the Zener mechanism.
The networks employing Zener diodes can be analyzed by replacing the
Zener diode equivalent circuits (on and off states)
V
VZ
PROCEDURE:
ON state
V>VZ
VZ
OFF state
VZ >V>0V
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig(1)
2. Vary the supply voltage gradually, starting from zero. Increase the supply
voltage and note the voltmeter reading (V) for each 0.1V step in V, note the
corresponding forward current (I) till V becomes say 0.7 V. I should not
exceed 10mA.
3. Tabulate the results and draw the V-I characteristics under forward bias
conditions.
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig(2)
2. Increase the supply voltage suitably, to read Iz in steps of 5mA, starting from
zero upto say 40mA, note the corresponding values of Vz.
3. Tabulate the results and draw the V-I characteristics under reverse bias
conditions.
OBSERVATIONS:
Forward bias
S.No V(volts)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.64
0.66
Reverse bias
I (mA)
0.09
0.20
0.29
0.41
0.51
0.87
1.67
2.62

..Jonnada
22
S.No
V(volts)
I (mA)
0
0
1
0.25
Department of Electronics and Communication
Engineering
2
0.27
Electronic Devices and Circuits
Lab 0.5
3
4
1
0.68
2.92
4.2
1.16
0.7
4.79
4.6
2.5
0.72
9.92
4.8
5
4.9
10
5.0
15
5.1
20
5.1
25
5.1
30
5.1
35
5.1
40
MODEL GRAPHS
V (volts)
If
I
I (mA)
I (mA)
Vf
V (volts)
Forward bias characteristics
Reverse bias characteristics
CONCLUSION:
The ideal resistance of the diode in forward bias is 0.
Practical dynamic resistance of the diode in forward bias is 9.6 which is very small
The given break down voltage of the zener diode is 5.1V
The practical break down voltage of the zener diode is 5.1V
Equipment Limitation:
470: To limit the flow of current in the circuit and protect the diode.
Even though we can use above 470 resistances but the voltage drop across
resister will be more and it requires more power supply, because of equipment
limitation we are using 470 .
Voltmeter (0-1) V: the minimum voltage required for the diode to starts conduction
is 0.6v. so the voltmeter range (0-1)v is sufficient.

..Jonnada
23

Ammeter (0-10mA) the maximum capability of the ammeter is (0-100mA) because
of equipment limitation we are using (0-10mA)
Exercise: change the resistance to 1K in the forward bias and note the difference
RESULT:
Break down voltage = 5.1V
Dynamic forward resistance = 9.6
QUESTIONS:
1. How does the avalanche breakdown differ from Zener breakdown?
2. What are the applications of Zener diode?
3. What is stabilizer?
4. For the reference voltage, which is above 6V, what is the temperature
Coefficient?
Experiment No: 3
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

WITHOUT & WITH FILTERS
AIM: To study the half wave rectifier circuits without and with filters.
APPARATUS:
1. Ammeters
2. Digital multi-meter
3. Decade resistance box
0-100mA
1No.
1No.
1No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Diode
2. Transformer
3. Capacitors
1N4007
230V / 16-0-16 V, 0.5A,
1000F / 63V
2 Nos.
1No.
2 No.

..Jonnada
24

THEORY:
Rectifier:
A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero) into a unidirectional
(though not constant) waveform with a non zero average component is called a
rectifier.
All most all electronic circuits requires DC source of power. For portable lowpower system batteries may be used. More frequently, however electronic
equipment is energized by power supply, a circuit which converts the AC waveform
of the power lines to direct voltage of constant amplitude.
The block diagram of dc supply is shown below.
To load
AC Input
Transformer
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
The functions of the various circuits are as listed

Transformer: adjust the ac level such that the approximate dc amplitude is
achieved
Rectifier: A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of
converting a sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero) into a
unidirectional (though not constant) waveform with a non zero average
component.
Filter: Smoothes the waveform by eliminating the ac component from the
rectifier output
Regulator: Maintains a constant voltage level independent of load conditions
or variation in the amplitude of the ac supply.
The basic circuit for half wave rectifier is as shown below.
1N4007
+
AC Input
RL
0
Let Vi = VmSint
Vm is the peak value.

0
2
..Jonnada
25

The load current is given by
i = Imsin t if 0<t <
i=0
if <t < 2
Im = Vm / (Rf +RL)
During the interval, t = 0
, the Vi is positive and the diode will be forward
biased and the equivalent circuit is shown below (the diode is replaced by forward
resistance Rf)
+
V
Rf
Vi
RL
i = Vi / (Rf +RL) = Vm sint / (Rf +RL)

= (Vm / (Rf +RL)) sint
For the interval t = 2 , the Vi is negative and the diode becomes reverse
biased. The equivalent circuit is shown below. (The diode is replaced by open
circuit).
+
+
Vi
i=0
RL v=vi
Thus the output current is unidirectional and it will have non-zero average value.
Its average value = area of one cycle divided by the base
I dc
1
2
id [Because = t, base = 2, area of one cycle =

0
1
Im sin d 0d
2 0
I
I
Idc = m cos 0 = m
2
The dc output voltage is

I R
Vdc = Idc.RL= m L
Idc =
Irms =
2
0 i d =
1 2
i m sin 2 d = Im / 2
2 0

..Jonnada
26
id ]
0

PIV: The peak inverse voltage (PIV) or [PRV (peak reverse voltage)] rating of the
diode is primary importance in the design of rectification system. It is the voltage
rating that must not be exceeded in the reverse bias region of the diode.
In the half wave rectifier, when the diode is reverse biased, the voltage
appears across the diode is V i and its maximum value is V m. This Vm should not
exceed the PIV of the diode. Otherwise the diode will enter the Zener avalanche
region.
For half wave rectifier PIV rating > Vm
Half Wave Rectifier with filters:

A rectifier circuit is necessary to convert a signal having zero average value
into one that has a non-zero average. A filter circuit is necessary to provide a more
steady DC voltage.
A most popular filter circuit is a capacitor filter circuit is shown below.
AC input
Rectifier
circuit
Capacitor
filter
DC load RL
AC mains
The action of this system depends upon the fact that the capacitors stores
energy during the conduction period and delivers this energy to the load during the
non-conducting period. In this way the time during which the current passes through
the load is prolonged, and the ripple is considerably decreased.
The half wave capacitor filter is shown below.
i
+
+ v iL
vi
iC
vo
RL
The diode will be forward biased (short circuited) when the

voltage vi exceeds the capacitor voltage, then the capacitor starts
stepping with applied voltage.
The diode will be reverse biased (open circuited) when the
voltage vi falls below the capacitor voltage. Then the capacitor starts
through the load resistor.

..Jonnada
27
transformer
charging in
transformer
discharging

The following waveforms describe the effect of the capacitor on the circuit
response.
Let the capacitor is initially charged during the first quarter cycle the diode
conducts and the capacitor charges with input voltage up to V o = Vm . When vi is falls
below Vm the diode is not conducting the capacitor discharges at slower rate than
input voltage. If the time constant R LC is large as compared period of input
waveform the discharge is slow. Thus only a small decrease in V O occurs between t1
and t2. At time t = t2, the vi equals the capacitor voltage. The diode again conducts
between t2 and t3 does not conduct between t3 and t4. The process is repeated.
Ripple factor:
The filtered output has a DC value and some ac variations (Ripple). These
smaller the ac variation with respect to the DC level the better the filter circuit
operation. The filter voltage waveform with DC and ripple voltages is shown below.
Ripple factor(r) = Rms value of ac component of a signal
100%
Average value of signal
100% = Vr (Rms)
Vdc
Voltage regulation:
The variation of dc output as a function of dc load current is called regulation.
The percentage regulation is given as
% regulation = V no load V load 100%
V load
V no load dc output voltage under zero load current (R L =)
V load
dc output voltage at normal load current at which regulation is
determined.
For ideal power supply the output voltage is independent of the load current or the
load resistance and the percentage regulation is zero
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-100mA
+ A
AC mains
1N4007
+
DMM
DRB

..Jonnada
28

PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

Give input from AC mains and measure the secondary voltage Vs of the
transformer.
Measure the no load DC voltage using DMM. Let this be V NL.
Now connect the DRB. Vary the DRB and note the values of I DC, in steps of
10mA until the current reaches 100mA.
At each step measure the VDC and VAC. Calculate ripple factor as the ratio of
VAC, VDC.
Model wave form for half wave rectifier without filter:
V
Time
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No IDC
VDC
VAC
(ma)
(V)
(V)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
9.2
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.8
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
= VAC/VDC
1.272
1.281
1.283
1.289
1.294
1.294
1.294
1.298
1.303
1.307
VNL=7.5V
%regulation
VNL-VDC 100
VDC
4.16
5.63
7.14
8.66
10.29
10.29
10.29
11.94
13.65
15.38
Verify the following theoretical calculations:

1. Expected DC output voltage.
2. Ripple factor of half wave.
3. Observe the output waveforms on CRO.

..Jonnada
29

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-100mA
DIB
1N4007
AC mains
+ A
1000F
63V
N2
+
-
1000F
63V
+
V
-
DMM
DRB
N3
PROCEDURE:
2.
transformer.
3.
Now connect the DRB. Vary the DRB and note the values of I dc, in steps of
4.
5.
VAC VDC.
Model wave form for half wave rectifier with filter:
1.
Time
Ripples in half wave rectifier
OBSERVATIONS:
VNL =21.4v
S.No IDC
10
20
30
VDC
19.7
18.9
18.6
(ma)
= VAC /VDC
(*10-3)
190.2
189.5
188.3
9.65
10.02
10.12
VAC
%regulation
VNL-VDC 100
VDC
4.56
8.99
10.75

..Jonnada
30

40
50
60
70
80
90
100
18.4
17.7
17.2
16.5
16.1
15.5
15.5
188
187.6
187
187.4
187.8
188
185.5
10.21
10.59
10.87
11.35
11.66
12.12
12.16
11.95
16.38
19.76
24.84
27.95
32.9
32.9
Plot the graphs of VDC Vs IDC, Vs IDC and % regulation Vs IDC

CONCLUSION:
The theoretical value of ripple factor for half wave rectifier is 1.21 and the
practical value of ripple factor is 1.29 which is almost equal.
From the plot drawn b/w %Regulation VS IDC we find that the graph is linear.
RESULT: - Experimentally the efficiency
= 40.8%
(Without filter) Percentage Regulations
= 0.06
(With filter) Percentage Regulations
= 0.14
Ripple factor
= 1.21
QUESTIONS:
1. How the capacitor reduces the ripples?
2. Explain how DC voltage is finally obtained, starting from AC input voltage to
the rectifier circuit.
3. The capacitor rectifier circuit also acts as a envelope demodulator, Explain?
Experiment No: 4
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

WITHOUT & WITH FILTERS
AIM: To study the full wave rectifier circuits without and with filters.
APPARATUS:
1. Ammeters
2. Digital multi-meter
3. Decade resistance box
0-100mA
1No.
1No.
1No.
COMPONENTS:

..Jonnada
31

4. Diode
1N4007
2 Nos.
5. Transformer
230V / 16-0-16 V, 0.5A,
1No.
6. Capacitors
1000F / 63V
2 No.
THEORY:
Rectifier:
A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of converting a
sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero) into a unidirectional
(though not constant) waveform with a non zero average component is called a
rectifier.
All most all electronic circuits requires DC source of power. For portable lowpower system batteries may be used. More frequently, however electronic
equipment is energized by power supply, a circuit which converts the AC waveform
of the power lines to direct voltage of constant amplitude.
The block diagram of dc supply is shown below.
To load
AC Input
Transformer
5.
6.
7.
8.
Rectifier
Filter
Regulator
The functions of the various circuits are as listed

Transformer: adjust the ac level such that the approximate dc amplitude is
achieved
Rectifier: A device, such as the semiconductor diode, which is capable of
converting a sinusoidal input waveform (whose average value is zero) into a
unidirectional (though not constant) waveform with a non zero average
component.
Filter: Smoothes the waveform by eliminating the ac component from the
rectifier output
Regulator: Maintains a constant voltage level independent of load conditions
or variation in the amplitude of the ac supply.
AC mains
Full wave rectifier:

The circuit of the full wave rectifier is shown below. This circuit is seen to
comprise two half-wave circuits connected
so that conduction takes place through
D1
one diode during one half cycle and thorough other diode during the second half of
the cycle.
i1
im

..Jonnada
32
D2

vm
i1
+ Vo +
vm
i2
i2
im
0
i
im
Idc
t
During the positive cycle of the input signal D 1 is forward biased and i 1 current
is flown through D1 and RL. During negative half cycle of the input signal, D 2 is
reverse biased and i2 current is flowing through D2 and RL. The current to the load,
which is the sum of these currents, i = i 1+i2. The dc and rms values of the load
current and load voltages are.
Idc = Average value = Area of one cycle divided by the base [because here base
(time) =
]
Im
1
Idc = I m sin .d cos 0

0
im
(2) = 2Im /
Vm
2I R
Where Im =
, Vdc I dc R L m L
R f RL
Vm is the peak transformer secondary voltage from one end to the center tap.
The dc output voltage of the Fullwave connection is twice that for the half wave
circuit. Because the area above the axis for one full AC input cycle is twice that
obtained for a half-wave system.
2
I m 1 cos 2
1
2
2
2
I rms = I m sin ..d =
d
0
0
2
Im
2
sin 2

= Im2 / 2
0
Irms =
Im
2
PIV:

..Jonnada
33

AC mains
When any one of the two diodes is reversed biased, (let that is replaced by
open circuit) the maximum voltage appears across that open circuit. This can be
solved by following equivalent circuits
B
vmA
RL
vm
RL
vm
vm
C
When D1 open circuited (reverse biased)

biased)
D2 short circuited (forward biased)
biased)
when D1 short circuited (forward

D 2 open circuited (reverse
By applying the KVL we can find out, VAB or VCD

VAB = VCD = 2Vm
Thus, when any diode is reverse biased, and then a maximum of 2Vm
appears across that diode. For safe operation, the PIV rating of that diode should be
greater that or equal to 2Vm.
PIV > 2Vm for center tap transformer full-wave rectifier
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
AC mains
1N4007
0-100mA
+A
+
DMM
DRB
1N4007
PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
transformer.
3.

..Jonnada
34

Now connect the DRB. Vary the DRB and note the values of Idc, in steps of
5.
VAC VDC.
Model wave forms for Full wave rectifier without filter:
4.
V
Time-
OBSERVATIONS:
VNL=14.1V
S.No IDC
VDC
VAC
(ma)
(V)
(V)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
14.0
13.9
13.8
13.8
13.7
13.7
13.7
13.7
13.6
13.6
6.2
6.1
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
= VAC/VDC
0.442
0.438
0.434
0.434
0.434
0.437
0.437
0.437
0.441
0.441
%regulation
VNL-VDC 100
VDC
0.71
1.43
2.17
2.17
2.91
2.91
2.91
2.91
3.67
3.67
Plot the graph of V DC verses IDC. Vs IDC and calculate the theoretical values of
expected DC output voltage and observe the output on CRO.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
AC mains
+ A
+
-
N2
0-100mA
DIB
1N4007
1000F
63V
+
-
1000F
63V
+
V
-
DMM
N3
1N4007
Model graph full wave rectifier with filter:

V

..Jonnada
35
DRB

Ripples in full wave rectifier

Time-
PROCEDURE:
Repeat the experiment for a full wave rectifier with the connections as shown in the
above figure and tabulate the results.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No IDC(mA)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
VDC(v)
VAC(mv)
= VAC /VDC
(*10-3)
19.7
18.9
18.6
18.4
17.7
17.2
16.5
16.1
15.5
15.5
190.2
189.5
188.3
188
187.6
187
187.4
187.8
188
185.5
9.65
10.02
10.12
10.21
10.59
10.87
11.35
11.66
12.12
12.16
%regulation
VNL-VDC 100
VDC
4.56
8.99
10.75
11.95
16.38
19.76
24.84
27.95
32.9
32.9
CONCLUSIONS:
Theoretical and practical ripple factors for full wave rectifier are very less.
The graphical representation of %Regulation verses I DC is linear.
RESULT: - Experimentally the efficiency
(Without filter) Percentage of Regulation
Ripple factor
(With filter)
Percentage of Regulation
= 81.14%
= 0.56
= 0.482
= 0.109
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
Why does ripple factor is good for full wave rectifier than the half wave
rectifier?
The frequency of the full wave rectifier is twice that of a input signal frequency
and the frequency of the half wave rectifier is same as that of the I/P signal
frequency, Explain why?

..Jonnada
36

3.
Why should be the PIV rating of the diode in full wave rectifier is twice that of
diode in half wave rectifier?
Experiment No: 5
TRANSISTOR CE CONFIGURATION
(INPUT AND OUTPUT)
AIM: To obtain the input and output characteristics of a given transistor in CE
Configuration.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supplies
2. Ammeters
3. Voltmeters
0-30V
0-1mA,
0- 10 mA,
0-100mA
0-1V
0-30V
2Nos.
BC 107
1K
1No.
1No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Transistor
2. Resistor
THEORY:Input characteristics
CE=
2V
CE=
1V
CE=
0V
IB
Transistor
VBE
The input characteristic is the plot of the input current I B Vs input voltage VBE
for a range of values of output voltage V CE.

..Jonnada
37

With VCE = 0 and emitter junction forward biased, the input characteristic is
essentially that of a forward bias. As VCE increases with constant VBE, it causes a
decrease in base width and results in a decreasing recombination base current.
SATURATION
REGION
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics are a plot of the output current I C versus output voltage
VCE for a range of values of input current IB.
IC
IB=600A
IB=550A
0
ACTIVE REGION
IB=500A
Active Region
In the active region the collector junction is reversed biased and emitter
junction is forward biased. In this region the transistor outputIB=0A
current I C responds
most sensitively to an input signal.
VCE
In the active region the output characteristic I C is given
by
CUTOFF REGION
IC = IB + (1+) ICO.
ICEO = ICBO
Note that IB >>ICO, and hence IC IB in the active region.
The curves of the output characteristics are not as horizontal as those of the
output characteristics in the common base configuration.
Assume that, because of the early effect , increases by only one half of 1%
from 0.98 to 0.985, as VCE increases from a few volts to 10 volts, then the value of
Beta increases from (0.98/1-0.98) = 49 to (0.985/1-0985) = 66, or about 34%. This
numerical example illustrates that a very small change in reflects a very large
change in the value of , and hence upon the common emitter curves.
Cut-off region
The cut-off region is defined as the condition where the collector current is
equal to the reverse saturation current I CO and the emitter current is zero. For the
transistor to be in cut-off, IE=0, IC=ICO, IB = -IC = -ICO, and VBE is a reverse voltage
whose magnitude is of the order of 0.1V for germanium and 0 V for silicon transistor.
Saturation region

..Jonnada
38

In the saturation region the collector junction and emitter junction are forward
biased by at least the cut-in voltage (V). Since the voltages VBE and VBC across a
forward biased emitter junction and collector junction have a magnitude of only a few
tenths of a volt (V), VCE = VBE - VBC = zero, (ideal) or VCE = few tenths of the volt
(practical) at saturation. Hence, in output characteristics the saturation region is very
close to zero voltage axis.
In saturation region the collector current is approximately equal to base
current, for given values of VCC and RC.
INPUT & OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-100mA
1K 0-10 mA
+
-
0-30V
BC107
+
V
+
V
0-1V
0-30V
0-30V
PROCEDURE FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Keep the V CE =0V (constant).
1.
Increase the VBE and observe the IB for different values of VBE.
Tabulate the results. Plot the graph V BE Vs IB. Repeat the experiment for V CE =
2.
1V & VCE = 2V.
PROCEDURE FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Starting with VBB = 0, increase it to get IB = 500uA. Then increase the V CC in
steps and note down the values of IC, without exceeding the rated values.
2. Tabulate the results. Repeat for different values of I B , say 550A & 600A and
draw the family of characteristics.
OBSERVATIONS:
Input characteristics
Output characteristics

..Jonnada
39

S.No VCE=0v
VBE=(v)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.62
0.64
0.66
0.68
0.7
0.73
IB(ma)
0
0.18
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.9
1.2
1.8
2.5
3.8
5.9
10
VCE=1v
VBE(v)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.72
0.74
0.76
0.78
0.8
0.92
IB(ma)
0
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.6
10
C
ON
CL
US
IO
NS
:
S.No IB=580A
IC
VCE
0.3 1
0.4 2
0.5 4
0.6 7
0.7 9
0.8 10
0.8 11
0.8 12
IB=600A
IC
VCE
0.6 1
0.6 3
0.7 5
0.8 7
0.9 8
0.9 9
0.9 10
1.0 11
1.0 12
IB=620A
IC
VCE
0.9
1
0.9
2
1.0
4
1.1
6
1.2
8
1.3
10
1.4
11
1.4
12
From the plot drawn Between I C & VBE for

constant values of VCE we observe that as V CB
increases IE increases this is due to early
effect.
From the Plot drawn Between IC & VCE for constant values of IE we observe that IC
increases for constant value of IE.
RESULT: - For Input Characteristics dynamic resistance
= 33.33
For Output Characteristics dynamic resistance= 400
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
What is ICBO, and how does it varies with temperature.

What should be the value of the V BE to keep the transistor in the cut-off?
(both Ge and Si)
What is the order of magnitude of the temperature co-efficient of V BE (SAT), VBC
(SAT), and VCE (SAT)?
Is VBE (SAT), greater or less than VCE (SAT)? Explain.
Why the O/P characteristics of CE configuration do are not as horizontal as
those of C.B configuration O/P characteristics?

..Jonnada
40

Experiment No: 6
TRANSISTOR CB CONFIGURATION
AIM: To obtain the input and output characteristics of a given transistor in CB
Configuration.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supplies
2. Ammeters
3. Voltmeters
0-30V
0-10mA
0-1V
0-30V
2Nos.
2Nos.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Transistor BC 107
2. Resistor -1K
-1No.
-1No.
THEORY:
In the common base configuration, the base is common to both input and
output circuit. The output (collector) current I C is completely determined by the input
(emitter) current IE and the output (collector to base) voltage V CB.

..Jonnada
41

IC = f (VCB, IE)
The input voltage VEB is completely determined from the emitter current and
collector to base voltage.
The early effect or base width modulation:
The width W of the depletion region of the diode increases with the magnitude
of the reverse voltage. The collector junction is reverse biased in the active region.
As the voltage applied at the junction increases, transition region penetrates deeper
into the collector and base. As the neutrality of the charge must be maintained, the
number of uncovered charges on each side remains equal. Since the doping in the
base is smaller than that of the collector, the penetration of the transition region into
the base is much larger than into the collector. Hence collector depletion region is
neglected.
This modulation of effective base width by collector voltage is known as early
effect or base width modulation. These effects have three consequences.
increases with increase in VCB
1)
IE increases with increase in VCB
2)
For extremely large voltage the base width may be reduced to zero,
3)
causing voltage breakdown in the transistor.
Input characteristics:
The input characteristics represent the forward characteristics of the emitter
to base junction for various collector voltages.
CB=
0V
CB=
1V
CB=
2V
IE
For fixed values of collector voltage VVEBCB, as the base to emitter voltage (V EB) is below
the cut-in voltage (V) the emitter current is very small. When V EB exceeds this V the
emitter current increases rapidly. The increase in the magnitude of collector voltage
will cause the base width modulation and the emitter current increases for less value
of VEB.
Output characteristics
The output characteristics will relate output current I C to an output voltage VCB
for various values of IE.The output characteristics have three basic regions.

..Jonnada
42

SATURATION REGION
1) Active Region
2) Cut-Off Region
3) Saturation Region
IC
IE = 3mA
IE = 2mA
Active Region
ACTIVE REGION
In the active region the collector
junction is reversed biased and emitter
junction is forward biased. In this region the transistor output
IE = current
1mA I C responds
most sensitively to an input signal.
In the active region the output characteristic I C is given by
IE = region.
0mA
0B0. IE >>IBO, and hence IC IE in the active
IC = IE+I
VCB
and is less than 1.So the
collectorREGION
current is essentially independent
of collector
CUT-OFF
voltage and depends only upon emitter current.
the magnitude of collector current is (slightly) less than that of the emitter current.
Saturation Region
The region to the left of the ordinate, V CB = 0, and above the characteristic I E =
0, in which both emitter and collector junction are forward biased, is called the
saturation region. There is a large change in the collector current with small change
in collector voltage.
Cut-off Region
The region below the IE = 0 characteristic, for which emitter and collector
junctions are both reverse biased, is referred to as a cut-off region.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
1K
0-30V
0-10mA
0-10mA
BC107
A +
0-1V
A +
V
0-30V
+
..Jonnada
43
Fig: 4.3 INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF CB TRANSISTOR
0-30V

PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1.
2.
Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Keep the V CB 0V(constant).

Increase the VEB and observe the IE for different values of VEB.
Tabulate the results. Plot the graph V EB Vs IE. Repeat the experiment for V CB =
1V & VCB = 1.5V.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Starting with VEB = 0, increase it to get I E = 1mA. Then increase the V CB in
steps and note down the values of Ic, without exceeding the rated values.
2. Tabulate the results. Repeat for different values of I E , say 2mA & 3mA and
draw the family of characteristics.
OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
S.No VCB = 0v
VEB IE
1
0
0
2
0.1 0.11
3
0.2 0.22
4
0.3 0.32
5
0.4 0.42
6
0.5 0.63
7
0.52 0.79
8
0.54 1.06
9
0.56 2.35
10
0.58 3.72
11
0.6 6.0
12
0.62 9.43
VCB = 1v
VEB IE
0
0
0.1 0.11
0.2 0.22
0.3 0.32
0.4 0.42
0.5 0.61
0.52 3.35
0.54 6.68
0.56 8.65
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
S.No IE = 1mA
IC
VCB
1
0.43 0
2
0.52 2
3
0.64 4
4
0.73 6
5
0.82 8
6
0.92 10
7
1.0 12
8
1.1 14
9
1.17 16
10
1.26 18
11
1.34 20
IE = 2mA
IC
VCB
1.42 0
1.74 2
1.83 4
1.89 6
1.98 8
2.05 10
2.07 12
2.16 14
2.23 16
2.35 18
2.4 20
CONCLUSIONS:

..Jonnada
44
IE = 3mA
IC
VCB
2.42 0
2.68 2
2.8
4
2.9
6
2.99 8
3.07 10
3.13 12
3.21 14
3.31 16
3.43 18
3.47 20

From the input characteristics we observed that as V CE increases VBE (cut in voltage)
decreases and base current IB increases due to base width modulation.
From the output characteristics we observed that as IE increases, IC also increases
and IC is almost equal to IE as VCE increases.
RESULT: - The Input and Output Characteristics of Common-Base configuration are
obtained.
QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is base width modulation (The early effect)?

The common base amplifier is also current follower, why?
What is meant by active region?
Because of early effect, there is a small increase in IC, with VCB,
Explain?
Experiment No: 7
MEASUREMENT OF H-PARAMETERS OF TRANSISTOR

IN CB, CE, CC CONFIGURATIONS
..Jonnada
45

AIM:
To measure the h-parameters of the given transistor in CB, CE
characteristics.
Theory:
The terminal behavior of a two port device is specified by two voltages and
two currents.
i1
i2
+
+
Two-port active
Input V1
V2
output
device
Port port
We may select two of the four quantities as independent variables and
express the remaining two in terms of the chosen independent variables. If the
current i1 and the voltage V2 are independent variables and if the two ports are
linear, we may write
V1 = h11 i1 +h12V2.
i1 = h21 i1 +h22V2.
The quantities h11, h12, h21, & h22 are called the h or hybrid parameters because
they are not all alike dimensionally. The h parameters are defined as follows.
hi = h11 = V1
= input resistance with output short circuit(ohms)

V2 = 0
i1
hr = h12 = V1
= reverse open circuit voltage amplification
V2 i 2 = 0
(dimensionless)
hf = h21 = i2
= short circuit current gain ( dimensionless)

V2 = 0
i1
ho = h22 = i1
V2
= output conductance with open circuit (mhos)

i1 = 0
The model: By using four h-parameters we can construct mathematical model of

the two port active device.
hi
V1
hrV2
i2
i1
h f i1
ho
V2
Transistor Hybrid Model:

..Jonnada
46

For small signals, the transistor operates with reasonable linearity, so
that the transistor can be replaced by hybrid equivalent circuit.
The hybrid small signal model for common emitter configuration.
For common emitter configuration, the input voltage and input current
are VBE and IB. the output voltage and current are VCE and IC.
The h-parameter equations are
VBE = hieib+hrevce
Ic = hfe Ib + hoeVce
hie
+
Vbe
E
B
Ib
Ic
hreVce
hfeib
hoe
Vce
-
The h-parameters are

Vbe Vbe
Vbe 2 Vbe1
Vce
I b
I b
I b 2 I b1
V
Vbe
hre be
Ib
Vce Vce
i
i
h fe c c Vce
i f
ib
i
ic
hoe c
Ib
Vce Vce
The hybrid small signal model for common collector configuration
hie
hie
+
Vbe
C
hreVce
Ie
Ib
hfeib
hoe

..Jonnada
47
Vce
- C

VBC = hicib+hrcvec
Ie = hfc ib + hoeVec.
And h-parameter are given by
hic
Vbc Vbe
I b
I b
Vbc
Vec
i
h fc e
ib
i
hoe e
Vec
hrc
Vec
Vbc
ib
Vec
ie
V
ib ec
ie
ib
Vec
The hybrid small signal model for C.B. configuration
hib
Veb
+C
Ie
hrbVcb
Ic
E
+
hfbie
hob
Vcb
B-
- B
Veb = hibie+hrbvcb
ic = hfb ie + hobVcb.
and h-parameter given by
hib
Veb Veb
ie
ib
Vcb

..Jonnada
48

Veb Veb
ie
Vcb Vcb
i
i
h fb c c Vcb
ie ie
i
ic
hob c
ie
Vcb Vcb
OBSERVATIONS:
The h-parameters for CE configuration are
hrb
hie = (Vbe/Ib) at Vce=1V

=
0.64 0.6
200
0.8 0.610 3
hre = (Vbe/Vce) at Ib=0.8mA

=
0.64 0.58
0.06
1 0
hfie = (Ic/Ib) at Vce=2V

1.2 0.410 3 16
=
0.6 0.5510 3
hoe = (Ic/Vce) at Ib=0.8mA
1.4 1.2 10 3 0.1*10 3
=
4 210 3
The h-parameters for CBconfiguration are
hib = (Vbe/Ie) at Vce=1V
=
0.55 0.52
5 .6
6.5 1.210 3
hrb = (Vbe/Vce) at Ie=0.8mA

=
0.65 0.58
0.07
1 0
hfb = (Ic/Ie) at Vce=2V

2.6 1.6 10 3 1
=
3 2 10 3
hob = (Ic/Vce) at Ie=0.8mA
1.7 1.4 10 3 0.15 *10 3
=
2 010 3
Conclusions:
Conclusions can be made on theoretical and practical values of hie, hre, hoe, hfe
for CE configuration.

..Jonnada
49

Conclusions can be made on theoretical and practical values of hib, hrb, hob, hfb
for CB configuration.
QUESTIONS:
1. Why does the h-parameter vary with quiescent point and temperature?
2. How o the h-parameter vary with quiescent point and temperature?
3. Draw the simplified hybrid model for common emitter configuration
circuit.
Experiment No.8
FET CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To obtain the static characteristics (V DS vs. ID.). To obtain the transfer
characteristics (VGS vs. ID) of a given FET and to calculate the parameters of FET (rd,
m, )
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power supplies
ammeter
Voltmeters
R.P.S
0-30V
0- 10mA
0-10V
0-30V
2Nos.
BFW 11
IN 4007
1No
1No
1 No
1 No
1 No
COMPONENTS:
1. FET
2. Diode
THEORY:FET CHARACTERISTICS
The field effect transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device. The three
terminals are Gate, Drain and Source. The FET is a majority carrier (Unipolar)
device and it is a voltage controlled current source. It is a voltage controlled device
since the output drain current is controlled by Gate to source voltage. It can also acts
as a current source since the output drain current independent on the drain
resistance or drain to source voltage
The high input impedance and low noise are two of the advantages of FET.
The main disadvantage of FET is relatively small gain bandwidth product as
compared to transistor.
An important feature of the FET is that, it is often simpler to fabricate and
occupies less space on the chip then does the BJT. To the resultant component
density can be extremely high, of a exceeding of 10 5 MOSFET per chip. MOS

..Jonnada
50

devices can be connected as resistor and capacitors. Exploitation of this features
makes the MOSFET the dominate device in VLSI.
There are two types of field effect transistors.
The junction field effect transistor (JFET or simply FET).
And the Insulated Gate field effect transistor (IGFET) more commonly called
the Metal Oxide semiconductor (MOS) transistor. (MOST or MOSFET).
MOSFET are of two types .Depletion type MOSFET and Enhanced type
MOSFET. The JFET and depletion type MOSFET can be used in amplifier s. The
enhancement type MOSFET is more popular in digital circuits.
JFET V-I Characteristics.
There are two types of JFET one is n-Channel and the other is p- Channel
FET. The Characteristic of n-channel FET are shown below. For n-channel FET the
gate to source voltage is negative and for the p-channel FET gate to source voltage
is positive.
Static characteristic
Static characteristic are the plot of I D versus VDS for a range of values of V GS.
With VGS = 0, and by applying V DS, this VDS along the n-type bar reverse biases the
gate-junction. For small values of V DS, ID increases linearly with VDS. A voltage VDS is
reached at which the channel is pinch-off, I D begins to level off and approaches
constant values (IDSS).
IDSS is the maximum drain current for JFET is defined by the condition.
VGS = 0V and VDS is greater than VP.
The Ohmic Region
The region to the left of the pinch off locus is referred as a ohmic Region or
Voltage controlled resistance Region. In this region the JFET can actually be
employed as a variable resistor. (Resistance = VD / ID). Is controlled by the VGS.
Pinch-off Region or Saturation Region
In this region ID responds very slightly to VDS, it depends upon VGS and is
given by
ID = IDSS 1 VGS 2
VP
Where VP = Pinch off Voltage.
The pinch off Voltage is defined as, It is the gate to source voltage at which
the drain current becomes zero. The FET acts as voltage controlled current source
and can be used as an amplifier by properly biased.
Transfer Characteristics:

..Jonnada
51

The transfer Characteristics is a plot of I D Versus VGS at a constant value of
VDS.
When VGS = 0, ID = IDSS.
When VGS = VP, ID = 0.
The transfer characteristics are defined by the equation I D = IDSS 1 VGS
VP
SYMBOLS
Drain
N- Channel JFET
D
Gate 1
P Channel JFET
Gate 2
Source
G
S
Lead configuration
The direction of the arrow indicates the directions in which the gate current
would flow of the gate junction were forward biased.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-10mA
+A
1N4007
BFW 11
+
0-30V
0-30V
0-10V
0-30V
PROCEDURE:
A) STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:

..Jonnada
52

1.
2.
3.
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure. The diode is only for protection.
Keep the gate voltage VGS = 0V and increase the drain voltage V D from zero
to 10 V in convenient steps, noting the drain current I D at each step.
Plot the graph between VD and ID.
Repeat the experiment for different values of gate voltage.
B) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
Keep the VDS constant say 10 V and record I D for different (-ve) values of VGS
starting from zero. Tabulate the result and draw the graphs.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
VGS = 0
VDS (volts)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ID(mA)
0
4
5.9
6.5
6.7
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
6.8
VGS = -1V
VDS (volts)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
ID(mA)
0
2
2.4
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.9
VDS = 2V
VGS (volts)
0
1
2
3
4
5
ID(mA)
5.3
2.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
VGS = -2V
VDS (volts)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
VDS = 10v
VGS (volts)
0
1
2
3
4
5
ID(mA)
6.8
2.7
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4

..Jonnada
53
ID(mA)
0
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.8

7
8
9
10
11
6
7
8
9
10
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
6
7
8
9
10
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
MODEL GRAPHS:
TRANSFER
CHARACTERISTICS
ID
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
VGS = 0V
VGS = -1V
VGS
VGS = -2V
VDS = 5V
CONCLUSIONS:
VDS = 2V
From the graphical representation of IDVS VDS we observed that as VGS increasing
VDS
ID decreasing.
From the graphical representation of I DVS VGS we observed that at VGS =0 ID is
maximum. As VGS is increasing ID decreasing.
RESULT:
From these values of above graphs determine

rd = VDS /ID at constant VGS
= (3-2)/ (6.5-5.9) mA
=1.66k at constant VGS = 0v
gm = ID / VGS at constant VDS.
= (2.7-0.8) mA/ (2-1)
=1.9ms at constant VDS = 10v
And as the product of gm and rd.

=3.154
QUESTIONS:

..Jonnada
54

1. Define IDSS, VP, VGS (off) gm, rd, ?
2. What is biasing voltage for gate to source junction?
3. What is the input impedance if a Junction FET?
Experiment No: 9
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To design a common emitter amplifier and obtain its voltage gain,
Current gain, Input impedance output impedance.
3. To plot the frequency response and to determine the bandwidth of the
amplifier.
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power supply (0-30V)

CRO
Digital multimeter
Signal generator
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
220
1No.
Other resistors of designed values.
10 F
2Nos
100F
1No.
BC 547
1No.
THEORY

..Jonnada
55

The CE amplifier is having a voltage and current gain greater than unity. The
values of input resistance Ri and output resistance Ro lie between those for CB and
CC amplifiers. The CE amplifier in this laboratory uses self biasing or emitter biasing
configuration. The power supply Vcc, resistors R 1, R2, RC provides the biasing. The
emitter resistor RE is meant for stabilization. The coupling capacitor blocks the DC
voltages but freely passes the signal voltages. If the input coupling capacitor C 1 is
not used, the dc or average value of the signal source may offer the biasing of the
amplifier. The output signal voltage may be applied to the input of another amplifier
without effecting its bias, because of the blocking capacitor C 2. The emitter resistor
RE provides stabilization as follows. If Ic tends to increase. (Let I CO has risen due to
increase in temperature). The current in RE is IE = IC + IB also increases. The
voltage drop across RE also increases and the drop are in the direction to reverse
bias the emitter junction so that the base current is decreased. Finally the collector
current, IC decreases. Hence IC will increase less than it would have, had there been
no self biasing resistor RE.
The Bypass capacitor CE is mainly used to prevent the loss of amplification
due to negative feedback provided by the R E. This bypass capacitor will affect the
low frequency response of the amplifier.
RC
C2 = 10F
+
R1
VCC = 12V
C1 10F
-
DRB
Signal
Generator
BC 547
RS 220
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CRO
CE 100F
R2
RE
DESIGN:
Design 1
Determine the values of RC, RE, R1, R2 for the network for the operating points
indicated
VCC = 12 V, ICQ = 5mA, VCEQ = 6V VBE = 0.6V.
VEN = VCC / 10=1.2V
RE = VEN / IE = VEN / IC (IE IC )= 240
RC = VRC / IC = (VCC VCEQ - VEN) / IC= 960
VBN = VBE + VE = 1.8V
R2 (1 / 10 ) RE = 5.76k
VBN = (R2 /(R1+R2)) VCC

..Jonnada
56

R1 = 30k
Alternate Design
Vcc=12v, Choose operating point as (IcQ= 5mA, VCEQ= 6v)
Rc = 1K Choose stability factor S=12
Measure value of the transistor using digital multimeter
Calculate IB = IC/ =
Re = (Vcc- Vce- IC RC)/ (IB +Ic)
S = (1+) [1+ (Rb/Re)]/ [1++ (Rb/Re)]
Calculate Rb/Re, and then calculate Rb.
VBN =VBE + IE Re , VBE =0.7v
V = VBN +IBRb (where V is thevinens voltage considering Vcc, R1, R2)
(V/Rb) =Vcc/R1, then calculate R1
Calculate IR1 =(Vcc - VBN)/R1
Calculate IR2 = IR1 IB
R2 = (VBN/ IR2)
[Rb =R1R2/ (R1+R2),V=VccR2/( R1+R2) in the thevinens circuit]
PHYSICAL DESIGN
VCC 12V , I CQ =5mA VCEQ =6v
V
12V
VEN = CC
1 .2 V
10
10
Ven VEN
1.2
240
RE =
IE
IC
5X10 3
R E 240
VRC VCC VCEQ VEN
Ic
IC
12 6 1.2
960
=
5X10 3
R C 960
RC
VBN VBE VE 0.7 1.2 1.9V

1
R2
XXR E
10
1
R2
X300X 240
10
R 2 7.2K
R 2 7.2K
VBN
R2
X12
R1 R 2
1.9
7.2K
X12
R 1 7.2K
R1 =38.27K

..Jonnada
57

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit with component values calculated.
2. Verify the co-ordinates of operating points and note down any deviations from
the designed values (VCEQ, ICQ and VBE).
3. Connect the signal generator with a sine wave of 1 KHz frequency to the input
and increase the input to such a level that the output waveform of the signal
as observed on CRO is not distorted.
4. Measure the input and output voltages and calculate the gain of the amplifier.
Av = (VO/P / VI/P).
5. To measure the input impedance, find the voltage drop across the known
resistance RS. The input current therefore is measured as the voltage across
Rs / Rs value. Input impedance Zi = Vi /Ii
6. To measure the input impedance, measure the output signal voltage V O/P
without any load. Connect a resistive load and then adjust the load until the
new output signal VO/P equal to the one half of the original signal. Remove the
ROUT from the circuit and measure its value. The measured value is the output
impedance of the circuit.
7. To measure the current gain AI, note down the output signal voltage when Ro
is connected and divide it by Ro to get the output current. Now current gain =
output current / input current. The power gain is the product of voltage gain
and current gain.
8. Vary the frequency of the input signal from 50Hz to 1MHz in suitable steps
and calculate gain at each step. Plot the graph between gain in dB Vs
frequency. Note down the half power points and find the bandwidth of the
amplifier.
9. Observe the phase relation between input and output signals at different
frequencies.
MODEL GRAPHS:
AV
Max
Gain in dBs
3dB point
Bandwidth

..Jonnada
58

Frequency
TABULATION:
Frequency Response
Frequen
Input
S.No
cy ( Hz)
Voltage
1
50
40mV
2
70
40mV
3
100
40mV
4
200
40mV
5
300
40mV
6
500
40mV
7
700
40mV
8
800
40mV
9
1K
40mV
10
2K
40mV
11
3K
40mV
12
4K
40mV
13
5K
40mV
14
7K
40mV
15
8K
40mV
16
10K
40mV
17
20K
40mV
18
30K
40mV
19
50K
40mV
20
70K
40mV
21
80K
40mV
22
90K
40mV
23
100K
40mV
24
200K
40mV
25
400K
40mV
26
500K
40mV
27
700K
40mV
28
1M
40mV
Output
Voltage (V)
1.2
1.4
1.6
3.8
4.2
4.8
4.8
4.8
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4.8
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.0
3.8
3
2.8
2.2
1.5
Gain(V0/Vi)
20 log10 (V0/Vi)
30
35
40
95
105
120
120
120
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
125
120
115
112
110
100
95
75
70
55
37
29.54243
30.88136
32.0412
39.55447
40.42379
41.58362
41.58362
41.58362
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.9382
41.58362
41.21396
40.98436
40.82785
40
39.55447
37.50123
36.90196
34.80725
31.36403
RESULTS ANALYSIS:
Input sinusoidal voltage = 40mv
Input Frequency = 1 KHz
Output voltage = 5V (Sine Wave)
Operating Point: - (Under Zero signal conditions)
VCEQ 5.4V
VBE 0.65v
VRC 5.32
5.3ma
RC
1K
After applying the signal,
I CQ

..Jonnada
59

Voltage Gain =
5V
0.125X10 3
40mv
=125(>100)
Voltage across R S 1.8mv
Ii
VR S 1.8mv
8.18A
RS
220
Vi
40mv
Ii 8.18X10 6
=4890
O/P Resistance = 1111
I/P Resistance =
output Volatage
2.5V
O/P Current= output Re sis tan ce 1K 2.5mA

I
2.5mA
AI 0
0.30567X103 305.67
I i 8.18A
Bandwidth = fh fl = 250 KHz 300Hz.
= 249.7 KHz
CONCLUSIONS:
Form the observations the voltage gain obtained is 125. The current gain obtained is
305.67. Which is almost equal to hfe value i.e., 300? The input impedance obtained
is 4.8K. The output resistance is 1.1K which is approximately equal to R C. The
bandwidth obtained from the frequency plot is 249.7 KHz.
QUESTIONS:
1. Why should we use CE amplifier in the intermediate stage of multistage
amplifiers?
2. In active region the transistor acts as a current controlled current source and
so that it can be used as an amplifier. Explain?
3. Why is a capacitor coupling is used to connect a signal source to an
amplifier?
4. Why does the gain of the amplifier vary with the frequency?
5. How the CE amplifier does produce 180 0 phase shift between output and
input?
Experiment N0:-10
COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER

(EMITTER FOLLOWER)
AIM: To study the performance of a common collector (emitter) amplifier. And obtain
its voltage gain, current gain, input impedance, output impedance and bandwidth.

..Jonnada
60

APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

CRO
Digital multimeter.
Signal generator
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
220
33K
8.2K,
10K
10 F
BC 547
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
2Nos.
1No.
THEORY
When the output is taken from the emitter terminal of the transistor as shown
in the fig. The network is referred to as Common collector transistor amplifier. This
configuration is also called emitter follower, because its voltage gain is close to unity,
and hence a change across the load at the emitter. In other words the emitter follows
the input signal.
In a.c analysis the collector is grounded, so, actually a common collector
configuration the input resistance R I of emitter follower is very high (Hundreds of Kilo
ohms) and output resistance R O is very low (tens of ohms). Hence the common
collector circuit can be used as a buffer stage which performs the function of
resistance transformation.(From high to low resistance) over a wide range of
frequencies, with voltage gain close to unity. The emitter follower increases the
power level of the signal, i.e., it provides power gain.
For the common collector amplifier,+ the current gain AI is high (approximately
equal to common emitter stage) AV is lessVcc
than
unity (but close to unity), R I is the
= 12V
highest and RO is the lowest of the three (CE, CB & CC) configurations. This circuit
is widely applied as a buffer stage between a high impedance source and low
impedance load.
K
The emitter follower is33frequently
used for impedance matching purposes; the
emitter follower (due to its low output resistance) is often used to drive capacitive
loads.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RS 220
C1 10F
Q1 BC 547
C2 10F
of Engineering, and technology

..Jonnada
61
8.2 K
10 K
LENDI
institute
Signal
Generator
CRO

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure
2. The operating points VCEQ , IEQ and VBE are measured.
Av = (VO/P / VI/P).
resistance RS, which gives drop in RMS Value. Convert this RMS value to
peak to peak value for further calculations. The input current therefore is
measured as the voltage across Rs (VRS (p_p)), VRS (pp) / Rs value. Input
impedance Zi = Vi /Ii
is connected and divide it by R 0 to get the output current. Now current gain =
and current gain.
and calculate gain at each step. Plot the graph between voltage gain Vs
amplifier.

..Jonnada
62

MODEL GRAPHS:
Gain in dB
Frequency
TABULATION:
Input Voltage = 40mV
S.No
Frequenc
y ( Hz)
Output
Voltage (mV)
Gain(V0/Vi)
20 log10 (V0/Vi)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
50
80
100
200
800
1K
2K
5K
8K
10K
20K
50K
80K
100K
200K
32
32
33
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
33
32
32
32
0.8
0.8
0.82
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.82
0.8
0.8
0.8
-1.94
-1.94
-1.67
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.41
-1.67
-1.94
-1.94
-1.94

..Jonnada
63

16
17
18
500K
800K
1MEG
32
32
32
0.8
0.8
0.8
-1.94
-1.94
-1.94
CONCLUSIONS:
The voltage gain obtained is 0.85 which is almost equal to the theoretical value
which is unity. The bandwidth obtained is 1 MHz which is very high.
RESULTS:
Voltage gain (AV)
=
0.85
Current gain (AI)
=
514.71
Input impedance (Zi)
=
733.3K
Output impedance (ZO)
=
711
Bandwidth
=
1MHz
The frequency response of a Common Collector Amplifier is studied.
QUESTIONS:
1. Why the common collector amplifier is also called emitter follower?
2. Which of the amplifiers (CE, CB or CC) has a highest input resistance
(RI)?
3. How will the size of the biasing resistor Ri effect the input impedance of
Experiment No: 11
FET AMPLIFIER (COMMON SOURCE)

AIM: 1. To design a FET common source amplifier for a voltage gain of
2. To obtain experimentally the voltage gain of the amplifier.
3. To obtain the frequency response characteristics of the amplifier
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply (0-30V)
2. CRO
3. Digital multimeter.
4. Signal generator
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
1No.
1No.
1 No.
1 No.
47k
RS and RD as
+ per design
10 F
VDD 12 V
BFW 11
2. Capacitors
3. FET
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RD
3Nos.
1No.
C2 10uF
BFW 11
C1 10uF
1 No.
RG
CRO
INPUTinstitute of Engineering, and technology
LENDI
..Jonnada
64 C3 10uF
RS

THEORY: - A small signal low frequency FET has a Nortons output circuit with
a dependent current generator whose magnitude is proportional to gate to
source voltage. The output resistance is d. The input resistance between gate
and source is infinite, since it is assumed that the reverse biased gate and
source draws no current.
FET can be used for analyzing the three basic FET
amplification configurations. (i) Common Source (CS), (ii) Common drain (CD),
(iii)Common gate (CG) The CS amplifier provides good voltage amplification.
Voltage Gain:- Source resistor (Rs) is used to set the Q-point but is passed by
Cs for mid frequency operation. From the small signal equivalent circuit, the
output voltage,
VO = -RD/RD+rd Vgs where VGS=VI
Hence, the voltage gain, AV=VO/VI = -Rd RD+rd
DESIGN:
Select VGSQ near the max. gm value say VP / 2, IDSS = 10 mA, VP = -4V, Yos = 2S,
rd = 1 / Yos
2
VGSQ

IDQ = IDSS 1
V
P
VDD = ID(RD+RS) + VDSQ
VGSQ
Vp
At bias point gm = gmo 1
2 I DSS
VP
VGSQ
1
VP
Av = gm (RD// rd) , VGSQ = - ID.RS

PROCEDURE:

..Jonnada
65

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.

note the operating points VDSQ, VGSQ, IDQ
Set the output of the signal generator just below the point of distortion, so that
the maximum undistorted output appears on the CRO.
Note this input voltage and keep it constant through out the experiment.
Vary the input frequency from 50Hz to 1MHz, and note down the output signal
voltage at every setting of frequency.
Plot the frequency response for the amplifier and calculate the bandwidth.
MODEL GRAPHS:
Gain in
dB
AV
Max
3dB point
Bandwidth
Frequency
TABULATION:
S.No
Frequency
(Hz)
Input
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Vi
V0
(mV)
(V)
Gain
V
AV 0
Vi
1
50
40
0.2
2
100
40
0.24
3
200
40
0.26
4
500
40
0.28
5
1k
40
0.28
6
2k
40
0.28
7
5k
40
0.28
8
10k
40
0.28
9
50k
40
0.28
10
70k
40
0.28
LENDI100k
institute40of Engineering,
11
0.28
..Jonnada
12
200k
40
0.26
13
500k
40
0.22
14
700k
40
0.16
15
1MHz
40
0.12
5
6
6.5
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
and
7
66
6.5
5.5
4
3
Gain in Decibels
(dB)
20 log 10 AV
With Feedback
13.98
15.563
16.25
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
technology
17.5
16.25
14.8
12.04
9.54

CONCLUSIONS:
1. The drain resistance of a JFET (0.1 to 1 M)
2. As capacitive reactance decreases with increasing frequency, the resultant
output impedance will be lower at higher frequencies there by reducing the
gain
RESULTS:
Designed Voltage gain
Practical Voltage gain
=8
=7
The Frequency response of JFET amplifier is obtained. Voltage gain and band width
are calculated.
Band Width = 699.97 KHz.
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
How do you explain the wedge shape of the depletion regions?

What is the mechanism responsible for constant resistance operation of FET?
Compare the characteristics of BJT and FET.
Is it possible to operate FET with gate forward biased?

..Jonnada
67

Experiment No: 12
RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM: To design and to find the frequency of the RC phase shift Oscillator.
To measure the phase shift at each stage.
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power supply
CRO
Digital multimeter.
Signal generator
(0-30V)
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Potentiometer
4. Transistors
As per designed values

As per designed values
100F
1K
BC 547
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
THEORY:
The RC Phase shift Oscillator consists of transistor amplifier and three
cascaded (series) RC sections. The output of the last RC combination being
returned to the base of the transistor. If the loading of the phase shift network on the
amplifier can be neglected. The amplifier introduces 180 0 Phase shift to the voltage
which appears on the base. The Three RC sections will give additional phase shift,
at some frequency the phase shift introduced by the RC network will be equal to
1800, at this frequency the total phase shift from the base around the circuit and
back to the base will be exactly zero. This particular frequency will be the one at
which the circuit will oscillates, provided the magnitude of amplification is sufficiently
large. The frequency of oscillation is given by

..Jonnada
68

F = (1 / 2RC) 1 / (6 +4K).
Where K = RC / R.
The requirement is that the magnitude of A must exceed unity. In order for
oscillations to start, the circuit needs the condition
hFE > 4k+23+ (29/K)
The phase shift oscillator is particularly suited to the range of audio
frequencies. At frequencies in the range of mega hertz, has no marked advantage
over circuits employing tuned LC networks. The frequency of oscillations can be
varied by changing any one of the impedance elements (R or C) in the phase
shifting networks.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
VCC = 12V
R1
RC
A
Q1 BC 547
R
R2
RE
CE
100uF
DESIGN:
K = 2.7 = Rc / R, find out the value of R.
C
1
2Rf 0 6 4 K
Find out the value of C for the frequency of 1 KHz.

..Jonnada
69
1K POT

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. First check the amplifier section (i.e., find out the operating points)
3. Adjust the potentiometer such that oscillations are sustained. Monitor the
output waveform using CRO.
4. Measure the voltages at each RC section.
5. Measure the phase shift introduced by each section forming Lissajous
figures. Use the sine wave at reference voltage.
6. Measure the waveform frequency and compare it with theoretical value.
OBSERVATIONS
Designed Theoretical Frequency = 1 kHz
Practical Waveform Frequency = 800Hz
Phase Shift across Node A and B = 67.38
Phase Shift across Node B and C
= 64.15
Phase Shift across Node C and D
= 45.59
Over All Phase Shift (Practical) =177
Theoretical Phase Shift
=180
Theoretical Frequency Formula =1/2RC6
Conclusions:
We observed from the waveforms that theoretical and practical frequencies are
approximately equal and also observed that RC phase shift oscillator generates
audio frequencies (20Hz to 20 kHz).
RESULT: - The Theoretical and Practical Output Frequencies obtained.
QUESTIONS:
1. How the Barkhausen Criteria is satisfied in the RC phase-shift oscillator?
2. How do you vary the frequency of the RC phase-shift oscillator?
3. What is the maximum phase-shift that can be obtained by a single RC
section?
4. Under what conditions the amplifier behaves as an oscillator?
5. What is the frequency range that can be obtained by the RC phase shift
oscillator?
Experiment No: 13

..Jonnada
70

WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

AIM: To design a Wein Bridge oscillator and study its performance.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply (dual channel)(0-30V )
2. CRO
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
47K
10K
Potentiometer of 5K
0.01F
LM 741
2. Capacitors
3. Operational amplifier
2 Nos.
1 No.
1 No.
2 No.
1 No.
THEORY:
An oscillator, in which a balanced bridge is used as the feedback network is
known as Wien bridge oscillator, is shown below.
The active element is an operational amplifier which has a very large positive
voltage gain, If the bridge balance is desired, in order to get oscillation, then R 1and
R2 must be chosen so that , vi=0 ( R4 / (R3 + R4) = 1/3 or R3 = 2 R4.)
The frequency of oscillation (f0 = 1/2RC) is precisely the null frequency of the
balanced bridge continuous variation of frequency is accomplished by varying
simultaneously the two capacitors
+ VCC 15V
2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Output
- VEE 15V
R1
C1
R3
LENDI institute of Engineering,

and technology
R2
R4
..Jonnada
71
C2
Fig 19.1 WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure below.
2. In place of capacitors connect DCB.
3. In place of R4 connect a potentiometer.
4. Connect CRO at the output terminal.
5. Vary the potentiometer until the oscillations are sustained.
6. Find the frequency of oscillations, and verify the observed output with
theoretical values.
7. repeat the above steps 5 and 6 for various values of C
Observations
S.No
Value of C
1
2
0.01F
0.1F
Value of
f0
f0
R
theoretic practica
al
l
47k
338.6Hz 300.3H
47k
33.86Hz
z
30Hz

..Jonnada
72

THEORETICAL FREQUENCY FORMULA: - 1/2RC
CONCLUSIONS:
R = 47 k and C = 0.01F
Designed Theoretical Frequency = 338.6 Hz
Practical Frequency
= 300.3Hz
This means that theoretical and practical frequencies are approximately equal. We
also observed that WEIN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR generates audio frequencies
(20Hz to 20 kHz)
RESULT: - Both Theoretical and Practical Output Frequencies are Calculated.
Theoretical Frequency
Practical Frequency
=
=
QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in the Wien Bridge oscillator?

What determines the frequency of oscillations?
How do you vary the frequency of oscillations?
What is the frequency range of oscillations?
Experiment No: 14
VOLTAGE SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM: To design a voltage series feedback amplifier. And obtain its voltage gain,
current gain, input impedance, output impedance and bandwidth.
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Power supply
CRO
Digital multimeter.
Signal generator
0-30V
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:

..Jonnada
73

1. Resistors
220
1 No.
33K
8.2K
10K
10 F
BC 547
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
3Nos.
1No.
THEORY:
The FET common drain amplifier (source follower) and the BJT common
collector amplifier (emitter follower) are the examples of voltage series topology.
Voltage series feedback amplifier improves the characteristics of voltage
amplifier. i.e., Input resistance increases and output resistance decreases.
Rif = RI (1+A)
Rof = Ro / (1+A)
Af = A / (1+A)
FLF= FL / (1+A)
FHF = FH (1+A)
In this experiment, the negative feedback is introduced by connecting the

emitter resistor in the emitter lead. The feedback signal is the voltage across emitter
resistor, which is in series with the input voltage and the output is the voltage, thus it
is the voltage series feedback amplifier.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC +12V
R1 33K
RS 220
PROCEDURE:
Signal
Generator
C2 10
C1 10F
Q1 BC547
CRO
R2 8.2K
RE 10K
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure

2. The operating points VCEQ, IEQ and VBE are measured.

..Jonnada
74

Av = (VO/P / VI/P).
and current gain.
amplifier.
9. Repeat the above steps by connecting (disconnecting) the emitter bypass
capacitor CE. The readings with CE give the response of the amplifier without
out feedback. The readings without the C E give the performance of the
amplifier in current series feedback mode.
Without feedback
- 3dB line
MODEL GRAPHS
-
Gain in dB
3dB line
With feedback
Frequency
TABULATION:

..Jonnada
75

S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Frequency
(Hz)
50
100
200
500
1k
2k
5k
10k
50k
70k
100k
200k
500k
700k
1MHz
Input
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Vi
V0
(mV)
(V)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
0.36
Gain
V
AV 0
Vi
Gain in Decibels
(dB)
20 log 10 AV
With Feedback
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
-0.915
OBSERVATIONS:
Input voltage Vin = 40mV
Output voltage V0 = 36mV
Voltage gain (AV) = V0/ Vin = 0.9
Input current Ii
= VRs/RS = 5.1A
Input impedance (Zi) = VIN/ Ii = 7.8k
= 130
Output current = I0 = VR0/R0 = 0.45/130 = 138.4A
Current gain (AI)
= I0/ Ii
= 138/5.1 = 27.05
bandwidth.
= very large

..Jonnada
76

Conclusions:
From the observations the observations by comparing with the CE amplifier,
in voltage series feedback amplifier input impedances increases, output
impedance decreases due to negative feedback and voltage gain is less than
unity.
RESULT: - The Frequency response of voltage series feedback amplifier
is obtained.
Band width (With Feed back)
Band width (Without Feed back)
Experiment No: 15
CURRENT SERIES FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

AIM : To design current series feedback amplifier and obtain the voltage
Gain, current gain, input impedance, output impedance and
Bandwidth of the amplifier with and without feedback.
APPARATUS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

CRO
Digital multimeter.
Signal generator
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
220
1No.

..Jonnada
77

Other resistors of designed values
10 F
2Nos.
100F
1No.
BC 547
1No.
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
THEORY:
The common emitter transistor amplifier with a resistance in the emitter and
FET common source amplifier with a resistor in the source lead are examples of
current series topology. A current series feedback amplifier improves the
characteristics of transconducatnace amplifier, that is both input resistance and
output resistances are increased. This topology stabilizes the Trans conductance g m.
In current series feedback amplifier, as shown in figure, the feedback signal is
the voltage Vf across emitter resistor and sampled signal is the load current through
the collector resistor. Hence this is the case of current-series feedback. To remove
the feedback the emitter resistor must be removed or bypassed by a capacitor
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC = 12V
R1
RC
RS 220 C1 10F
C2 = 10F
Q1 BC 547
DRB
Signal
Generator
40mV/1KHz
R2
RE
CE 100F
CRO
DESIGN:
Determine the values of R C, RE, R1, R2 for the network for the operating points
indicated
VEN = VCC / 10=1.2V
R2 (1 / 10) RE = 5.76k

..Jonnada
78

VBN = (R2 / (R1+R2)) VCC
R1 = 30k
PROCEDURE:
3. Connect the signal generator with a sine wave of 1KHz frequency to the input
Av = (VO/P / VI/P) .
and current gain.
amplifier.
frequencies.
10. Repeat the above steps by connecting (disconnecting) the emitter bypass
capacitor CE. The readings with CE give the response of the amplifier without
out feedback. The readings without the C E give the performance of the
amplifier in current series feedback mode.
MODEL GRAPHS
Without feedback
- 3dB line
-
3dB line

..Jonnada
79
Gain in dB

With feedback
Frequency
TABULATION:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Frequency
(Hz)
50
100
200
500
1k
2k
5k
10k
50k
70k
100k
200k
500k
700k
1MHz
Input
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Vi
V0
(mV)
(V)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.94
Gain
V
AV 0
Vi
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
23.5
Gain in Decibels
(dB)
20 log 10 AV
With Feedback
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.6
27.42

..Jonnada
80

OBSERVATIONS:
Input voltage Vin
= 40mV
Output voltage V0
= 0.96V
Voltage gain (AV)
= V0/ Vin = 24
Input current Ii
= VRs/RS = 6.42A
Input impedance (Zi) = Vin/ Ii = 6.22k
= 700
Output current = I0 = VR0/R0 = 0.48/700 = 0.68mA
Current gain (AI)
= I0/ Ii
= 106.7
Power gain
= AV*AI = 2560.7
Bandwidth
= very large
CONCLUSION:
From the observation the observations by comparing with the CE amplifier, in current
series feedback amplifier input impedances increases and voltage gain deceases
due to negative feedback.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by Feedback?
2. Distinguish between negative and positive feedback.
3. Distinguish between current and voltage feedback.
4. Discuss the effect of negative feedback on 1) gain 2) Input impedance3)
output impedance 4) distortion.
5. Discuss the effect of egative feedback on 1)gain 2) Input impedance3) output
impedance 4) distortion.

..Jonnada
81

Experiment No:-16
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
AIM: To design a Colpitts oscillator and study its performance.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply
2. CRO
(0-30V)
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductor
4. Transistors
Resistors as per designed values

C1 and C2 are as per designed values
10F
2 Nos.
100F
1 No.
as per designed value.
BC 547
1 No.
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
The RC phase shift and wein bridge oscillator are RC tunable oscillators. That
I, the frequency at oscillator is determined by the resistance and capacitance values
used. These oscillators are particularly suited to one range of frequencies from
several Hertz to several hundred Kilohertz and so include the range of audio
frequencies. At frequencies in the Megahertz range, these have no advantages over
circuits employing tuned LC networks.

..Jonnada
82

Tuned LC oscillators are used in many applications, including radio
transmitters, AM and FM receivers, and sinusoidal function generators. One popular
LC oscillator configuration, shown in fig, is called the COLPITTS oscillator. The
resonant combination of C1, C2 and L is called the tank circuit. The oscillation
frequencies changed via the adjustable inductor L.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC +12V
R1
RC
CC1 10uF
CC2 = 10uF
Q1 BC 547
R2
RE
C1
C2
L
Design
L = 1mH
C = C1 in series with C2, find out C
Hfe = > C2 / C1
Find out C1 and C2
Find out the values of frequency for different values of L values by using the formula
fo =
1
2
LC
PROCEDURE:
2. The output oscillations are to be observed by CRO.
3. Vary the values of C1 for sustained oscillations and compare these values with
theoretical values.
4. Now vary the L and note down the frequency of oscillations and compare
them with theoretical ones.

..Jonnada
83

S.No
1
2
Value of C1
40pF
40pF
Value of C2
0.01F
0.01F
Value of L
2mH
3mH
fO theoritical
575.05kHz
469.52kHz
fO practical
416.6kHz
357kHz
OBSERV ATIONS:
C1 = 40Pf
C2 = 0.01F L = 2mH
Designed Theoretical Frequency = 575.05 kHz

Practical Frequency
Formula:-
= 416.6 kHz
1
2
LC
Conclusions:
This means that theoretical and practical frequencies are approximately equal. We
also observed that COLPITTS OSCILLATOR generates radio frequencies
RESULT: - Both theoretical and Practical frequencies of Colpitts Oscillator are
obtained for given set of capacitors.
QUESTIONS:
1. How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in Colpitts oscillator?
2. What is the feedback network in the oscillator?
3. What is the frequency range that can be obtained by the Colpitts oscillator?
4. What are applications of LC tuned oscillators?

..Jonnada
84

Experiment No: 17
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
AIM: To design a Hartley oscillator and study its performance.
APPARATUS:
2. CRO
4. Bread Board
COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
Resistors as per designed values
C as per designed values
10F
2 Nos.
100F
1 No.
L1 and L2 are as per designed value.
BC 547
1 No.
3. Inductor
4. Transistors
THEORY:
The Hartley oscillator uses the LC network as a feedback network. This
Hartley oscillator is formed by changing the capacitors in the Colpitts tank circuit to
inductors and by changing the tunable inductor to an adjustable capacitor. Both the
Colpitts and Hartley oscillator configuration requires an amplifier with inverting ( 180 0
phase shift) gain in order to sustain oscillations.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC +12V
R1
RC
C1 10uF
R2
L2
C2 = 10u
Q1 BC 547
CE 100uF
RE
L1
C
PROCEDURE:
2. The output oscillations are to be observed by CRO.

..Jonnada
85

3. Vary the values of C for sustained oscillations and compare these values with
theoretical values.
4. Now vary the L1 AND L2 and note down the frequency of oscillations and
compare them with theoretical ones.
Observations:
S.No
Value of L1
Value of L2 Value of C
fO theoritical
fO practical
Designed Theoretical Frequency =

Practical Frequency
=
CONCLUSION:
Conclusions can be made on theoretical frequency and practical frequency of
oscillator.
RESULT: - Both theoretical and Practical Output Frequencies of Hartley Oscillator
are calculated for given sets of Inductors.
QUESTIONS:
1. How the Barkhausen criterion is satisfied in the Hartley oscillator?
2. What is the feedback network in the Hartley oscillator?
3. What is the frequency range that can be obtained by Hartley oscillator?
4. What is the frequency stability criterion for the sinusoidal oscillator?
Experiment No: 18
SINGLE STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM: 1. To design a single stage RC coupled amplifier and obtain its voltage
Gain, current Gain, Input impedance and power gain.
2. To plot the frequency response and to determine the bandwidth of the
Amplifier.
APPARATUS:

..Jonnada
86

2. CRO
4. Signal generator
COMPONENTS:
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1 No.
1. Resistors
220
1No.
Other resistors of designed values.
10 F
2Nos
100F
1No.
BC 547
1No.
2. Capacitors
3. Transistors
THEORY :
The output of one stage is coupled to the input of the next stage via a
Blocking capacitor, which is used to block the DC component of the out[put
voltage at output terminal from reaching the input of next stage. The emitter
resistor RE and resistor R1 and R2 are used to prevent the loss of amplification
due to negative feedback
RC
C2 = 10F
+
R1
VCC = 12V
C1 10F
-
RL
Signal
Generator
BC 547
RS 220
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
CRO
CE 100F
R2
RE
DESIGN:
Determine the values of RC, RE, R1, R2 for the network for the operating points
indicated
VEN = VCC / 10=1.2V
R2 (1 / 10) RE = 5.76k
VBN = (R2 /(R1+R2)) VCC
R1 = 30k
PROCEDURE:

..Jonnada
87

4. Find out the output impedance of the circuit and connect a load resistor (R L)
of that value. This RL acts as the matched load.
Av = (VO/P / VI/P).
and current gain.
and calculate gain at each step. Plot the graph between gains in dB Vs
amplifier.
frequencies.
MODEL GRAPHS:
AV
Max
Gain in dBs
3dB point
Bandwidth
Frequency
TABULATION:

..Jonnada
88

S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Frequency
(Hz)
50
100
200
500
1k
2k
5k
10k
50k
70k
100k
200k
500k
700k
1MHz
Input
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Vi
V0
(mV)
(V)
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
1.2
1.8
2
2.4
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2.6
2
1.8
1.6
Gain
V
AV 0
Vi
30
45
50
60
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
65
50
45
40
Gain in Decibels
(dB)
20 log 10 AV
With Feedback
29.54
33.06
33.97
35.58
36.25
36.25
36.25
36.25
36.25
36.25
36.25
36.25
33.97
33.06
32.04
OBSERVATIONS:
Input voltage Vin = 40mV
Output voltage V0 = 2.6V
Voltage gain (AV) = V0/ Vin = 65
Input current Ii
= VRs/RS = 17.8A
Input impedance (Zi) = VIN/ Ii = 2.24k
= 500
Output current = I0 = VR0/R0 = 1.3/500 = 2.6mA

..Jonnada
89

Current gain (AI)
Bandwidth.
= I0/ Ii
= 146
= 699.9 kHz
Conclusions:
Conclusions can be made on theoretical and practical values A V, AI, Zi Zo of CC
amplifier.
RESULT: - The Frequency response of single stage RC Coupled Amplifier is
obtained. Voltage gain and Bandwidth are obtained.
QUESTIONS:
1. What is the effect of transistor junction capacitances on frequency response
of an amplifier?
2. What are the functions of bypass capacitor and blocking capacitor?
Experiment No: 19
SCR CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To draw the forward and reverse characteristics of SCR.
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply (dual channel)
2. Voltmeters
3. Ammeters
0-30V
0-30V
0-10mA
0-100mA
1 No.
2 Nos

..Jonnada
90
1 No
1 No

COMPONENTS:
1. Resistors (1K -2 No.)
2. SCR TYN 64
THEORY:
The structure of silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) consists of four alternate p
and n type layers. The name Silicon Controlled Rectifier indicates that the SCR is a
rectifier constructed of silicon material with a third terminal for control purposes. This
third terminal in the SCR, called a gate, determines when the rectifier switches from
the open circuit to short circuit state. The graphic symbol for SCR is shown below.
IA
Gate
IGT
TYN 604
Cathode
Anode
VF
Cathode
Anode
Gate
Silicon Controlled Rectifier TYN 604

The volt-ampere characteristics
The voltampere characteristic of an SCR is shown for various gate currents.
We can observe from the characteristics that the firing voltage is decreasing with
increasing gate current. In fact the increases with increasing gate current, thus
the break over (firing) voltage decreases.
The anode current after breakdown may be larger by a factor of 1000 than the
current before breakdown. When the gate current is very large, break over may
occur at low voltage, the characteristic has the appearance of a simple p-n diode.
Forward break over voltage (VBO), is that voltage above which the SCR enters the
conduction region (on state).
Holding current(IH) , is that value of current below which the SCR switches from
the conduction state to the forward blocking region( off state).
Holding voltage (VH), is that voltage required to turn off the SCR.
SCR is used in relay control, motor control, phase control, heater control, battery
chargers, inverters, regulated power supplies and static switches.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1K
+
V1
0-100mA
V 0-30V
-
0-10mA
TYN 604
A +
1K

..Jonnada
91
0-30V

SCR FORWARD CHARACTERISCTICS

1K
0-500uA
+
V 0-30V
-
+
V1
TYN 604
SCR REVERSE CHARACTERISCTICS
PROCEDURE:
Forward characteristics:
Connect the circuit as shown below.
1.
Keep the gate voltage to Zero and increase the input voltage from zero to
2.
15, not down the corresponding ammeter readings I A and VA
Set the gate voltage to 10V and increase the anode voltage from 0 to say
3.
15Volts, and observe that at a particular anode voltage the anode current
shoots-off, resulting the anode voltage falls towards zero (SCR firing).
If it does not happened, repeat the above step till you observe the firing.
4.
Note down the value of IG at which the Firing happens.
5.
Now slightly increase (decrease) by 0.1V of gate voltage and note down
6.
the values of IA for different values of VA stating from zero to V BO and
beyond.
Plot the graph VA VS IA for different values of IG.
7.
Reverse Characteristics:
Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
1.
Increase the anode voltage V1 from zero to 20V in steps of 1V.
2.
Note down the anode current IA for every step of VA.
3.
Plot the graph VA VS IA
4.
MODEL GRAPH
Forward characteristics
IA
VH

..Jonnada
92

IG2> IG1>0
IG2
IG Large
IG1
IG = 0
IH
VA
VFBO
Reverse Characteristics
OBSERVATIONS:
Tabulation for Forward characteristics:
IG=5.68mA
IG=5.7mA
S.No
VA
IA
VA
1
0
0
0
2
2.5
0.1
2.5
3
5
0.2
5
4
7.5
0.4
7.5
5
10
0.8
10
6
27.5
1.0
20
7
0.75
20
0.75
8
0.75
25
0.75
IG=5.8mA
IA
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.6
18
20
VA
0
2.5
5
7.5
10
17.5
0.75
0.75
Tabulation for Reverse characteristics:

S. No
VA(V)
IA(A)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0
45
115
185
215
320
395
460
495
Conclusions:

..Jonnada
93
IA
0
0.3
0.4
0.6
1.0
1.6
16
20

From the forward graph we observed that as gate current increases the break over
voltage decreases i.e. SCR will be conducting at a lesser supply voltage as gate
current increases.
From the reverse graph we observed that SCR in the reverse bias, conducting very
less current.
Lead Configuration
Anode
Cathode
Diode 1N 4007 / Zener Diode
1. Collector 2. Base 3. Emitter
Transistor BC 547 / BC 557

Drain
Gate 1
Base 1
Gate 2
Source
JFET BFW-11
Uni-Junction Transistor 2N2646
Offset Null
TYN 604
Cathode Anode
Base -2
Emitter
Gate
NC
INV I/P
+VCC
Non- INV-I/P
Output
Offset Null
-VEE
LENDI
institute
of Engineering, and technology
Silicon Controlled
Rectifier
OP-AMP LM 741
..Jonnada
94
TYN 604

Experiment No: 20
STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

AIM: 1. To study the cathode-ray oscilloscope operation.
2. To measure Timeperiod, Frequency, Voltage, Phase of
different waveforms using CRO.
3. Measurement of Phase and Frequency using lissajous figures.
APPARATUS:
1. Cathode ray Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator.
1 No.
1 No.
THEORY:-
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

The Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is an instrument which provides visual
presentation of any waveform applied to its input terminals, while the millimeter
provides numerical information about applied signal. The CRO allows the actual
form of the waveform to be displayed.
The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the CRO, providing visual display
of an input signal waveform.
The CRT contains four basic parts.
1. An electron gun to produce a stream of electrons.
2. Focusing and accelerating elements to provide a well defined beam
Of electrons
3. Horizontal and vertical deflection plates to control the path of the
electron beam.
4. An evacuated glass envelop with a phosphorescent screen which
glows visibly when struck by the electron beam.
5. The voltage to be measured is applied to the vertical defection plates
where as the continuous sweep voltage is applied to the horizontal
deflection plates.

..Jonnada
95

Measurement using calibrated CRO:
The oscilloscope tube face has been calibrated to compute the amplitude and
time measurement.
Amplitude measurement:
The amplitude of the voltage can be measured by using the scale-setting of
the scope (volts/div knob.) and the signal measured off the face of the scope.
The peak-to-peak amplitude = No. divisions between peak to peak of the
signal volts/division knob multiplication factor.
Time measurement:
The horizontal scale of the scope can be used to measure the time of the
applied signal. The time period of the periodic signal = No. of divisions during one
cycle time/division knob multiplication factor.
Frequency measurement:
The measurement of the repetitive waveform-period can be used to calculate
the signal frequency. Since the frequency is the reciprocal of the time period. f=1/T
Measurement of phase and frequency (Lissajous Patterns)
The patterns that appear on the screen of a CRT, when sinusoidal voltages
are simultaneously applied to horizontal and vertical plates are known as Lissajous
figures. When two sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase with
each other are the horizontal and vertical deflection plates, the pattern appearing on
the screen is a straight line as is clear from fig below.
ey
1
1
t
0
(0,2,4)
4
3
3
(voltage applied to y-plates, frequency = f)
ex
0
1
2
3
(Voltage applied to
X-plates, frequency = f)
t
Fig 1.2 LISSAJOUS PATTERNS
When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with 90 0 or 2700 phase shift
displacement are applied to a CRO, the trace on the CRO is a circle. An ellipse is
formed if the two voltages are not equal and /or out of phase.

..Jonnada
96

When two equal voltages of equal frequency but with a phase shift (not
equal to 00 or 900 )are applied to a CRO, we obtain an ellipse regardless of the two
amplitudes of the applied voltages, the ellipse provides a simple means of finding
phase difference between two voltages.
= sin-1 y1 / y2 = sin-1 x1 / x2.
Y
Major Axis.
y1
y2
X
x1
x2
Major axis
Y2
Y1
X
X1
X2
If the major axis of the ellipse lies in the first and third quadrants as in fig:
1, the phase angle is either between 0 0 and 900 or 2700 and 3600. When the major
axis of the ellipse lies in second and fourth quadrants as in Fig: 2, the phase angle is
either between 900 and 1800 or between 1800 and 2700.
Tabular Form:-

..Jonnada
97

S.NO
1.
2.
3.
Waveform
Sine Waveform
Triangular Waveform
Square Waveform
Amplitude
Time period
Frequency
RESULT:1. Time period, Frequency, Voltage, Phase of

different waveforms are measured using CRO.
2. Phase and Frequency are measured using Lissajous figures.

..Jonnada
98

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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Electronic Devices and Circuits Lab

ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Step 2: Learn the tolerances

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Step 3: Do the exercises below

1st band, denominator: Brown (1)

power rating ( given by manufacturer )

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

A capacitor is used for storing charge. It consists of two conducting surfaces

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

D.C. Power supply.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Fig 1.2 LISSAJOUS PATTERNS

= sin-1 y1 / y2 = sin-1 x1 / x2.

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Fig: 1.4HASE SHIFT MEASUREMENT

Bread board connection diagram

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

In digital multimeters the measured quantity is displayed numerically instead of

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Drift current, where carriers drift in an electric field (this conduction

Is also available in metals)2.

high PIV rating (upto 1000V)

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

PN JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Forward bias characteristics

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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

Two processes which produce the breakdown region are Avalanche

LENDI institute of Engineering, and technology

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering