A Scheme for Systematic Classification of the

Singing Voice in Indian Music by R.

Sathyanarayana
article published in "Gava" Vol. xi, no. 1,
July 1995, Sangeet Research Academy,
Calcutta

A Scheme for Systematic Classification of the Singing Voice in Indian Music
R. Sathyanarayana

1. Introduction

Sagta is traditionally held in India as comprising singng, instrumental music and
dancing.
1
Singing is accorded the pride of place in this trilogy.
2
Except a few forms of
instrumental music, most of Indian music is modelled on vocal music. This has been
so for some three thousand years and is true even today. Yet, it is amazing that the
history of Indian music reveals little or no systematic investigation carried out into the
nature and scope of the singing voice, except perhaps incidentally in the early
Prtikhya-s and ik-s.
3
Some treatises on Indian music such as Mataga's
Bhadd (c. 7th. cent. A.D.), Nnyadva's Sarasvathdaylakrahra (11th. cent.
A.D.), Prvadva's Sagtasamayasra (betw. 1160 and 1330 A.D. but probably c.
1200 A.D.) and rgadva's Sagtaratnkara (c. 1230 A.D.)
4
have recorded
interesting and important observations on classification of the singing voice.
Unfortunately, this interest and investigation were not sustained in the following
centuries; however some interesting and useful, empirical formulae of herbal recipes,
called Khauadhi are given in some early works on phonetics and music in India.
The present writer has carried out some qualitative investigation on some of these
formulae and has found them moderately promising, but systematic investigation on
these is still a desideratum.

Studies in Indian music today are preponderantly addressed to historical or
descriptive issues or the so-called 'practical' or pragmatic issues relating to the
content and form in performed music. Little work has been done in India on the
singing voice in the interdisciplinary areas of physiology, psychoacoustics, aesthetics
and musicology. In fact even the acoustic or psychoacoustic parameters of a good
singing voice yet remain to be established through experimental procedures.

Thus the occurrence of a good singing voice is still a matter of chance or freak in
Indian music. There is little, if any at all, systematic effort in the traditional gurukula
system and even less so in modern, institutionalised music teaching to determine
objectively the merits and demerits of the voice of an aspirant to vocal music and still
less effort to adopt or adapt procedure to enrich the merits and remedy the defects in
the voice. Another serious and urgent need is voice therapy; this could - and should -
benefit thousands of singers in adolescence, senascence and pathology. Such
therapy would greatly alleviate pathalogical disorders of the voice. Rehabilitation of
such singers in the musical world as also the prolongation of their successful musical
activity is an important socio-cultural need. There is at least a nominal recognition of
the need for voice training in art music - especially Hindustani music but none at all in
Karnataka music. And there is not even a vestige of such effort in the vast field of
light classical and film music in which a pseudo-sweet voice generally parades as
good singing voice. Again, there is the need for extending the scope of such work to
objectively determine, evaluate and engineer the parameters for optimal excellence in
different styles of singing (gyak) in Hindustani music which is related to specific
musical forms such as dhrupad, khyla, humr etc.

Methodologically, there are two aspects to any work as outlined above: First of
these is to develop a theoretical model which is consistent with i. the foundational and
formative concepts which characterise Indian music i.e. with the general frame of its
parent culture and ii. the specific form and content which this music has assumed
when emerging from such frame. The second is to analyse the Indian singing voice
quality so as to be consistent with the realities and special problems which are
peculiar to Indian music. A convenient methodological approach is to enunciate one
or more uniform criteria on which available, desirable or desired voices may be
classified, so that techniques and procedures may be developed to engineer the
available voice, within the parameter of its inherent resources and limitations to a
more desirable or desired voice.

The aim of this presentation is to show that a systematic attempt to classify
singing voice on objective criteria already exists in early texts on Indian music. This
theoretical model will be presented here in an augmented form. Aspects related to
this such as requirements of a good singing voice (acoustical, technical,
musicological), voice pathology, corrective or ameliorative procedures etc. have been
described by me elsewhere.
5


2. Conceptual and Empirical Foundation
(a.) Trida

According to Smvara the singing voice, rra, is so called because it is
coeval with arra, body. Its excellence lies in snigdhat (glossiness, unctuousness)
and is inherent to it as is fragrance in flower, lustre in pearl and sweetness in
sugarcane. Vocal excellence accrues only by virtue acquired in previous births,
through jna-yga or by worshipping God, but never by mere practice.
6
So, the
qualities of the singing voice must be sought in the constitution of the human body.
Equally expert in the sciences of music and medicine, rgadva is the* first
authority in Indian music to correlate singing voice quality with trida, a postulate
which is both foundational and formative in the science of yurvda.

The constitution of the human being is physical, being made up of air, fire and
water according to an ancient (anonymous authority quoted by Suruta.
7
These three
factors are called pitta, vta (vyu) and kapha (lman) in yurvda, characterised
by the three gua-s sattva, rajas and tamas respectively. These 'da-s' are
responsible for all the functionings of the organism and play a dual role : When
normal, they support the body-mind complex and are hence called dhtu-s; when
excited or out of balance, they are pathogenic and are therefore called 'da-s'. In
yurvda the term 'dhtu' denotes collectively seven structural aspects of this
complex viz. plasma tissue or chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow and sperm.
Dhtu-s must be distinguished from da-s; the former are structural in nature and
are body constituents while da-s are functional and behavioural processes. The
terms vta, pitta and lman do not refer to the gross, physical materials wind, bile
and phlegm but are more or less abstractions and should be regarded rather as
referring to the windy aspect, fiery mechanism and watery network of the organism.
The n-s, cakra-s and granthi-s postulated in yga-stra are analogous. In the
course of its evolution the concept of trida has oscillated between 'constituent' and
'potentially morbid'. Suruta regards them as factors which form the body while
Caraka and Vgbhaa incline to the latter view.

The body is verily the product of food : 'dh hi hra-sambhava'.
8

Body means the totality of the transformation of five forms of matter, a totality that
becomes the substratum of consciousness : 'arra nma ctandhihnabhta
paca-mahbhta-vikra-samudytmakam.'
9


'Food which is made up of five-fold matter (paca-bhta) is fully transformed in the
body which is (also) made up of the (self-same) five-fold matter : and its five-fold
properties go to add (to the corresponding properties in the body)' :
Paca-bhttmak dh hi hra pacabhautika l
Vipka pacadh samyag gun svnabhivardhayt ll
10


In order to explain the transformation of food that is natural matter into body
matter, Caraka makes the following postulates
11
:
(i) The microcosm is the miniature of the macrocosm.
(ii) Both are composed of the self-same five elements, earth, water etc.

(iii) Fire abides in each element of the body-microcosm; it cooks the
corresponding element in the food into the body element.

(iv) The food so cooked is transformed into two kinds of substances :
a. Nourishing or nutrient substance (prasda) called rasa (vital sap):
b. Waste products or impurities (mala) called kitta (excrement).

(v) Prasda dhtu becomes individuated into rasa, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow
and semen. It produces the five kinds of substances which form the sense organs,
body-joints, ligaments, mucus etc. Kitta similarly individuates itself into sweat, urine,
faeces and other similar impurities which are excreted through the eyes, ears, nose,
mouth, hair follicles, genital organs, hair, nails etc. Its main products are pitta, vta
and lman which remain in the body unexcreted.

(vi) The dhtu-s and the mala-s maintain an optimum balance in proportion which
is consistent with the size and age of the body.

The excretable mala-s such as urine, sweat and faeces must be promptly
eliminated from the body; otherwise they disturb the balance. In the process of such
dichotomic division of transformed food into prasda dhtu and mala dhtu, the
da-s are affixed to prasda dhtu if they are optimally in their most propitious
qualitative and quantitative proportion (svanma); they thus result in health. If they are
not so, such imbalance results in disease. That is, the dhtu (sap, blood etc.) is in
itself neutral; it becomes prasda or mala depending upon whether the trida-s are
balanced or not. The trida-s are essentially emergent and functional.

Each da is associated with its own specific body region and with its own
physiological functions, its own diurnal and seasonal variation etc. Each has its own
caya (arousal in its own specific body region), prakpa (excitation and consequent
overflow into other regions), praamana (normalisation or tranquilisation, resulting in
its return to normal region). Optimal caya results in health, prakpa in disease and
praamana is treatment. Each da is a complex of processes and phases. But all
three function collectively with a common focus and towards a common goal - health
or disease.

Body constitution derived from the excess of a single da, such as pure vta
prakti is but rarely encountered. Constitutions determined by a pair of da-s viz.
Vta-pitta, Vta-lman, Pitta-lman are more common and are called dvandvaja.
Admixture of all three is called sannipta or mira.

It is true that the trida-s are largely abstractions or postulates; but they are
based on firm, empirical, systematically observed, statistical behavioural patterns of
the body-mind complex. This has made systematic typology possible in yurvda.
Two such classificatory criteria may be briefly discussed here because they would
enable relating voice typology at an empirical level; these are psychophysical traits or
the body-mind complex and the n phenomenon.

(b.) Traits and Temperament
Thus vta prakti may be diagnosed by such traits as scanty hair, lean and fragile
figure, high body temperature, dry skin, dark complexion and low voice. Such a
person has a weak constitution and a weak digestion. He has low resistence and
immunity and is therefore frequently sick. Ailments are mostly of the nervous system;
he is very intelligent, imaginative and highly receptive. He is likely to be nervous, timid,
suspicious, jealous, fickle-minded, loquacious and quick in likes and dislikes. He is a
light sleeper and when he dreams, he soars in the sky.
12
According to Trivikrama-
paita, Vtaprakti is characterised by windiness, grey complexion, dislike of cold,
fickleness in courage, intelligence, humourous foppishness, love of music and
humour, quarrelsomeness, liking for sweet, pungent, sour and hot food, suspicious of
women, limited progeny, etc. besides the above traits.
13
According to Suruta, the
constitution dominated by vta produces a person who is ugly, jealous, brutal, timid,
unstable (in friendship), ungrateful and disturbed in sleep. He keeps awake at night,
loves music, has dry skin, dry hair, protruding veins. He is given to wandering, biting
of teeth and nails, prattling and rapid walking; he is disturbed in sleep; his mind is
confused and gaze unsteady. He has neither much property, nor many friends nor
much money. The habits of such persons resemble those of goats, camels, frogs,
dogs, vultures, crows, asses etc.
14


Constitution dominated by pitta produces a person who has a good appetite,
good digestion, unsteady muscles, loose joints, glowing complexion and premature
greying. The body tends to be soft and odorous. He is intellignet, imaginative, irritable,
impatient, proud, haughty, boastful. He has burning sensations in parts of his body,
disturbed sleep, poor perseverance, unstable moods, good stamina. His urine is high-
coloured and eyes are yellow-tinged. He is susceptible to digestive disorders.
15

Suruta observes the following temperament and traits: the pitta dominated person is
talented, inventive, energetic. He emits sweat and foul odour; his colour is yellowish,
limbs are loose, his nails, eyes, palate, tongue, lips and soles of the feet are red. His
head is bald, face is ugly and body is wrinkled. He is always disgruntled, overeaten,
irritable, easily appeased, avoids hot things. He is moderately strong and has average
(middling) life span. He is a good orator, irresistible in combat. In dreams he sees
gold, fire, lightning, meteors and plants such as pala and karikra. He is prone to
diseases of the mouth; shows no compassion to refractory adversaries but is mild
and full of concession to those who yield; in nature such a person resembles serpent,
owl, cat, monkey, tiger, bear, mongoose, gandharva or yaka.
16
According to
Vrarjndra, the following additional traits characterise the pitta-prakti person:
intense hunger and thirst, red hair, little body hair, liking for garlands, perfumes,
sweetmeats, astringent, bitter, bilious foods, drinks; sweaty, malodorous, loquacious,
lustful, angry; small, tawny eyes which redden when intoxicated or in the sun;
ferocious with adversaries; sees the hill lotus tree (karikra) and bastard teak (butea
frondusa) in bloom, sun, lightning, meteors and fire in dreams.
17


A person produced by constitution determined by dominant lman has a well-
integrated body mechanism, a robust physique, a well-proportioned but heavily built
body. Such person is the healthiest of the lot. He is prone to obesity, vigorous sex
activities, sluggish habits; he is strong, courageous, free from envy and greed; he has
a great endurance power, firm gait, even steps, heavy undisturbed sleep. He does not
sweat much; his digestion is weak. He is prone to ailments of respiratory and
lymphatic systems. He sees watery stretches e.g. lakes and rivers in dreams.
18

Suruta describes the phlegmatic person as follows : his skin complexion is like drv
grass, blue lotus, green, sword-blade. He is handsome and attractive. He is
courageous, grateful, hardy, unaddicted to pleasures, robust. He likes sweetmeats;
he has retentive memory and does not forget a wrong done to him. His eyes are clear
and white; his hair is firm, curled, jet black; he is rich. His voice is resonant like
thunderclap, mdaga or lion. The corners of his eyes are rosy; his limbs are very
proportionate; his complexion, bright and smooth. His tendencies are lofty and noble.
He vever feels tired of work and respects elders. He is given to the study of science.
He is steady in friendship and acquisition of wealth. He studies carefully the pros and
cons before taking any action, he readily gives large sums of money; his words are
replete with wisdom and judgement. He reveres learned men. In dreams, he sees
lotuses, swans, cakravka-s and charming pools of water. In temperament and trait,
he resembles Brahm, Indra and Varua among gods and lion, elephant, horse, bull,
among animals and eagle or swan in birds.
19
Vrarjndra further adds : a complexion
of lotus, gold, grcana or pearl-shell, soft skin, influential, dharmtm, hides his
antipathies, clever, polite: not easily tired, generous, scholarly, courageous, self-
sacrificing, venerable, tolerant. He sees in his dreams lakes lined with birds and
lotuses, thunderclouds, Brahm, Rudra, Varua, Indra, falcon, cow, elephant in rut,
horse, lion or bull.
20


Suruta asserts that these natural tendencies will never suffer extreme change
except at death; many temperaments are blends of two or even three constitutions.
21

It may be recalled that the da-s are related to gua-s. Drawing upon Caraka
22
,
rgadva offers an analogical typology based on gua-s
23
; there are seven kinds of
sttvika bodies, six of rajasa and three of tmasika. I have discussed these
elsewhere.
24


(c.) N

N, also called snyu, vas, hisr, dhaman, dhar, tantuk, jvitaj and sir
in yurvda is loosely and inaccurately translated as pulse. N is much more than
pulse. The following is a brief account based eclectically on diverse sources.
25


There are in the human body, 35.5 million n-s, thick or thin, each terminating in
a body hair. They meet near the navel in a bunch called the canda equina. They
radiate upward, downward and front and back. The substrate of all this is the vital air
which pervades them in the form of pra etc. The n-s succour and sustain the
body through the juices of food and drink which flows through them. Those that carry
the qualities of sight, sound, smell, taste and touch are the more important among the
n-s. The body is held together tautly by seven hundred n-s. Twenty-four
among these are prominent which pervade the body from head to foot and of these,
the foremost lies along the right hand and right foot in men and along the left hand
and left foot in women. The ten 'winds' pra, apna, samna, udna, vyna, nga,
krma, kkara, dvadatta and dhanajaya flow along all the n-s; the n-s which
enter the eyes, ears, nostrils, tongue and skin serve as agents for the perception of
(visual) form, sound, smell, taste and touch respectively. Sleep results when the mind
merges or dissolves into the n called purtat.

The n Vivdar extends 32 cubits in length. One cubit of this lies in the neck
region, 10 cubits in the maya, ten in pacyamnaya and another ten in the
pakvaya. The remaining one cubit lies in the rectum in the form of a whorl. The juice
of the digested food enters in the n at the navel and is impelled by wind to flow
throughout the body. From the tortoise-like navel radiate eight large n-s, four of
which lie in the thorax and four in the back. The latter proceed upward to the head,
each branching out into two; one of these splits into five n-s one of which reach
the eyes, one the nostrils and one, the tongue. One reaches the nostrils and the other
the upper and lower lip.

Besides these, each of two n-s splits, in the hands, into five and extends into
the fingers; these are responsible for manual acts such as stretching, flexing etc.
Again, two downward n-s extend to the feet, each splitting to be sought under
ring-finger and forefinger, pitta-lman excess is perceived under midfinger and
ringfinger. Excess of all three, called sannipta manifests in the (equally) dominant
n beat beneath all three fingers. If the n beat is in slow (or dull), middle or fast
tempo, discrepancy in vta, pitta and lman should be inferred respectively. In
vta-pitta discrepancy the n beat is crooked (irregular) and leaping; in vta-
lman discrepancy it is crooked and slow; in pitta-lman discrepancy it is slow
and leaping. Da in vta, pitta and lman results in a n beat which resembles
the gait respectively of a snake, quail (perdix chinensis) and swan. If all three are
discrepant, the gait of the n beat resembles the gaits of the quail, partridge and
the vartaka variety of the quail. The pitta n is warm, the lman n is cold and
vta n is in between; they are unctuous, hot, fast and dull respectively in the
morning, noon, afternoon and night. The vta n is felt by the forefinger, pitta n
by the midfinger and the lman n by the ring finger of the physician. Similarly, if
the n beat is very fast at the (physician's) forefinger, midfinger and ring finger, it
indicates respectively pitta, vta and lman n.

According to another authority n beat is crooked in excessive vta, unstable in
excessive pitta and stable in excessive lman. Its gait resembles that of a snake in
vta-pitta excess, leaping in vta-pitta (?) excess. In a healthy person the n is
strong and stable like that of an elephant or swan. Such n is unctuous in the
morning, hot in the afternoon and fast in the night. Again, in disorders of vta, the
n beat follows the pattern of the movement of snake or leech; in disorders of pitta
it is like the gait of a crow, the tvaka bird (francoline partridge) or frog; in disorders of
lman, it resembles the movement of the king swan, peacock, turtle, dove, spotty-
necked pigeon or the hen, in vta-pitta diseases it is frequently winding like that of
snake and into five branches which lie in the toes. A ninth n, called liga n
enters the genital organ; here it splits into two; one of these serves as agent for
excretion while the other is a vehicle for semen in men.

yurvda teaches of eight positions in the body in which the n-s may be
clearly perceived and examined : one in each hand, one in each foot, one on each
side of the neck, one beneath each nostril. The one in the hand lies for three (Indian)
inches at the end of the forearm, in the wrist. The one in the foot lies for three (Indian)
inches below the ankle. The n in the neck extends for two (Indian) inches below
the root of the neck; those beneath the nostrils extend for one (Indian) inch. Pra
abides in these positions. Its state is determined by the proportion of the trida-s viz.
vta, pitta and lman i.e., health by their optimal balance and ill-health by
imbalance, resulting from the excessiveness of one or more of these.

The physician squeezes the right (in women, the left) forearm of the patient and
places his left middle three fingers on the n beating under the thumb. Conditions
for n examination such as the states of the physician and patient are laid down.
The phases of the trida at different parts of the day and in different seasons are
described. The equilibrium or excessiveness of the trida-s is inferred from two
parameters of the n beats viz. position and temporal pattern.

Thus vta excess is manifested in the n beat under the thumb, while the pitta
and lman excesses are manifested if the n beat is prominent under the
midfinger and ring-finger respectively. Dual excess is manifested in both the regions
or in between; vta-pitta excess is observed between forefinger and midfinger; vta-
lman excess should be recurringly like a frog's leap; in vta-lman diseases, it is
like the king swan or snake (!); in pitta-lman excess, it is like the leap of frog or the
walking of peacock. The sannipta (i.e. mixed) n is like the (mixed) movements of
francoline partridge, common partridge (tittir) and quail; or like the rapid and (then)
slow pecking of a woodpecker.

yurvda also describes the effect of food and drink of various tastes and
qualities on the n as, of also diurnal and seasonal variations.

3. Theoretical Model

(a.) Trida-s and Voice Quality

Haripladva (c.1175 A.D.) is the earliest known authority to classify the singing
voice*. He describes four kinds : khhula (lit. sweet), bmbala (lit. bamboo), nra
and mira (mixed). Khhula (called kvula in early Kannada epic poetry) is ranged in all
three registers, firm, bold and sweet to the ear like honey. Bambala (called bmbaka
by other authorities and bambala, lit. heavy in early Kannada epic poetry) is deep,
powerful, audible at a distance but somewhat lacking in appeal. Nra (lit. fluid?) can
touch the three registers, very appealing to both ear and mind and partakes of female
tone quality. Mira is a mixture of the above qualities, rapidly and intensely mobile in
the high register, deep, full of appeal and audible at a distance.
26
Prvadva (1160-
1330 A.D.) defines dhvani as sound which shines in clear articulation gradually
ascending the three registers. He also classifies dhvani into kbula, bambala, nra
and mira. Of these, kbula is abundant in the low register and has the quality of
'sweetness'. Bambala (mentioned by other authorities as bmbaka) is hollow (without
kernel) like the stem of the castor plant (ricinus communis) and is abundant in the
middle register. Nra is sans sweetness, abundant in the high register; mira is an
admixture of these three. Mira may be nraa-kbula, kbula-bambala, nra-
bambala, or nra-kbula-bambala.
27


However, it is only rgadva (c. 1230 A.D.) who relates these voice types to
the trida. His treatment of the subject is the most systematic and elaborate in all
the literature in Indian music.
28
Thus, khhula is generated by lman, is unctuous,
sweet and delicate; it is called illa if it is confined to the low and middle registers
only. Nra is the result of pitta; it is deep, blending and dense in all three registers.
Bmbaka is generated by vta; it is hollow,rough, high-pitched like the braying of a
donkey,heavy, hard. The mira type of voice is born of sannipta and is a mixture of
the qualities of the above three types. rgadva then proceeds to analyse the
mira type into subvarieties by a process of permutation and combination. He lays
down that compatibility of quality is a necessary and sufficient condition in combining
the qualities. For example, sweetness and heaviness are imcompatible mutually; so
are denseness and hollowness. So they should not be, or are not found in nature,
mixed. His words in this connection
29
admit of an inference of deliberate mixing i.e.
voice type or voice quality engineering, though his commentator Sihabhpla
interprets the passage to mean occurrence in nature.
30


There are three binary combinations viz. khhula-nra, nra-bmbala and
khhula-bmbala and one tertiary combination viz. khhula-nra-bmbala. The
last, minus hollowness and roughness is regarded as the most excellent singing voice
type. Khhula-nra type is superior. Khhula-bmbala is middling, while bmbala-
nra is inferior. A combination of hollowness and roughness results in the worst
voice.

The binary combinations altogether yield some 22 kinds of the singing voice.
These may be listed here in terms of qualities. The singing voice is eclectically
analysed into some fourteen elements, specific combinations of which yield a
particular voice quality. These elements are snigdhat (glossy, unctuous) tristhna-
vypti (range of three registers), mdhurya (sweetness, appeal), nisra (hollow),
ghana (dense, compact), gambhra (deep, resonant), uccatara (high pitched, shrill),
rka (rough, dry, parched), sthla (heavy, thick), kmala (tender), sukumra
(delicate), lna (blending, concealed, melting), parua (hard, harsh, sharp, rugged,
stiff, brittle) and mdu (soft).

A. Binary Combinations
I. Khhula-Nra
1. adhura-snigdha-kmala
2. Kmala-snigdha-ghana
3. Madhura-mdu-tristhnavypta
4. Gambhra-mdu-tristhnavypta
5. Snigdha-mdu-tristhnavypta-ghana
6. Madhura-mdu-tristhnavypta-ghana
7. Madhura-snigdha-mdu-tristhnavypta
8. Madhura-snigdha-gambhra-ghana-tristhnavypta
9. Snigdha-kmala-gambhra-ghana-tristhnavypta-lna
10. Snigdha-kmala-madhura-sndra (ghana)-lna-tristhnavypta-
gambhra

II. Khhula-Bmbaka
1. Snigdha-kmala-nisra
2. Madhura-mdu-rka
3. Mdu-snigdha-nisra-uccatara
4. Kmala-snigdha-nisra-sthla
5. Snigdha-kmala-nisra-uccatara-sthla
6. Madhura-kmala-rka-nisra-sthla

III. Nra-Bmbaka
1. Ghana-tristhnavypta-rka
2. Ghana-gambhra-rka
3. Lna-sthla-nis-rka
4. Lna-ghana-uccatara-sthla
5. Tristhnavypta-ghana-gambhra-lna-rka
6. Tristhnavypta-lna-nisra-rka-sthla

B. Tertiary Combinations
Sannipta (mixture of vta, pitta and lman)
1. Snigdha-tristhnavypta-nisra
2. Mdu-madhura-ghana-gambhra-uccatara-rka
3. Snigdha-kmala-ghana-lna-sthla-uccatara
4. Snigdha-kmala-tristhnavypta-lna-ghana-nisra-sthla-uccatara
5. Madhura-lna-tristhnavypta-rka-sthla-nisra-uccatara
6. Madhura-snigdha-kmala-tristhnavypta-ghana-gambhra-lna-
uccatara
7. Madhura-mdu-gambhra-lna-tristhnavypta-rka-uccatara-
nisra
8. Madhura-kmala-ghana-lna-tristhnavypta-rka-uccatara-sthla

rgadva
31
avers that notwithstanding this enumeration and description of thirty
varieties, there is an endless variety of subtle distinctions which are left undescribed
by him for fear of excessive length of his treatise. Thus he proposes a model based
on both empirical and theoretical considerations to cover every possible variation in
the quality of the singing voice. Such a model has the following merits :
i. Analysis of the quality of singing voice into component elements.
ii. Description or definition of component elements in common or
colloquial musical parlance.
iii. Systematic permutation of these elements into desired or specific
combinations.
iv. Progressive variation in permutation resulting in progressive
derivability.
v. Bivalency in correlation : empirical parameters (voice quality
components) related to theoretical postulates of fundamental body
constitution (trida).
vi. Enunciation of the principle of compatibility / incompatibility among
components to account for merits / demerits in the singing voice.

(b.) Elements of Voice Quality

In India the phoneticist and the musicologist have been aware for nearly two
millennia of the role played by various elements in determining singing voice quality.
They have defined these by extensive, careful analysis. The phoneticist often makes
an oblique approach to the problem whereas the musicologist is direct, immediate
and articulate. For example, Nrada defines some of these elements incidental to the
characterisation of the ten merits of song (i.e. singing).
32

i. Vyakta : Clear and effective articulation of the word content in both
phonetic and grammatical structure.
ii. Pra : Completeness in the union of syllable, word and prosody
and in filling this with svara and ruti i.e. tonal content to the
optimal best.
iii. Prasanna : Expression without faltering, stammering or hesitation.
iv. Sukumra : Delicacy in diction in soft syllabic and tone material
v. Alakra : (Uniformity of) tone in low, middle and high registers.
vi. Sama : Appropriate dynamics such as crescendo and diminuendo.
vii. Rakta : Coincidence of voice with the flute and v.
viii. laka : Smooth, moderate; neither too fast, nor too slow, neither
too low nor too high.
ix. Vika : Pronunciation in high pitch.
x. Madhura : Natural richness in charming words, syllables and quality.

rgadva adopts these definitions with some modifications which will be
presently studied. Bharata Muni is the first known authority to deal with voice qualities
in Indian music. He describes six of these qualities
33
:
i. rvaka is audible at distance.
ii. Ghana is dense (not hollow).
iii. Snigdha is dhvani which is not rough, dry, parched.
iv. Madhura is pleasing to the mind.
v. Avadhna (attention) is exact intonation, neither underpitched nor
overpitched.
vi. Tristhnabh is sweet tone uniformly in all the three registers.

Elsewhere, he enumerates voice qualities as prasvara, vicitravara,
tristhnabh, trilaya, trimrga, rakta, sama, laka, alakta, sukha, prasanna
(praasta) and madhura.
34
Again, he describes a singer as possessed of a pure,
unctuous, sweet-tone-enriched voice, expert in laya, tla, kalpta, prama,
faultless, sweet, unctuous, continuous, even, appealing, auspicious voice.
35
Nnyadva upholds these views by quoting Bharata.
36


Smvara again, defines some of these elements : according to him dhvani is
nda which is similar in quality to and blends with the flute and v; madhuradhvani
is sweet like the call of the koil; if it is pleasurable even when high pitched, it is
compact and not thin, it is called rvaka, if it has mdhurya and other qualities as
also clearly audible from a distance or among babel of sound (in an orchestra?);
tristhnabh dhvani is uniformly melodious in all three registers, even though high
pitched; it is best among the best voices.
37
Prvadva also mentions five elements of
voice quality : mdhurya, rvakatva, snigdhatva, ghanat and sthnaka-traya-
bitva. He takes note of the fact that appeal of the singing voice may lie only in one
or two registers or in all three; thus voice is said to be kaa (kala means
lustrous in Kannada) if it is uniformly sweet in all three registers; it is madhura if it is
sweet only in the low and middle registers; if it can enlighten the rga only in the high
register it is defined as pala (pausala?). If it is an admixture of these, that is if it is
sweet sometimes in mandra, madhya or tra and sometimes in mandra and madhya
and sometimes in all three, it is said to be bahubhag (many-postured). He then
proceeds to define madhura as sweet quality of the voice : snigdha is emotive voice
and not rough or dry even when high-pitched; ghana voice is dense and correctly
intones the notes; if it is sweet, lustrous and splendid in all three registers it is defined
as tristhnabh.
38


rgadva treats the subject comprehensively. He describes as many as fifteen
elements of voice quality.
38
:
i. Ma is pleasing to the ear (sensuous).
ii. Madhura (is sweet and) remains undistorted (and without broadening)
in the three registers.
iii. Chla is high pitched, mature (bold), neither thick nor thin, sweet,
appealing, polished and compct; it is possessed by female voices
and till puberty in male voices (the difference in quality between the
male, female voice was ascribed in medieval India to the
development of a special bone or cartilege in the larynx in the male
at adolescence which caused the voice to 'break'.
iv. Tristhnaka is uniform in lustre etc. throughout the three registers.
v. Sukhvaha is pleasing to the mind.
vi. Pracura is heavy, thick.
vii. Kmala is tender like the voice of the koil.
viii. Gha is strong.
ix. rvaka (clearly) audible afar.
x. Karua illumines the listener's mind with pathos or compassion.
xi. Ghana is compact, dense, audible afar.
xii. Snigdha is audible afar, neither thick nor thin, not harsh or rough, is
unctuous.
xiii. laka is smooth, polished, continuous like the strand of oil.
xiv. Raktiyukta is full of appeal, generates attraction.
xv. Chavimn is faultless, lustrous.

Further, rgadva borrows the concepts of ten qualities of song i.e. singing,
from Nrad's ik but modifies them or adopts them to the autonomy of music.
40

i. Vyakta is clarity in articulation of syllable, word, svara and rga.
ii. Pra is being replete with (all) organs of the song, with gamaka and
in prosodial structure.
iii. Prasanna is instantaneous intelligibility of meaning.
iv. Sukumrat is tenderness of voice.
v. Alakta is extensivity in the three registers.
vi. Sama is equitable distribution of registers in syllabic (? melodic
phraseoloy) content and in rhythm content.
vii. Surakta is complete fusion of voice with the tones of the v and
the flute.
viii. laka is smoothness in (all) the registers and (all) the tempi.
ix. Vika is high-pitched pronunciation.
x. Madhura has abundant charm and popular appeal.

Demerit in a singing voice is regarded as the absence of merit. However,
rgadva is explicit and detailed on this subject also.
41
He lists them as lacking in
resonance, harshness (dryness, roughness or brittleness) lacking in appeal (i.e. in
colouring the mind), hollowness, distortion in intonation (vaisvarat), thinness
(reediness), grating (karkaa) etc. Thus attributes or elements in good quality or bad
quality in singing voice may be resolved along the psycho-physical, psycho-
physiological and psycho-acoustical dimensions.

4. Suggestions

It is evident from the foregoing that medieval Indian music theory postulated a
model of the singing voice based on both theoretical and empirical consideration such
as -
i. Enunciation of postulates of fundamental body constitution and
relating them to behavioural patterns.
ii. Correlating these postulates and therefore the behavioural patterns to
broad voice types.
iii. Characterising each voice type in terms of quality attributes or
elements.
iv. Deriving a naturally occurring voice quality, a desirable / required or
undesirable voice quality as a specific combination of these
elements.

This model may be further validated by introducing further objective
parameters and verificatory or predictive procedures. Thus each of the above
attributes or elements could be related by analysis to acoustic correspondences such
as spectral characteristics on the one hand and to trida regulation on the other.
This would require psychoacoustic characterisation fully of specific aspects of voice
quality such as brightness, dullness, heaviness, sharpness, nasality, denseness,
logate etc. and would require further development of experimental procedures to
modify by therapeutic or other methods, to induce desired optimal condition of
trida.

This naturally leads to the concepts of voice-engineering and voice therapy : a)
development of corrective procedures at physiological level by manipulating or
modifying various attributes of elements of voice quality so that the latter would
closely approximate to desired or required condition within limits of natural resources
or endowments; b) development of therapeutic procedures, medical and surgical by a
judicious integration of knowledge and technology available in yurvda, Yunn,
Homeopathy and Allopathy; c) study of the effect of herbal formulae prescribed in
textual traditions in both Indian music and yurvda; d) designing of appropriate
vocal (music), respiratory etc. exercises to correct defects and to augment natural
endowments in the light of existing methods in Hindustani music and Karnataka
music.

The need for concerted and systematic endeavour in Indian music cannot be
emphasized enough. I hope we would do something soon.
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References

1. rgadva's Sagtaratnkara, 1.1.21

2. ibid. 1.1.25

3. e.g. kprtikhyam, 'Vjasany Prtikhyam, Yjavalkaya ik

4. Vide infra, section 3

5. Sathyanarayan, R; Voice Training in Indian Music in Sangeet Natak, No. 53-54,
New Delhi, 1976, pp. 78-95

6. Smvara III, Clukya Sarvaja, Abhilaitrtha-cintmai, 4.16.51-53

7. Suruta, Suruta Sahit 3.4.80

8. Caraka, Caraka Sahit 1.28.41

9. ibid. 4.6.4

10. Suruta, op.cit. 1.46.533 (Kashi Saskta Series, 1973)

11. Caraka op. cit. 1.28.4-5

12. Vrarjndra, Kalala, Sakalavaidyasahit Srrava pt. 1, p. 16

13. Trivikrama Paita cit. Vrarjndra, Kalala, op.cit. p. 17

14. Suruta, op.cit. arra-sthna 4. 64-67

15. Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (ed. tr.) yurvdavalli Nvijna, p. 102

16. Suruta, op.cit. lec. cit. 4.67-71

17. Vrarjndra, Kalala, op. cit. p. 17

18. Ramachandra Rao, S.K., op. cit. pp. 103-104

19. Suruta, op.cit., lec. cit., 4.72-76

20. Vrarjndra, Kalala, op. cit. p. 18

21. Suruta, op.cit. 4.77-78

22. Caraka, op.cit., 4.4.32,37,38

23. rgadva, op. cit., 1,2,72-74

24. Sathyanarayana, R. Niaka-hdaya, omm. Srgadva, op.cit., lec. cit., pp. 99-
102

25. e.g. N-vijna, Njnaparkak, Njnatantra, Njnadpik,
Npraka, yurvda Sagraha, Harikathmtasra, Sgadhra Sahit,
Sakalavaidya Sahit Srrava etc.

26. Haripladva, Sagtasudhkara, ed. Sathyanarayana R. (under print)

27. Prvadva, Sagtasamayasra, 1. 10-15

28. rgadva, op.cit., 3.39-67

29. ibid 3.43,44

30. Sihabhpla, Sagtasudhkara, comm. rgadva, op.cit. lec.cit., p. 160

31. rgadva, op.cit. 3.67

32. Nrada, Nradyaik 1.3.1.11

33. Bharata Muni, Nyastram, 33.12-16

34. ibid, 32.435

35. ibid. 33.25

36. Nnyadva, Sarasvathdaylakrahra, 1.2. 104-114

37. Smvara op.cit. 4.16, 81-84

38. Prvadva, op.cit. 1. 17-23

39. rgadva, op.cit., 3.68-77

40. ibid, 4. 374-379

41. ibid, 3.84, 85
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