SCH 4u Review

SCH 4U REVIEW 1 of 39
SCH 4U REVIEW
CHAPTER 1: ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
organic compoun a compound that contains carbon and usuall hdro!"n
ca!"na!ion th" prop"rt of carbon to form a co#al"nt bond $ith anoth"r carbon atom% formin!
lon! chains or rin!s
#unc!iona$ group a !roup of atoms in an or!anic mol"cul" that impart particular phsical and
ch"mical charact"ristics to that mol"cul"
th"r" ar" thr"" main compon"nts&
multipl" bonds b"t$""n C atoms '"(!( C ) C *
C bond"d to a mor" "l"ctron"!ati#" atom 'i("(% +% ,% ,H% or a halo!"n*
C doubl" bond"d to ,
%ASIC NAMING
NUM%ER PRE&I' &OR
NAMING
A()*( GROUP
NAME
&UNCTIONA(
GROUP
PRE&I' &OR
NAMING
1 m"th- m"thl- - . fluoro
/ "th- "thl- - Cl chloro
3 prop- propl- - 0r bromo
4 but- butl- - I iodo
1 p"nt- p"ntl- - ,H hdro2
3 h"2- h"2l- - +,/ nitro
4 h"pt- h"ptl- - +H/ amino
5 oct- octl-
9 non- nonl-
16 d"c- d"cl-
ISOMERS O& A()*( GROUPS
butl 'or n-butl*
CH3 CH/ CH/ CH/
isobutl 'or i-butl*
CH3 CH CH3
CH/
s-butl 's"condar butl*
CH3 CH CH/ CH3
t-butl 't"rtiar butl*
CH3
CH3 C CH3
S*M%O(S
R% R7% R8 al9l !roup
: halo!"n atom
',* o2idi;in! a!"nt 'li9" <=n,4 or Cr/,4
/-
in H/S,4*
SCH 4U REVIEW / of 39
PRIORIT* &OR NAMING +&ROM HIGHEST TO (OWEST,
,H hdro2l
+H/ amino
.% Cl% 0r% I fluoro% chloro% bromo% iodo
CH/CH/CH3 propl
CH/CH3 "thl
CH3 m"thl
>?<>+ES
DE&INITION
a hdrocarbon $ith onl sin!l" bonds b"t$""n carbon atoms@ !"n"ral formula%
CnH/nA/
NAMING
pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain A B-an"C
al9l !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd that
$ill !i#" th" lo$"st combination of numb"rs
th" pr"s"nc" of t$o or mor" of th" sam" al9l !roups r"Duir"s a BdiC or BtriC
pr"fi2 b"for" th" al9l !roup nam"
cclic hdrocarbons ha#" th" carbon rin! b"com" th" par"nt chain% and th"
pr"fi2 Bc-c$oC is us"d b"for" th" par"nt nam"
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
C C
E'AMP(E+S,
propan" CH3 CH/ CH3
ccloh"2an" CH/
CH/ CH/
E E
CH/ CH/
CH/
PO(ARIT* non-polar
&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s
%OI(ING
POINT
r"lati#"l lo$
incr"as"s $ith chain l"n!th
strai!ht chains ha#" hi!h"r b(p(s than branch"d chains
SO(U%I(IT* immiscibl" in $at"r and oth"r polar sol#"nts
REACTIONS
combustion
C3H5 A . ,/ / C,/ A 4 H/,
substitution 'halo!"nation*
1* CH4 A Cl/ CH3Cl A HCl
/* CH3Cl A Cl/ CH/Cl/ A HCl
>?<E+ES
DE&INITION
a hdrocarbon that contains at l"ast on" carbon-carbon doubl" bond@ !"n"ral
formula% CnH/n
NAMING
pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain that
contains the double bond A B-"n"C
al9l !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd
that is clos"st to th" doubl" bond
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
E E
C F C
E'AMP(E+S, prop"n" CH/ F CH CH3
PO(ARIT* non-polar
%OI(ING POINT r"lati#"l lo$
REACTIONS
halo!"nation '$ith 0r/% Cl/% "tc(*

"th"n" A bromin" 1%/ dibromo"than"
0r 0r
CH/ 0 CH/ A 0r/ CH/ CH/
hdro!"nation '$ith H/*
"thn" A hdro!"n "than"
H H
CH/ 0 CH/ A 1 H/ CH/ CH/

H H
hdrohalo!"nation '$ith hdro!"n halid"s*
prop"n" A hdro!"n bromin" /-bromopropan"
H 0r
E E
H C 0 CH CH3 A H0r H C CH CH3
E E
H H
hdration '$ith H/,*

1-but"n" A $at"r /-butanol
CH3 CH/ CH 0 CH/ A H,H CH3 CH/ CH CH/

,H H
room t"mp"ratur"
catalst% h"at% pr"ssur"
room t"mp"ratur"
H/S,4 catalst PREPARATION
REACTION &OR
A(COHO(S
MAR)OVNI)OV2
S RU(E
BGh" rich !"t rich"rC H $h"n a hdro!"n halid" or $at"r is add"d to an
al9"n" or al9n"% th" hdro!"n atom bonds to th" carbon atom $ithin th"
doubl" bond that already has more hydrogen bonds(
GEOMETRIC
ISOMERS
a ci3 i3om"r has both al9l !roups on th" sam" sid" of th" mol"cular
strucutr"
CH3 CH3
C F C cis-2-butene
H H
a !ran3 i3om"r has al9l !roups on th" opposit" sid" of th" mol"cular
strucutr"
CH3 H
C F C trans-2-butene
H CH3
>?<I+ES
DE&INITION
a hdrocarbon that contains at l"ast on" carbon-carbon tripl" bond@ !"n"ral
formula% CnH/n-/
NAMING
pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain that
contains the triple bond A B--n"C
al9l !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd that is
clos"st to th" tripl" bond
GENERA(
&ORMU(A C ) C
E'AMP(E+S, propn" CH ) C CH3
PO(ARIT* non-polar
%OI(ING
POINT
r"lati#"l lo$
REACTIONS Same as Alkenes (resulting in double bonds rather than single)
>R,=>GIC HIJR,C>R0,+S
DE&INITION a compound $ith a structur" bas"d on b"n;"n" 'a rin! of si2 carbons*
NAMING
consid"r th" b"n;"n" rin! to b" th" par"nt mol"cul"
al9l !roups ar" nam"d to !i#" th" lo$"st combination of numb"rs% $ith no
particular startin! carbon 'as it is a rin!*
$h"n it is "asi"r to consid"r th" b"n;"n" rin! as an al9l !roup% $" us" th"
nam" Bp4"n-$C to r"f"r to it
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
E'AMP(E+S,
m"thlb"n;"n"
PO(ARIT* non-polar
%OI(ING
POINT
r"lati#"l lo$
REACTIONS Same as Alkanes (performs substitution reactions)
,RK>+IC H>?IJES
DE&INITION
a compound of carbon and hdro!"n in $hich on" or mor" hdro!"n atoms ha#"
b""n r"plac"d b halo!"n atoms
NAMING
halo!"n atoms ar" consid"r"d to b" attachm"nts to th" par"nt chain and ar"
numb"r"d and nam"d $ith a pr"fi2 as such
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
R :
E'AMP(E+S,

H H
E E
1%/-dichloro"than" H C C H
E E
Cl Cl
Cl
1%/-dichlorob"n;"n"
Cl

PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to halo!"n atom*
&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s 'incr"as"d str"n!th bLc of carbon-halo!"n bonds*
%OI(ING
POINT
hi!h"r than th" corr"spondin! hdrocarbons
SO(U%I(IT* mor" solubl" in polar sol#"nts
REACTIONS addition
"thl"n" A hdro!"n idodi" 1-iodo"th"n"
H I
E E
H C ) C H A H I H C F C H
substitution
"than" A chlorin" 1-chloro"than" A hdro!"n chlorid"
H Cl
CH3

CH3 CH3 A Cl Cl H C C H A H Cl
H H
"limination
/-bromopropan" A hdro2l !roup prop"n" A bromin" ion A $at"r

H 0r H H H H
E E E
H C C C H A ,H
-
H C C F C H A 0r
-
A H/,
H H H H
>?C,H,?S
DE&INITION
an or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a hdro2l functional
!roup ',H
-
*
NAMING
th" B"C "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Bo$C to indicat" th"
pr"s"nc" of th" ,H
-
!roup
th" chain is numb"r"d to !i#" th" ,H
-
!roup th" small"st possibl" numb"r
$h"n th"r" is mor" than on" ,H
-
!roup% th" "ndin!s BdiolC and BtriolC ar"
us"d% and "ach is indicat"d $ith a num"rical pr"fi2% ho$"#"r th" B"C "ndin!
r"main th"n '"(!(% 1%3-propan"diol*
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
R ,H
E'AMP(E+S,
propanol CH3 CH/ CH/ ,H
ph"nol
PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to hdro2l !roup*
&ORCES hdro!"n bondin! and disp"rsion forc"s
%OI(ING
POINT
hi!h 'du" to capacit for hdro!"n bondin!*
SO(U%I(IT* #"r solubl" in polar sol#"nts and nonpolar sol#"nts 'du" to ,H
-
!roup*
hdration 'pr"paration*

1-but"n" A $at"r /-butanol
CH3 CH/ CH 0 CH/ A H,H CH3 CH/ CH CH/

,H H
O
M 169(1N
O
H S
+
S
-
H/S,4 catalst
,H
d"hdration '"limination*
propanol prop"n" A $at"r

CH3 CH CH/ CH3 CH F CH/ A H,H
,H H
156 156 AND /5
A(COHO(S
Primar- >lcohol '1N* CH3 CH/ ,H
1 oth"r carbon !roup attach"d to carbon $ith ,H
,H

S"conar- >lcohol '/N* CH3 CH CH3
/ oth"r carbon !roups attach"d to carbon $ith ,H
,H
T"r!iar- >lcohol '3N* CH3 C CH3
3 oth"r carbon !roups attach"d to carbon $ith ,H
CH3
EGHERS
DE&INITION
an or!anic compound $ith t$o al9l !roups 'th" sam" or diff"r"nt* attach"d to
an o2!"n atom

NAMING
th" lon!"r of th" t$o al9l !roups is consid"r"d th" par"nt chain
th" oth"r al9l !roup $ith th" o2!"n is consid"r"d to b" th" substitu"nt
!roup '$ith pr"fi2 of carbons and Bo7-C*
numb"rin! of C atoms starts at th" ,
propan" "tho2
CH3CH/CH/ , CH/CH3

/ 1 1 1 1
ethoxypropane
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
R , R7
E'AMP(E+S, m"tho2"than" CH3 , CH/ CH3
PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to th" V-shap" and C - , bonds*
%OI(ING
POINT
m"dium 'hi!h"r than hdrocarbons% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*
SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in polar sol#"nts and nonpolar sol#"nts
H/S,4 catalst
O
113N
O
C S
+
S
-
C
C
C
cond"nsation 'pr"paration* O addition of t$o alcohols 'sam" or diff"r"nt* O

m"thanol A m"thanol m"tho2m"than" A $at"r
CH3 ,H A CH3 ,H CH3 , CH3 A H,H
>?JEHIJES
DE&INITION
an or!anic compound that contains th" carbonl !roup 'CF,* on th" "nd
carbon of a chain
NAMING
th" B"C "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Ba$C to indicat" th"
pr"s"nc" of th" R-CF,
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
,
EE
RPHQ C H
E'AMP(E+S,
,
EE
propanal CH3 CH/ C H
PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbonl !roup*
%OI(ING
POINT
m"dium 'hi!h"r than "th"rs% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*
SO(U%I(IT* similar solubilit to alcohols
REACTIONS
o2idation 'pr"paration*
15 a$co4o$ 8 mi$ o7ii9ing ag"n! a$"4-" 8 :a!"r
"thanol A ',* "thanal A $at"r
,H ,
E EE
CH3 C H A ',* CH3 C H A H,H
E
H
r"duction 'hdro!"nation*
a$"4-" 8 4-rog"n 15 a$co4o$
proponal A hdro!"n 1-propanol
, ,H

CH3 CH/ C H A H/ CH3 CH/ C H
<EG,+ES
DE&INITION an or!anic compound that contains th" carbonl !roup 'CF,* on a carbon oth"r
H/S,4 catalst
than thos" on th" "nd of a carbon chain 'in th" middl"*
NAMING th" B"C "ndin! of th" par"nt hdrocarbon is chan!"d to Bon"C
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
,
EE
R C R7
E'AMP(E+S,
,
EE
propanon" 'ac"ton"* CH3 C CH3
PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbonl !roup*
%OI(ING
POINT
m"dium 'hi!h"r than "th"rs% lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th*
REACTIONS
o2idation 'pr"paration*
15 a$co4o$ 8 o7ii9ing ag"n! ;"!on" 8 :a!"r
/-propanol A ',* propanon" A $at"r
,H ,
EE
CH3 C CH3 A ',* CH3 C CH3 A H,H

H
r"duction 'hdro!"nation*
;"!on" 8 4-rog"n 15 a$co4o$
butanon" A hdro!"n /-butanal
, ,H

CH3 CH/ C CH3 A H/ CH3 CH/ C CH3
NOTE& G"rtiar alcohols do not und"r!o o2idation r"actions@ no H atom is
a#ailabl" on th" c"ntral C atom(
C>R0,:I?IC >CIJS
DE&INITION
on" of a famil of or!anic compounds that is charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a
carbo2l !roup&
C
, H
NAMING
th" B"C "ndin! of th" par"nt al9an" is chan!"d to Boic aciC
numb"rin! starts $ith th" C of th" carbo2l !roup
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
,
EE
RPHQ C ,H
,
E'AMP(E+S,
CH/CH3
4-"thl-3-m"thlh"2anoic acid CH3 CH/ CH CH CH/ C,,H
CH3
PO(ARIT* polar 'du" to carbo2l !roup*
&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and hdro!"n bondin!
%OI(ING
POINT
#"r hi!h 'hi!h"r than hdrocarbons of similar l"n!th du" to C, and ,H
!roups*
REACTIONS
dissolution in $at"r 'proof of acidit*
"thanoic acid A $at"r carbo2lat" ion A hdronium ion
CH3C,,H A H/, CH3C,,
-
A H3,
A

,
CH3 C O shar"s th" doubl" bond
,
o2idation '$ith $"a9 o2idi;"r*
1, 15 a$co4o$ 8 :"a; o7ii9ing ag"n! a$"4-" 8 :a!"r
1, a$"4-" 8 :"a; o7ii9ing ag"n! car<o7-$ic aci 8 :a!"r
,

1, CH3 CH/ ,H A Cr/,4
/-
A H
A
CH3 C H A H/, A Cr
3A
,
1, CH3 C H A Cr/,4
/-
A 1 H
A
/ CH3 C,,H A 4 H/,
o2idation '$ith stron! o2idi;"r*
15 a$co4o$ 8 3!rong o7ii9ing ag"n! car<o7-$ic aci 8 :a!"r
"thanol A o2idi;in! a!"nt A hdro!"n "thanoic acid A $at"r A man!an"s" dio2id"
,

/ CH3 CH/ ,H A 4 =n,4
-
A 4 H
A
/ CH3 C ,H A . H/, A 4 =n,/
NOTE: <"ton"s ar" not r"adil o2idi;in!% as in th" o2idation of ald"hd"s(
ESGERS
DE&INITION
an or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a carbonl !roup bond"d
to an o2!"n atom
NAMING
th" !roup that is attach"d to th" doubl"-bond"d , b"com"s th" par"nt chain
$ith th" B"C "ndin! chan!"d to Boa!"C
th" oth"r !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roup
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
,
EE
RPHQ C , R7
E'AMP(E+S,

/-m"thlbutl propanoat" , CH3
CH3 CH/ C , CH/ CH CH/ CH3
PO(ARIT* l"ss polar than carbo2lic acids 'loss of ,H
-
!roup*
%OI(ING
POINT
m"dium 'lo$"r than carbo2lic acids% hi!h"r than ald"hd"s L 9"ton"s of similar
l"n!th du" to "2tra ,*
SO(U%I(IT* l"ss solubl" than acids
REACTIONS
cond"nsation 'formation*
car<o7-$ic aci 8 a$co4o$ "3!"r 8 :a!"r
"thanoic acid A m"thanol m"thl "thanoat" A $at"r
, ,
EE EE
CH3 C ,H A CH3 ,H CH3 C , CH3 A H/,

hdrolsis 'saponification*
"3!"r 8 NaOH 3oium 3a$! o# aci 8 a$co4o$
, ,
R C , R7 A +a
A
A ,H
-
R C ,
-
A +a
A
A R7 ,H
NOTE: Est"rs !"n"rall ha#" nic" odours and ar" us"d to cr"at" artificial fla#ours(
>=I+ES
DE&INITION
an ammonia mol"cul" in $hich on" or mor" H atoms ar" substitut"d b al9l or
aromatic !roups
NAMING
1* nitro!"n !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roup usin! Bamino=C
/* al9l !roup is nam"d as a substitu"nt !roup from B-amin"C
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
R7 PHQ
E
R + R77 PHQ
E'AMP(E+S,
1* 1-aminopropan" +H/
/* proplamin"
CH/ CH/ CH3
+-"thl-+-m"thl-1-aminobutan"
CH/CH3
E
CH3 + CH/ CH/ CH/ CH3
SCH 4U REVIEW 1/ of 39
PO(ARIT* polar 'not as polar as alcohols% b"caus" + is l"ss polar than ,*
&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and +-H bonds
%OI(ING
POINT
m"dium 'lo$"r than alcohols of similar l"n!th% hi!h"r than hdrocarbons*
SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in $at"r
REACTIONS
formation
a$;-$ 4a$i" 8 ammonia amin" 8 ammonium 4a$i"
iodo"than" A ammonia amino"than" A ammonium iodid"
CH3 CH/ I A 1 +H3 CH3 CH/ +H/ A +H4I
156 156 AND /5
AMINES
Primar- >min" '1N* CH3 + H
1 al9l !roup attach"d to + E
H methylamine

S"conar- >min" '/N* CH3 + CH3
/ al9l !roups attach"d to + E
H
dimethylamine

T"r!iar- >min" '3N* CH3 + CH3
3 al9l !roups attach"d to + E
CH3 trimethylamine
>=IJES
DE&INITION
an or!anic compound charact"ri;"d b th" pr"s"nc" of a carbonl functional
!roup 'CF,* bond"d to a nitro!"n atom
NAMING
al9l !roup attach"d to doubl"-bond"d , is consid"r"d to b" th" substitu"nt
!roup% attach"d to th" par"nt B-ami"C
GENERA(
&ORMU(A
, R77 PHQ
EE E
RPHQ C + R7 PHQ
E'AMP(E+S,
,
EE
propanamid" CH3 CH/ C +H/
PO(ARIT* sli!htl mor" polar than amin" of similar l"n!th '"2tra ,*
&ORCES disp"rsion forc"s and +-H bonds
%OI(ING
POINT
same as amines
SO(U%I(IT* solubl" in $at"r
REACTIONS
formation
car<o7-$ic aci 8 amin" ami" 8 :a!"r
"thanoic acid A ammonia "thanamid" A $at"r
, H ,
EE E EE
CH3 C ,H A H + H CH3 C +H/ A H,H
E'AMP(E O& A STEPPED S*NTHESIS REACTION
Write a series of equations for a method of synthesis for N-ethylethanamide from an alkane and ammonia
1( "than" A chlorin" chloro"than" A hdro!"n chlorid"
CH3 CH3 A Cl Cl CH3 CH/ A H Cl
E
Cl
/( chloro"than" A $at"r "thanol A hdro!"n chlorid"
CH3 CH/ H,H CH3 CH/ A H Cl
E E
Cl ,H
3( "thanol A stron! o2idi;"r "thanoic acid A $at"r A man!an"s" dio2id"
CH3 CH/ A =n,4
-
CH3 C ,H A H,H A =n,/
E EE
,H ,
4( chloro"than" A ammonia amino"than" A ammonium chlorin"
CH3 CH/ A 1 H + H CH3 CH/ +H/ A +H4Cl
E E
Cl H
1( "thanoic acid A amino"than" +-"thl"thanamid" A $at"r
, H
EE E
CH3 C ,H A CH3 CH/ +H/ CH3 C + CH/ CH3 A H,H
EE
,
COMMON NAMES
COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME COMMON NAME IUPAC NAME
"thl"n" "th"n" formic acid carbo2l !roup 'C,,H*
propl"n" prop"n" ac"tic acid "thanoic acid
ac"tl"n" "thn" tolu"n" L ph"nl m"than" m"thl b"n;"n"
formald"hd" m"thanal ac"tat" "thanoat"
ac"tald"hd" "thanal ac"tamid" "thanamid"
ac"ton" propanon"
&(OW CHART O& ORGANIC REACTIONS
H/S,4 catalst
CHAPTER 1: PO(*MERS
po$-m"r a mol"cul" of lar!" molar mass that consists of man r"p"atin! subunits call"d
monom"rs@ t$o tp"s& addition and cond"nsation
monom"r a mol"cul" or compound usuall containin! carbon and of r"lati#"l lo$ mol"cular
$"i!ht and simpl" structur" $hich is capabl" of con#"rsion to polm"rs b
combination $ith its"lf or oth"r similar mol"cul"s or compounds
im"r a mol"cul" mad" up of t$o monom"rs
ADDITION PO(*MERS
ai!ion po$-m"r a polm"r form"d $h"n monom"r units ar" lin9"d throu!h addition
r"actions@ all atoms pr"s"nt in th" monom"r ar" r"tain"d in th" polm"r
al9"n" A al9"n" polm"r
E E E E E E E E E E
C F C A C F C C C C C or C C
E E E E E E E E E E n
l"ss r"acti#" than th"ir monom"rs% b"caus" th" unsaturated al9"n" monom"rs ha#" b""n
transform"d into saturated carbon s9"l"tons of al9an"s
forc"s of attraction ar" lar!"l #an d"r Waals attractions% $hich ar" indi#iduall $"a9%
allo$in! th" polm"r chains to slid" alon! "ach oth"r% r"nd"rin! th"m fl"2ibl" and
str"tchabl"
CONDENSATION PO(*MERS
con"n3a!ion po$-m"r a polm"r form"d $h"n monom"r units ar" lin9"d throu!h
cond"nsation r"actions@ a small mol"cul" is form"d as a bproduct
monomer
po$-"3!"r a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in "st"r lin9a!"s b"t$""n
monom"rs
dialcohol A dicarbo2lic acid pol"st"r 'dim"r* A $at"r
, , , ,
EE EE EE EE
H, CH/ CH/ ,H A C C , CH/ CH/ , C C A / H/,
E E n
H, ,H
po$-ami" a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in amid" lin9a!"s b"t$""n
monom"rs@ also 9no$n as a n-$on
diamin" A dicarbo2lic acid polamid" 'dim"r* A $at"r
H H , , H H , ,
E E EE EE E E EE EE
+ CH/ + A C C + CH/ + C C A / H/,
E E E E n
H H H, ,H
COMPOUNDS O& (I&E
pro!"in a lar!" compl"2 mol"cul" mad" up of on" or mor" chains of amino acids 'an amino
!roup and carbo2l !roup attach"d to th" sam" carbon atom*
> p"rform a $id" #ari"t of acti#iti"s in th" c"ll% includin! muscular !ro$th% c"llular
r"pair% and s"r#" as buildin! bloc9s for all bod tissu"
,
EE
> +H CH C >
E n
R
car<o4-ra!" a compound of carbon% hdro!"n% and o2!"n% $ith a !"n"ral formula C2'H/,*
> a maRor sourc" of food "n"r!% includin! su!ars% starch"s% and c"llulos"
> produc"d throu!h photosnth"sis in plants
> pro#id"s an "Dui#al"nt amount of "n"r! as an "Dual mass of fatt acids
#a! 9no$n ch"micall as a triglyceride 'an "st"r of thr"" fatt acids $hich ar" lon!-chain
carbo2lic acids and on" !lc"rol mol"cul"*
> s"r#"s as a stora!" sst"m% r"s"r#" suppl of "n"r!% and insulation
!lc"rol A fatt acids fat 'tri!lc"rid"*
H , ,
E / EE EE
H C ,H H, C R H C , C R
E E
H C ,H H ,
E EE
H C ,H H C , C RS
E
H ,
EE
H C , C RC
E
H

nuc$"ic aci h"r"ditar information stor"d in all li#in! c"lls from $hich th" information can
b" transf"rr"d@ th" chi"f tp"s b"in! J+> and R+>
> J+> is cr"at"d from four diff"r"nt nucleotides 'monom"r consistin! of a ribos"
su!ar% a phosphat" !roup% and on" of four possibl" nitro!"nous bas"s*
> carri"s th" !"n"tic information that "ncod"s prot"ins and "nabl"s c"lls to
r"produc" and p"rform th"ir functions

nitrogenous
phosphate base

sugar
CHAPTER /: ATOMIC THEOR*
THE %OHR ATOMIC THEOR*
"l"ctrons tra#"l in th" atom in circular orbits $ith Duanti;"d "n"r! "n"r! is r"strict"d to
onl c"rtain discr"t" Duantiti"s
th"r" is a ma2imum numb"r of "l"ctrons allo$"d in "ach orbit
"l"ctrons BRumpC to a hi!h"r l"#"l $h"n a photon 'a Duantum of li!ht "n"r!* is absorb"d%
r"sultin! in absorption sp"ctrum 's"ri"s of dar9 lin"s*
"l"ctrons BdropC to a lo$"r l"#"l $h"n a photon is "mitt"d% r"sultin! in bri!ht-lin" sp"ctrum
's"ri"s of bri!ht lin"s*
OR%ITS VS? OR%ITA(S
or<i! /-J path@ fi2"d distanc" from nucl"us@ circular or "lliptical path@ /n
/
"l"ctrons p"r orbit
or<i!a$ 3-J r"!ion in spac"@ #ariabl" distanc" from nucl"us@ no path and #ari"d shap" of
r"!ion@ / "l"ctrons p"r orbital@ pr"dict"d b Schrodin!"rSs "Duation
@UANTUM NUM%ERS TO DESCRI%E OR%ITA(S
n principal Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"l
l s"condar Duantum numb"r or subsh"ll 's% p% d% or f*
m! ma!n"tic Duantum numb"r 'dir"ction of th" "l"ctron orbit*
m2 spin Duantum numb"r 'can onl b" AT or T to d"scrib" spin of "l"ctron*
VA(UE O& l SU%(EVE(
S*M%O(
NUM%ER O&
OR%ITA(S
MA'? NUM%ER
O& E(ECTRONS
PRESENT AT
n 0
6 s 1 / 1-4
1 p 3 3 /-4
/ d 1 16 3-4
3 f 4 14 4-4
6p
5d
CREATING ENERG*=(EVE( DIAGRAMS
"n"rg-=$"A"$ iagram int"rpr"tation of $hich orbital "n"r! l"#"ls ar" occupi"d b "l"ctrons
for a particular atom or ion@ also call"d an orbital dia!ram
"(!(% 9.
2p

2s
1s
RU(ES &OR ENERG*=(EVE( DIAGRAMS
Start addin! "l"ctrons to th" lo$"st "n"r! l"#"l '1s* and build up from th" bottom until th"
limit on th" numb"r of "l"ctrons for th" particl" is r"ach"d !4" au#<au princip$"
Go obtain th" corr"ct ord"r of orbitals for an atom% start at th" hdro!"n and mo#" from l"ft
to ri!ht across th" p"riodic tabl"% fillin! th" orbitals@ s"" b"lo$&
32 e
-
6s 4f
18 e
-
5s
5p
18 e
-
4s
8 e
-
3s
8 e
-
2s
2 e
-
1s
4p
3p
2p
4d
3d
n 'primar Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"l*
l 's"condar Duantum numb"r or subl"#"l*
m! 'on" orbital is distin!uish"d from anoth"r at th" sam" subl"#"l*
m2 'spin*
.or anions% add "2tra "l"ctrons to th" numb"r for th" atom( .or cations% do th" n"utral atom
first% and th"n subtract th" r"Duir"d numb"r of "l"ctrons from th" orbitals $ith th" hi!h"st
principl" Duantum numb"r% n 'i("(% ou $ould r"mo#" th" "l"ctrons from 4s% rath"r than 3d(*
Each orbital $ill hold a ma2imum of t$o "l"ctrons that spin in opposit" dir"ctions !4"
Pau$i "7c$u3ion princip$"
El"ctrons must b" distribut"d amon! orbitals of "Dual "n"r! so that as man "l"ctrons
r"main unpair"d as possibl" Hun23 ru$"
Half-fill"d and fill"d subsh"lls ar" mor" stabl" than unfill"d subsh"lls as th" o#"rall "n"r!
stat" of th" atom is lo$"r aft"r th" "l"ctron is promot"d to a lo$"r "n"r! l"#"l&
Predicted Actual

Cr: [Ar] Cr: [Ar]
Cu: [Ar] Cu: [Ar]
4s 3d 4s 3d
E(ECTRON CON&IGURATION
"$"c!ron con#igura!ion a m"thod for communicatin! th" location and numb"r of "l"ctrons in
"l"ctron "n"r! l"#"ls
"(!(% ,& 1s
/
/s
/
/p
4
3p
5
S
/-
& 1s
/
/s
/
/p
3
3s
/
3p
3

34or!4an "$"c!ron con#igura!ion $h"n th" "l"ctron confi!uration is $ritt"n $ith th"
pr"c"din! nobl" !as plac"d b"for" th" subsh"ll information
'"(!(% Cl: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
5
b"com"s Cl: [Ne] 3s
2
3p
5
*
i3o"$"c!ronic $h"n t$o atomsLions ha#" th" sam" "l"ctron confi!uration '"(!(% +"% .
-
% +a
A
*
#"rromagn"!i3m "2hibit"d b th" m"tals iron% cobalt% nic9"l and a numb"r of allos that
b"com" ma!n"ti;"d in a ma!n"tic fi"ld and r"tain th"ir ma!n"tism $h"n th"
fi"ld is r"mo#"d
paramagn"!i3m "2hibit"d b mat"rials li9" aluminum or platinum that b"com" ma!n"ti;"d in
a ma!n"tic fi"ld but it disapp"ars $h"n th" fi"ld is r"mo#"d 'caus"d b
unpair"d "l"ctrons*
@UANTUM MECHANIC THEOR*
Buan!um m"c4anic3 th" curr"nt th"or of atomic structur" bas"d on $a#" prop"rti"s of
"l"ctrons@ also 9no$n as $a#" m"chanics
H"i3"n<"rg unc"r!ain!- princp$" it is impossibl" to simultan"ousl 9no$ "2act position and
sp""d of a particl"
principal Duantum numb"r
orbital
numb"r of "l"ctrons in
orbital's*
"$"c!ron pro<a<$i!- "n3i!- a math"matical or !raphical r"pr"s"ntation of th" chanc" of
findin! an "l"ctron in a !i#"n spac"@ s"" b"lo$ for "2ampl" of a
/s orbital&
CHAPTER 4: CHEMICA( %ONDING
c4"mica$ <on form"d as th" r"sult of th" simultan"ous
attraction of t$o or mor" nucl"i
T*PES O& %ONDS
1( Ionic %oning $h"n on" atom has lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En% $hil" th" oth"r has
hi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% m"tal and nonm"tal*
U En V 1(4
th" "l"ctrostatic attraction b"t$""n positi#" and n"!ati#" ions
/( CoAa$"n! %oning $h"n both atoms ha#" hi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% t$o
nonm"tals*
U En W 1(4
th" sharin! of #al"nc" "l"ctrons b"t$""n atomic nucl"i
3( M"!a$$ic %oning $h"n both atoms ha#" lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En 'i("(% t$o
m"tals*
(EWIS THEOR* O& %ONDING
>toms and ions ar" stabl" if th" ha#" a nobl" !as-li9" "l"ctron structur" 'i("(% a stabl" oct"t
of "l"ctrons*(
El"ctrons ar" most stabl" $h"n th" ar" pair"d(
>toms form ch"mical bonds to achi"#" a stabl" oct"t of "l"ctrons(
> stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b an "2chan!" of "l"ctrons b"t$""n m"tal and nonm"tal
atoms(
> stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b th" sharin! of "l"ctrons b"t$""n nonm"tal atoms%
r"sultin! in a co#al"nt bond(
(EWIS STRUCTURES
(":i3 3!ruc!ur" a smbolic d"piction of th" distribution of #al"nc" "l"ctrons in a mol"cul"
1( >rran!" atoms smm"tricall around th" c"ntral atom 'usuall list"d first in th" formula%
not usuall o2!"n and n"#"r hdro!"n*(
/( Count th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons of all atoms( .or polatomic ions% add "l"ctrons
corr"spondin! to th" n"!ati#" char!"% and subtract "l"ctrons corr"spondin! to th" positi#"
char!" on th" ion(
SCH 4U REVIEW /6 of 39
3( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons all th" atoms B$antC% and subtract th" numb"r
of #al"nc" "l"ctrons it has 'r"sult from st"p /*( Ji#id" this numb"r b / to d"t"rmin" th"
numb"r of bonds th" mol"cul" $ill ha#"(
4( Xlac" a bondin! pair of "l"ctrons b"t$""n th" c"ntral atom and "ach of th" surroundin!
atoms(
1( Compl"t" th" oct"ts of th" surroundin! atoms usin! lon" pairs of "l"ctrons( R"m"mb"r
hdro!"n '/ "
-
*% b"rllium '4 "
-
*% and boron '3 "
-
* ar" th" "2c"ptions( >n r"mainin!
"l"ctrons !o on th" c"ntral atom(
3( If th" c"ntral atom do"s not ha#" an oct"t% mo#" lon" pairs from th" surroundin! atoms to
form doubl" or tripl" bonds until th" c"ntral atom has a compl"t" oct"t( Confirm th"
numb"r of bonds is corr"ct b comparin! it to th" r"sult in st"p 3(
4( Jra$ th" ?"$is structur" and "nclos" polatomic ions $ithin sDuar" brac9"ts sho$in! th"
ion char"(
"(!(% S,3
S O/
has 3 3 '3* 3 A 15 F /4 "
-
$ants 5 3 '5* 5 A /4 F 3/ "
-
diff"r"nc" F 5 "
-
F 4 bonds
VA(ENCE %OND THEOR*
Co#al"nt bonds form $h"n atomic or hbrid orbitals $ith on" "l"ctron o#"rlap to shar" "
-
(
0ondin! occurs $ith th" hi!h"st "n"r! '#al"nc" sh"ll* "l"ctrons(
+ormall% th" s orbitals 'sph"r" shap"* and p orbitals 'dumb-b"ll shap"* o#"rlap $ith "ach
oth"r to form bonds b"t$""n atoms(
sp
"
% sp
2
% and sp hbrid orbitals ar" form"d from on" s orbital and thr""% t$o% and on" p
orbital% r"sp"cti#"l% $ith ori"ntations of t"trah"dral '169(1N*% tri!onal planar '1/6N*% and
lin"ar '156N*% r"sp"cti#"l(
End-to-"nd o#"rlap of orbitals or sin!l" co#al"nt bonds is call"d a si!ma 'Y* bond(
Sid"-b-sid" o#"rlap of unhbridi;"d p orbitals is call"d a pi 'Z* bond '$"a9"r than Y bond*(
Joubl" bonds ha#" on" pi bond% $hil" tripl" bonds ha#" t$o pi bonds(
VSEPR THEOR*
Val"nc"-Sh"ll El"ctron-Pair R"pulsion T4"or- pairs of "l"ctrons in th" #al"nc" sh"ll of an
atom sta as far apart as possibl" to minimi;" r"pulsion of th"ir n"!ati#" char!"s
1( Jra$ th" ?"$is structur" for th" mol"cul"% includin! th" "
-
pairs around th" c"ntral atom(
/( Count th" total numb"r of bondin! pairs and lon" pairs of "l"ctrons around th" c"ntral atom(
3( Us" th" tabl" b"lo$ to pr"dict th" shap" of th" mol"cul"(
!" e
-
#A$%&
A%!'N(
C)N*%A+
A*!,
!%$)N*A*$!N
!"
)+)C*%!N
#A$%&
N',-)% !"
-!N($N.
AN( +!N)
#A$%&
-!N(
AN.+)&
&/A#) )0A,#+)
,!+)C'+A%
.)!,)*%1
2 linear 2 -#2 3 +# 1834 linear -e"2
0 5 A 5 0
3 triangular 3 -#2 3 +# 1234 trigonal -"3
0
&
! !
!
. . . .
. .
planar planar
6
A

0 0
4
tetrahedral 4 -#2 3 +# 137854 tetrahedral C/4
0
6
A
0 0
0
tetrahedral 3 -#2 1 +# 9 137854
trigonal
p:ra;idal
N/3
#Cl3
A
0 0
0
tetrahedral 2 -#2 2 +# 9 137854
<-shaped
or bent
/2!
!"2

A

0 0
tetrahedral 1 -#2 3 +# 1834 linear /Cl A 5 0
5
trigonal
bip:ra;idal
5 -#2 3 +#
1234 =
734
trigonal
bip:ra;idal
#Cl5
0
0 6 0
A
6 0
0
6 o>tahedral 6 -#2 3 +# 734 o>tahedral &"6
0
0 6 0
A
0 6 0
0
"(!(% H,.'l* . .
/ : ! : " : / 0X and / ?X% th"r"for" H,.'l* is #-shap"d&
!
/ "
No!": ions ar" tr"at"d in th" sam" $a% but sDuar" brac9"ts ar" plac"d around th" dia!ram
$ith th" char!" plac"d in th" upp"r ri!ht hand corn"r
> doubl" and tripl" bonds ar" tr"at"d as on" !roup of "l"ctrons $h"n usin! VSEXR
th"or% and most of thos" mol"cul"s ta9" th" sam" shap" as th"ir ?"$is structur"

PO(AR MO(ECU(ES
<on ipo$" th" "l"ctron"!ati#it diff"r"nc" of t$o bond"d atoms r"pr"s"nt"d b an arro$
pointin! from th" lo$"r '[A* to th" hi!h"r '[-* "l"ctron"!ati#it
nonpo$ar mo$"cu$" a mol"cul" that has "ith"r nonpolar bonds 'W6(1 U En* or polar bonds
$hos" bond dipol"s canc"l to ;"ro 'i("(% VSEXR dia!ram is smm"trical*
po$ar mo$"cu$" a mol"cul" that has polar bonds $ith dipol"s that do not canc"l to ;"ro
"(!(% +H3 ? ?
N
383

281
/ /
281
th"r"for"% it is a polar mol"cul"
/
281

INTERMO(ECU(AR &ORCES
in!"rmo$"cu$ar #orc" th" forc" of attraction and r"pulsion b"t$""n mol"cul"s@ much $"a9"r
than co#al"nt bonds
C=
C8
C8
C8
SCH 4U REVIEW // of 39
ipo$"=ipo$" #orc" a forc" of attraction du" to th" simultan"ous attraction of on" dipol" b its
surroundin! dipol"s
> th" mor" polar th" mol"cul"s% th"
stron!"r th" forc"
th" shap" of th" mol"cul" also aff"ct
th" dipol"-dipol" str"n!th 'i("(% clos"r to!"th"r F stron!"r forc"*
(onon i3p"r3ion #orc" th" simultan"ous attraction of an "l"ctron b th" positi#" nucl"i in
th" surroundin! mol"cul"s
th" !r"at"r th" numb"r of
"l"ctrons p"r mol"cul"% th"
stron!"r th" forc"
>s dipol"-dipol" forc" or ?ondon disp"rsion forc"
incr"as"s% th" boilin! point incr"as"s% allo$in! ou to
pr"dict r"lati#" boilin! point% if on" of th" forc"s is th"
sam" b"t$""n th" t$o substanc"s% or if both forc"s ar"
mo#in! in th" sam" dir"ction(
4-rog"n <oning th" attraction of a hdro!"n atom to a
lon" pair of "l"ctrons in +% ,% or . atoms in adRac"nt mol"cul"s 'possibl"
b"caus" H has no #al"nc" "
-
to Bshi"ldC nucl"us*
. . . .
/ 5 " : ------------ / 5 " :
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES O& CR*STA((INE SO(IDS
CR*STA( PARTIC(ES
&ORCED
%OND
PROPERTIES
E'AMP(ES =E?GI+K
X,I+G
C,+JUC-
GIVIGI
S,?U0I?IGI
I+ ?I\UIJL
S,?UGI,+
Ionic
ions
'A and -*
ionic
m"dium
'hi!h"r as
ionic
char!"
incr"as"s%
si;" of ion
d"cr"as"s*
"s "s
+aCl%
+a3X,4% Ca./%
=!,%
CuS,4]1H/,
="tallic
cations
m"tallic
'fi2"d
nucl"i $ith
mobil"
d"locali;"d
"l"ctrons%
allo$in! for
conduction
of h"at and
"l"ctricit*
hi!h
'hi!h"r as
numb"r of
#al"nc"
"l"ctrons
incr"as"s*
"s no
Xb% ."%
Cu% >l% >!%
>u
Xolar =ol"cular
mol"cul"s
?ondon%
dipol"-
dipol"%
hdro!"n
lo$
'hi!h"r as
numb"r of
"l"ctrons%
polarit of
mol"cul"s%
and
pr"s"nc"
of
hdro!"n
bonds
incr"as"s*
no
"s
X.3% ICl%
CHCl3% H/,%
+H3% S,3
+onpolar =ol"cular
mol"cul"s
or sin!l"
atoms
no
in"rt !as"s%
diatomic
"l"m"nts%
C,/% CCl4%
S.3% 0.3
Co#al"nt +"t$or9
Crstal
atoms
co#al"nt
'a 3-J
arran!"m"nt
of stron!
co#al"nt
bonds
b"t$""n
atoms@
r"sultin! in
hardn"ss and
hi!h m"ltin!
point*
#"r hi!h
'm"ltin!
point
incr"as"s
as str"n!th
of
co#al"nt
bonds
incr"as" *
no no
diamond% SiC%
>l+% 0",%
Si,/% CuCl/%
=!/S
NETWOR) SO(IDS +A)A ESUPERMO(ECU(ESF,
>??,GR,XES ,. C>R0,+&
a* iamon a 3-J n"t$or9 solid
"ach C atom is in th" c"ntr" of a t"trah"dron $hos" #"rtic"s ar" occupi"d b
oth"r C atoms
"ach C atom shar"s its #al"nc" "
-
$ith 4 oth"r C atoms
bondin! "
-
ar" ti!htl bound and hi!hl locali;"d
a* grap4i!" a /-J n"t$or9 solid
"ach C atom is surround"d b a 3 oth"rs in a plan"
th" doubl" bond consists of d"locali;"d "l"ctrons% th"r"for" a !ood conductor
s"parat" la"rs ar" h"ld to!"th"r b disp"rsion forc"s and ar" "asil s"parat"d
SI?IC> >+J GHE SI?IC>GES&
silicon combin"s $ith o2!"n to form silicon dio2id"% Si,/ 'silica*
it furth"r r"acts $ith m"tal compounds to produc" m"tal silicat"s
a* Buar!9 a 3-J n"t$or9 solid
b* mica a /-J n"t$or9 solid
c* a3<"3!o3 a 1-J n"t$or9 solid
CHAPTER .: THERMOCHEMISTR*
!4"rmoc4"mi3!r- th" stud of th" "n"r! chan!"s that accompan phsical or ch"mical
chan!"s of matt"r
!4"rma$ "n"rg- "n"r! a#ailabl" from a substanc" as a r"sult of th" motion of its mol"cul"s
c4"mica$ 3-3!"m a s"t of r"actants and products und"r stud% usuall r"pr"s"nt"d b a ch"mical
"Duation
3urrouning3 all matt"r around th" sst"m that is capabl" of absorbin! or r"l"asin! th"rmal
"n"r!
4"a! amount of "n"r! transf"rr"d b"t$""n substanc"s
"7o!4"rmic r"l"asin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s out of th" sst"m@ n"!ati#" molar "nthalp
"no!4"rmic absorbin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s into th" sst"m@ positi#" molar "nthalp
!"mp"ra!ur" a#"ra!" 9in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s in a sampl" of matt"r
op"n 3-3!"m on" in $hich both matt"r and "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(% burnin!
marshmallo$*
i3o$a!" 3-3!"m an id"al sst"m in $hich n"ith"r matt"r nor "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(%
id"al calorim"t"r*
c$o3" 3-3!"m on" in $hich "n"r! can mo#" in or out% but not matt"r '"(!(% r"alistic
calorim"t"r*
ca$orim"!r- th" proc"ss of m"asurin! "n"r! chan!"s in a ch"mical sst"m
"n!4a$p- c4ang" +GH, th" diff"r"nc" in "nthalpi"s of r"actants and products durin! a chan!"
B 0 Duantit of h"at '^* F m c GT
MO(AR ENTHA(P*
mo$ar "n!4a$p- +GH7, th" "nthalp chan!" associat"d $ith a phsical% ch"mical% or nucl"ar
chan!" in#ol#in! on" mol" of a substanc"@ "2ampl"s ar" b"lo$&
T*PE O& MO(AR ENTHA(P* E'AMP(E O& CHANGE
solution 'UHsol* +a0r's* +a
A
'aD* A 0r
-
'aD*
combustion 'UHcomb* CH4'!* A / ,/'!* C,/'!* A H/,'l*
#apori;ation 'UH#ap* CH3,H'l* CH3,H'!*
fr"";in! 'UHfr* H/,'l* H/,'s*
n"utrali;ation 'UHn"ut* / +a,H'aD* A H/S,4'aD* / +a/S,4'aD* A / H/,'l*
formation 'UHf* C's* A / H/'!* A T ,/'!* CH3,H'l*
GH 0 n GHAap or 3o$ 0 mcGT GH 0 B
n
m
n M
>SSU=XGI,+S USEJ I+ C>?,RI=EGRI&
1( +o h"at is transf"rr"d b"t$""n th" calorim"t"r and th" outsid" "n#ironm"nt(
/( >n h"at absorb"d or r"l"as"d b th" calorim"t"r mat"rials is usuall n"!li!ibl"(
3( > dilut" aDu"ous solution is assum"d to ha#" a d"nsit and sp"cific h"at capacit "Dual to
that of pur" $at"r '1(66 !Lm? and 4(15 ^L!]NC*(
(A%: COM%USTION O& A(COHO(S
=ass of .u"l 0urn"d& 1(41 !
=ass of Wat"r H"at"d& 94(66 !
=ass of Wat"r Vapouri;"d& 6(15 !
=ass of Xop Can& 13(64 !
G"mp"ratur" Chan!" of Wat"r& //(/ NC
H"at >bsorb"d b Wat"r& D F m c Ut

F '94(66 !* '4(15 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC*
F 9(66 2 16
3
^
H"at >bsorb"d b Can& D F m c Ut

F '13(64 !* '6(966 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC*
F 3/1 ^
H"at Us"d to Vapouri;" Wat"r& D F m _ ?V

F '6(15 !* '//35 ^ L !*
F 4(6 2 16
/
^
Gotal H"at E#ol#"d b .u"l& Dtotal F '9(66 2 16

3
^* A '3/1 ^* A '4(6 2 16
/
^*
F 9(4/ 2 16
3
^
F 9(4/ 9^
+umb"r of =ol"s of .u"l& n F m

=
F 1(41 !
36(11 ! L mol
F 6(6/31 mol
=olar H"at of Combustion of .u"l& UH F Dtotal

n
F 9(4/ 9^
6(6/31 mol
F 414 ;HDmo$
` "rror& 166` "2p"rim"ntal "nthalp 2 166`

actual "nthalp
F 166` 414 9^ 2 166`
496 9^
F 11(1`% th"r"for" unacc"ptabl" 'V16`*
REPRESENTING ENTHA(P* CHANGES
=EGH,J 1& GHER=,CHE=IC>? E\U>GI,+S WIGH E+ERKI GER=S
"(!(% C
6
/
12
!
6?s@
A 6 !
2?g@
6 C!
2?g@
A 6 /
2
!
?l@
A 28328B CD
E
p

(
k
J
)
=EGH,J /& GHER=,CHE=IC>? E\U>GI,+S WIGH UH V>?UES
"(!(% C
6
/
12
!
6?s@
A 6 !
2?g@
6 C!
2?g@
A 6 /
2
!
?l@
E/ F -28328B CD
=EGH,J 3& =,?>R E+GH>?XIES ,. RE>CGI,+
"(!(% E/
respiration
F -28328B CDG;ol glu>ose
=EGH,J 4& X,GE+GI>? E+ERKI JI>KR>=
"(!(%

STANDARD ENTHA(P* O& &ORMATION
3!anar "n!4a$p- o# #orma!ion +GH
5
#, th" Duantit of "n"r! associat"d $ith th"
formation of on" mol" of a substanc" from
its "l"m"nts in standard stat"@ ;"ro for
"l"m"nts in standard stat"
HESS2S (AW +ADDITIVIT* O& REACTION ENTHA(PIES,
H"3323 $a: th" #alu" of th" UH for an r"action that can b" $ritt"n in st"ps "Duals
th" sum of th" #alu"s of UH for "ach of th" indi#idual st"ps 'i("(% UHtar!"t
F a UH9no$n*
"(!( J"t"rmin" th" "nthalp chan!" in#ol#"d in th" formation of t$o mol"s nitro!"n
mono2id" from its "l"m"nts(
+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!*
'1* T +/'!* A ,/'!* +,/'!* UH
N
1 F A34 9^
'/* +,'!* A T ,/'!* +,/'!* UH
N
/ F -13 9^
/ 2 '1*& +/'!* A / ,/'!* / +,/'!* UH
N
1 F /'A34* 9^
-/ 2 '/*& / +,/'!* / +,'!* A ,/'!* UH
N
/ F -/'-13* 9^
+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!* UH
N
F A35 9^ A 11/ 9^ F 81IJ ;H
USING STANDARD ENTHA(PIES O& &ORMATION TO DETERMINE GH
GH 0 K nGH
5
# +prouc!3, > K nGH
5
# +r"ac!an!3,
"(!(% =U?GI-SGEX C>?CU?>GI,+
If 3(/6 ! of propan" burns% $hat t"mp"ratur" chan!" $ill b" obs"r#"d if all of th" h"at from combustion
transf"rs into 4(6 9! of $at"rb
C3H5'!* A 1 ,/'!* 3 C,/'!* A 4 H/,'l*
UH
N
f 'C,/* F -393(1 9^Lmol
UH
N
f 'H/6* F -/51(5 9^Lmol
UH
N
f 'C3H5* F -164(4 9^Lmol
UH
N
f ',/* F 6(6 9^Lmol
mpropan" F 3(/6 !
mH/, F 4(6 9!
cH/, F 4(15 ^L'!]NC*
UH F a nUH
N
f 'products* a nUH
N
f 'r"actants*
F 3 mol 2 -393(1 9^ A 4 mol 2 -/51(5 9^ 1 mol 2 -164(4 9^ A 1 mol 2 6(6 9^
1 mol 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
F -//19 9^
UHc 'propan"* F D$at"r
n UHc F mcUG
UG F n U Hc
mc
F mpropan" UHc
=propan" m$at"r c
F '3(/6 !* '//19 9^*
'44(11 !* '4(6 9!* '4(15 ^L!]NC*
F 9(3NC
CHAPTER L: CHEMICA( )INETICS
c4"mica$ ;in"!ic3 th" ar"a of ch"mistr that d"als $ith rat"s of r"action
ra!" o# r"ac!ion th" sp""d at $hich a ch"mical chan!" occurs% !"n"rall "2pr"ss"d in
conc"ntration p"r unit tim"% such as molL'?]s*
ra!" 0 Gc
G!
aA"rag" ra!" o# r"ac!ion th" sp""d at $hich a r"action proc""ds o#"r a p"riod of tim"@
d"t"rmin"d usin! slop" of a secant 'lin" b"t$""n t$o points*
in3!an!an"ou3 ra!" o# r"ac!ion th" sp""d at $hich a r"action is proc""din! at a particular point
in tim"@ d"t"rmin"d usin! a tan!"nt
=EGH,JS G, =E>SURE R>GE& pH chan!"@ conducti#it@ #olum" of !as produc"d@ chan!" in
mass of products@ chan!" in colour
RATE (AW E@UATION
r 0 ; M'N
m
M*N
n
k F rat" constant@ #alid onl for a sp"cific t"mp"ratur"
P:Q and PIQ F conc"ntrations of r"actants
m and n F ord"r of r"action 'd"scrib"s th" initial conc"ntration d"p"nd"nc"
of a particular r"actant*
oA"ra$$ or"r o# r"ac!ion th" sum of th" "2pon"nts in th" rat" la$ "Duation
"(!(% r F 9P0r,3'aD*
-
Q
1
PHS,3'aD*
-
Q
/
% th"r"for" o#"rall ord"r is / '1 A /*
9"ro!4=or"r r"ac!ion th" rat" do"s not d"p"nd on P>Q
"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntration of > is doubl"d% th" rat" $ill multipl b 1
'/
6
*% and so $ill b" unchan!"d
#ir3!=or"r r"ac!ion th" rat" is dir"ctl proportional to P>Q
"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntration of > is doubl"d%
th" rat" $ill multipl b / '/
1
*
3"con=or"r r"ac!ion th" rat" is proportional to th"
sDuar" of P>Q
"(!(% if th" initial conc"ntration
of > is doubl"d% th" rat" $ill
multipl b 4 '/
/
*
"(!(%
+,'!* A H/'!* H+,/'!*
E'PERIMENT NO +MO(D(, H1 +MO(D(, INITIA( RATE O&
REACTION +MO(D+(OS,
1 6(661 6(664 6(66/
/ 6(66/ 6(664 6(665
3 6(663 6(664 6(615
4 6(664 6(661 6(665
1 6(664 6(66/ 6(613
3 6(664 6(663 6(6/4
a* Writ" th" rat" la$ for th" r"action(
r F C [N!?g@]
2
[/2?g@]
1
b* Writ" th" o#"rall ord"r of th" r"action(
3
rd
order
c* Calculat" k for th" r"action 'us" for "2p"rim"ntSs #alu"s*(
r F 3832 ;olG+Hs r F C [N!?g@]
2
[/2?g@]
[N!] F 38331 ;olG+ ?3832@ F C ?38331@
2
?38334@
[/2] F 38334 ;olG+ C F 5 I 13
6
+
2
G?;ol
2
Hs@
CO((ISION THEOR*
C,+CEXGS ,. GHE C,??ISI,+ GHE,RI&
> ch"mical sst"m consists of particl"s 'atoms% ions% or mol"cul"s* that ar" in constant
random motion at #arious sp""ds( Gh" a#"ra!" 9in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s is proportional
to th" t"mp"ratur" of th" sampl"(
> ch"mical r"action must in#ol#" collisions of particles $ith "ach oth"r or th" $alls of th"
contain"r(
>n effecti#e collision is on" that has suffici"nt "n"r! and corr"ct ori"ntation of th" collidin!
particl"s so that bonds can b" bro9"n and n"$ bonds form"d(
$neffecti#e collisions in#ol#" particl"s that r"bound from th" collision unchan!"d(
Gh" units for rat" constant% k% ar"
r"lat"d to o#"rall ord"r of r"action&
first ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" 1Ls

or s
-1
s"cond ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar"

?L'mol]s* or ?L'mol
-1
]s
-1
*
third ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" ?

/
L
'mol
/
]s* or ?L'mol
-/
]s
-1
*
Gh" rat" of a !i#"n r"action d"p"nds on th" frequency of collision and th" fraction of thos"
collisions that ar" "ff"cti#"(
ac!iAa!ion "n"rg- th" minimum
incr"as" in
pot"ntial "n"r! of
a sst"m
r"Duir"d for
mol"cul"s to r"act
ac!iAa!" comp$"7 an unstabl"
ch"mical sp"ci"s
containin!
partiall bro9"n
and partiall
form"d bonds r"pr"s"ntin! th" ma2imum pot"ntial "n"r! point in th"
chan!"@ also call"d th" transition stat"
r"ac!ion m"c4ani3m a s"ri"s of "l"m"ntar st"ps that ma9"s up an o#"rall r"action
"$"m"n!ar- 3!"p a st"p in a r"action m"chanism that onl in#ol#"s on"-% t$o-% or thr""-particl"
collisions
ra!"="!"rmining 3!"p th" slo$"st st"p in a r"action m"chanism
r"ac!ion in!"rm"ia!"3 mol"cul"s form"d as short-li#"d products in r"action m"chanisms
"(!(% H0r'!* A ,/'!* H,,0r'!* 'slo$*
H,,0r'!* A H0r'!* / H,0r'!* 'fast*
/ H,0r'!* A H0r'!* H/,'!* A 0r/'!* 'fast*
4 H0r'!* A ,/'!* / H/,'!* A / 0r/'!*
&ACTORS A&&ECTING RATE O& REACTION
1( +>GURE ,. GHE RE>CG>+GS&
"ach r"actant contains a diff"r"nt numb"r of bonds% "ach $ith diff"rin! bond str"n!ths% that
must b" bro9"n for th" r"action to proc""d
"ach r"actant has a diff"r"nt threshold energy 'minimum 9in"tic "n"r! r"Duir"d to con#"rt
9in"tic "n"r! to acti#ation "n"r!*
"ach r"actant r"Duir"s a diff"r"nt collision !"om"tr that can b" simpl" or compl"2
/( GE=XER>GURE &
an incr"as" in t"mp"ratur" incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action
as t"mp"ratur" ris"s% th" r"actant particl"s !ain 9in"tic "n"r!% mo#in! fast"r% collidin! mor"
fr"Du"ntl% and thus r"actin! mor" Duic9l
$ith a hi!h"r t"mp"ratur"% a lar!"r fraction of th" mol"cul"s $ill ha#" th" r"Duir"d 9in"tic
"n"r! to ha#" "ff"cti#" collisions
3( C,+CE+GR>GI,+&
an incr"as" in r"actant conc"ntration incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action
rea>tion
;e>hanis;
ele;entar: step
rate-deter;ining step
rea>tion inter;ediate
net potential energ:
>hange2 E/
th" !r"at"r th" conc"ntration% th" !r"at"r th" numb"r of particl"s p"r unit #olum"% $hich ar"
mor" li9"l to collid" as th" mo#" randoml $ithin a fi2"d spac"
4( SUR.>CE >RE>&
an incr"as" in r"actant surfac" ar"a incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action
r"actants can collid" onl at th" surfac" $h"r" th" substanc"s ar" in contact% and b
incr"asin! th" surfac" ar"a% ou ar" incr"asin! th" numb"r of particl"s in an ar"a% th"r"b
incr"asin! th" probabilit of an "ff"cti#" collision
1( C>G>?ISG&
a ca!a$-3! is a substanc" that incr"as"s th" rat" of a ch"mical r"action $ithout its"lf b"in!
p"rman"ntl chan!"d
a catalst pro#id"s an alt"rnat" Bpath$aC% $ith lo$"r acti#ation "n"r!% to th" sam" product
formation% m"anin! a much lar!"r fraction of collisions ar" "ff"cti#"
th" catalst can h"lp br"a9 th" bonds in th" r"actant particl"s% pro#id" a surfac" for th"
n"c"ssar collisions% and allo$ th" r"actantsS atoms to r"combin" in n"$ $as
catalsts ar" in#ol#"d in th" r"action m"chanism at som" point% but ar" r"!"n"rat"d b"for"
th" r"action is compl"t"
CHAPTER P: CHEMICA( S*STEMS IN E@UI(I%RIUM
"Bui$i<rium th" balanc"d stat" of a r"#"rsibl" r"action or proc"ss $h"r" th"r" is no n"t
obs"r#abl" chan!"@ th" rat" of th" for$ard r"action "Duals that of th" r"#"rs"
r"action '> c 0*
> can b" approach"d from "ith"r sid" of th" r"action "Duation
> th" conc"ntration of th" r"actants and products do not chan!" 'ar" constant*
3o$u<i$i!- "Bui$i<rium an "Duilibrium b"t$""n a solut" and a sol#"nt in a saturat"d solution
p4a3" "Bui$i<rium an "Duilibrium b"t$""n diff"r"nt phsical stat"s of a pur" substanc" '"(!(%
ic" o#"r a la9"*
c4"mica$ r"ac!ion "Bui$i<rium an "Duilibrium b"t$""n r"actants and products of a ch"mical
r"action
E@UI(I%RIUM (AW E@UATION
.or th" !"n"ral ch"mical r"action& a> A b0 c cC A dJ
) 0 MCN
c
MDN
$h"r"& ] >% 0% C% J ar" ch"mical "ntiti"s in !as or aDu"ous phas"s 'liDuids and
MAN
a
M%N
<
solids ar" omitt"d from th" "Duation*
] a% b% c% and d ar" th" co"ffici"nts in th" balanc"d ch"mical "Duation
] < is th" "Bui$i<rium con3!an! 't"mp"ratur" and pr"ssur" sp"cific*
- if < is lar!"% r"actionSs conc"ntration of products !r"at"r than r"actants
- if < is small% r"actionSs conc"ntration of r"actants !r"at"r than products
- < is in#"rs"l proportional to th" < #alu" of th" r"#"rs" r"action
(E CHQTE(IER2S PRINCIP(E
(" C4R!"$i"r23 Princip$" $h"n a ch"mical sst"m at "Duilibrium is disturb"d b a chan!" in a
prop"rt% th" sst"m adRusts in a $a that oppos"s th" chan!"
"Bui$i<rium 34i#! mo#"m"nt of a sst"m at "Duilibrium r"sultin! in a chan!" in th"
conc"ntrations of r"actants and products
V>RI>0?ES >..ECGI+K CHE=IC>? E\UI?I0RI>&
VARIA%(E T*PE O& CHANGE RESPONSE O& S*STEM
conc"ntration incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d r"actant
d"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d r"actant
t"mp"ratur" incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d th"rmal "n"r!
'a$a from h"at t"rm*
d"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d th"rmal "n"r!
'to$ards h"at t"rm*
#olum" incr"as" 'd"cr"as" in
pr"ssur"*
shifts to$ards sid" $ith lar!"r total numb"r
of !as"ous "ntiti"s
d"cr"as" 'incr"as" in
pr"ssur"*
shifts to$ards sid" $ith small"r total
numb"r of !as"ous "ntiti"s
common ion "ff"ct dissol#in! a compound into
solution that adds a
common ion
shifts a$a from common ion to consum"
th" add"d r"actant
VARIA%(ES THAT DO NOT A&&ECT CHEMICA( E@UI(I%RIA
catalsts - no "ff"ct
addin! in"rt !as"s - no "ff"ct
SO(VING E@UI(I%RIUM PRO%(EMS
1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation for th" r"action and list th" 9no$n #alu"s(
/( If th" dir"ction th" sst"m must !o to attain "Duilibrium is not ob#ious 'i("(% on" "ntit is not
pr"s"nt initiall*% calculat" % $ith th" initial conc"ntrations and compar" it to th" #alu" of <
to d"t"rmin" $hich dir"ction th" sst"m $ill proc""d to attain "Duilibrium(
3( Construct an ICE '$nitial conc"ntration% &han!" in conc"ntration% 'Duilibrium
conc"ntration* tabl" and input th" initial conc"ntrations(
4( ?"t x r"pr"s"nt th" chan!"s in conc"ntration% multiplin! it b th" co"ffici"nt in th"
balanc"d "Duation( Gh" r"actants should all chan!" in th" sam" $a and all th" products
should proc""d in th" opposit" $a(
1( R"$rit" th" ' ro$ usin! th" x #alu"s(
3( Substitut" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations into th" "Duilibrium constant "Duation(
4( >ppl appropriat" simplifin! assumptions% if possibl" '"(!(% 42
3
d '6(4 /2*
/
can b"
simplifi"d to 42
3
d '6(4*
/
b"caus" x #alu" is so small in comparison*(
5( Sol#" for x(
9( ^ustif an assumptions ou ha#" mad" 'i("(% th" x #alu" ou !"t should b" plu!!"d into th"
ori!inal "Duation and th" diff"r"nc" b"t$""n th" t$o must b" l"ss than 1`*(
16( Calculat" th" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations b substitutin! x into "Duilibrium conc"ntration
"2pr"ssions from th" ' ro$(
"(!(% 4(66 mol of hdro!"n and /(66 mol of iodin" ar" plac"d in a /(66-? r"action #"ss"l at 446NC and
r"act to form hdro!"n iodid"( >t this t"mp"ratur"% th" < is 49(4( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntrations of
all "ntiti"s(
H/'!* A I/'!* c / HI'!* ( F 49(4
PH/'!*Q F 4(66 mol PI/'!*Q F /(66 mol PHI'!*Q F 6(66 molL?
/(66 ? /(66 ?
F /(66 molL? F 1(66 molL?
H1+g, 8 I1+g, S 1 HI+g,
Initial conc"ntration 'molL?* /(66 1(66 6(66
Chan!" in conc"ntration 'molL?* 2 2 A/ 2
EDuilibrium conc"ntration 'molL?* /(66 2 1(66 2 /2
SCH 4U REVIEW 3/ of 39
( F PHIQ
/

PH/Q PI/Q
49(4 F '/2*
/

'/(66 2* '1(66 2*
42
/
F 49(4 '/(66 2* '1(66 2*
6(9/2
/
3(662 A /(66 F 6
2 F b e f b
/
4ac
/a
F 3(66 e f 9(66 4(33
1(54
F /(33 or 6(93
2"" is re)ected* because concentrations cannot ha#e a negati#e #alue (ie* 2++ , 2"" - - +"")
SO(U%I(IT* PRODUCT CONSTANT
3o$u<i$i!- th" conc"ntration of a saturat"d solution of a solut" in a particular sol#"nt at a
particular t"mp"ratur"@ sp"cific ma2imum conc"ntration
3o$u<i$i!- prouc! con3!an! +)3p, th" #alu" obtain"d from th" "Duilibrium la$ appli"d to
saturat"d solution 'r"m"mb"r solids ar" not includ"d in th"
"Duation*@ omit units as $ith all ( #alu"s
> can onl b" d"t"rmin"d for ionic compounds that ar"
classifi"d as insolubl" or sli!htl solubl"
1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation and list th" 9no$n #alu"s(
/( Us" th" solid product to $rit" an "Duilibrium "Duation for it dissol#in! into ions(
3( .ind th" <sp #alu" for th" solid product and $rit" it n"2t to th" "Duilibrium "Duation(
4( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of mol"s of both ions% b usin! th" mol" ratios and initial
conc"ntrations of r"actants(
1( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntration upon mi2in!% b di#idin! th" numb"r of mol"s b th" n"$
#olum"(
3( Xlu! th"s" n"$ conc"ntrations into th" <sp "Duation to d"t"rmin" th" \ '"2p"rim"ntal #alu"*(
4( Compar" th" \ #alu" to th" <sp to pr"dict $h"th"r a pr"cipitat" $ill form 's"" b"lo$*(
USI+K \ G, XREJICG S,?U0I?IGI
Ion product% \ V <sp pr"cipitat" $ill form 'sup"rsaturat"d solution*
Ion product% \ F <sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'saturat"d solution*
Ion product% \ M <sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'unsaturat"d solution*
"(!(% /6(6 m? of 6(/6 molL? ammonium sulfat" solution is add"d to 136 m? of 6(16 molL? barium nitrat"
solution( What ar" th" conc"ntrations of th" ions and $ill a pr"cipitat" formb
'+H4*/S,4'aD* A 0a'+,3*/'aD* 0aS,4's* A / +H4+,3'aD*
0aS,4's* c 0a
/A
'aD* A S,4
/-
'aD* <sp F 1(65 2 16
-16
n0a/+,3 F c # n+H4+,3 F c #
F '6(16 molL?* '6(136 ?* F '6(/6 molL?* '6(6/6 ?*
F 6(631 mol F 6(6646 mol
F n0a F nS,4
P0a
/A
'aD*Q F n PS,4
/-
'aD*Q F n
# #
PH/'!*Q F /(66 molL? - 2
F /(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*
F 1?JP mo$D(
PI/'!*Q F 1(66 molL? - 2
F 1(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*
F J?JP mo$D(
PHI'!*Q F /2
F /'6(93 molL?*
F 1?IP mo$D(
Choose the solid to Jrite the eKuilibriu;
eKuation ?re;e;ber an: N!3
-
;ole>ule
is aKueous@
(i<ide b: the LneJM
<olu;e ?i8e82 23 ;+
and 133 ;+ eKuals
153 ;+@
F 6(631 mol F 6(664 mol
6(116 ? 6(116 ?
F 6(43 molL? F 6(6/4 molL?
<sp F P0a
/A
Q PS,4
/-
Q
F '6(43* '6(6/4*
F 6(611 6(611 V 1(65 2 16
-16
% th"r"for" it $ill pr"cipitat"
ENTROP*
3pon!an"ou3 r"ac!ion on" that% !i#"n th" n"c"ssar acti#ation "n"r!% proc""ds $ithout
continuous outsid" assistanc"
"n!rop-6 S a m"asur" of th" randomn"ss or disord"r of a sst"m or th" surroundin!s
"Duals 6 $h"n th" t"mp"ratur" is at absolut" ;"ro '6 <*
.>CG,RS GH>G I+CRE>SE E+GR,XI ' S *
th" #olum" of a !as"ous sst"m incr"as"s 'i("(% pr"ssur" d"cr"as"s*
th" t"mp"ratur" of a sst"m incr"as"s
th" phsical stat" of a sst"m chan!"s from solid to liDuid to !as% or liDuid to !as 'i("(% S!as V
SliDuid V Ssolid*
f"$"r mol"s of r"actant mol"cul"s form a !r"at"r numb"r of mol"s of product mol"cul"s
compl"2 mol"cul"s ar" bro9"n do$n into simpl"r subunits '"(!(% combustion of or!anic fu"ls
into carbon dio2id" and $at"r*
C?>SSI.IC>GI,+ ,. SX,+G>+E,US >+J +,+SX,+G>+E,US RE>CGI,+S
Eno!4"rmic +GH T J, E7o!4"rmic +GH U J,
En!rop- incr"a3"3 +GS T J,
spontan"ous at hi!h t"mps(
nonspontan"ous at lo$ t"mps(
H/,'s* H/,'l*
spontan"ous
C's* A ,/'!* C,/'!*
En!rop- "cr"a3"3 +GS U J,
nonspontan"ous
3 ,/'!* / ,3'!*
spontan"ous at lo$ t"mps(
nonspontan"ous at hi!h t"mps(
/ S,/'!* A ,/'!* / S,3'!*
Gi<<23 #r"" "n"rg-6 G "n"r! that is a#ailabl" to do us"ful $or9@ U.N F U/N '0 USN*
CHAPTER I: ACID=%ASE E@UI(I%RIUM
%RVNSTED=(OWR* THEOR*
%rWn3!"=(o:r- aci proton donor
%rWn3!"=(o:r- <a3" proton acc"ptor
amp4o!"ric +amp4ipro!ic, a substanc" capabl" of actin! as an acid or a bas" in diff"r"nt
ch"mical r"actions@ a substanc" that ma acc"pt or donat" a proton
"(!(%
/C
2
/
3
!
2?aK@
A /
2
!
?l@
N C
2
/
3
!
2
-
?aK@
A /
3
!
A
?aK@
3!rong aci an acid $ith a #"r $"a9 attraction for protons and "asil donat"s it to a bas"
3!rong <a3" a bas" $ith a #"r stron! attraction for protons
Gh" stron!"r an acid% th" $"a9"r its conRu!at" bas"% and #ic" #"rsa(
AUTOIONIXATION O& WATER
conRu!at" pair
acid
bas"
au!oioni9a!ion o# :a!"r th" r"action b"t$""n t$o $at"r mol"cul"s producin! a hdronium ion
and a hdro2id" ion 'H/,'l* c H
A
'aD* A ,H
-
'aD*
): 0 MH
8
+aB,N MOH
=
+aB,N MH
8
+aB,N 0 ): MOH
=
+aB,N 0 ):
0 +1?J 7 1J
=P
mo$D(, +1?J 7 1J
=P
mo$D(, MOH
=
+aB,N MH
8
+aB,N
0 1?J 7 1J
=14
In n"utral solutions PH
A
'aD*Q F P,H
-
'aD*Q
In acidic solutions PH
A
'aD*Q V P,H
-
'aD*Q
In basic solutions PH
A
'aD*Q M
P,H
-
'aD*Q
PH
pH th" n"!ati#" of th" lo!arithm to th" bas" t"n of th" conc"ntration of hdro!"n 'hdronium*
ions in a solution
pOH th" n"!ati#" of th" lo!arithm to th" bas" t"n of th" conc"ntration of hdro2id" ions in a
solution
pH 0 >$og MH
8
+aB,N pOH 0 >$og MOH
=
+aB,N pH 8 pOH 0 14?JJ
MH
8
+aB,N 0 1J
>pH
MOH
=
+aB,N 0 1J
>pOH
"(!(% Calculat" th" pH of a solution pr"par"d b dissol#in! 4(3 ! of 0a',H*/'s* in $at"r to form 1(1 ? of
solution(
0a',H*/'aD* 0a
/A
'aD* A / ,H
'aD*
n0a',H*/ F 4(3 ! 2 1 mol
141(3 !
F /(1 2 16
-/
mol
P0a',H*/'aD*Q F /(1 2 16
-/
mol
1(1 ?
F 1(4 2 16
-/
molL?
P,H
-
'aD*Q F / '1(4 2 16
-/
molL?*
F 3(3 2 16
-/
molL?
p,H F lo! P,H
-
'aD*Q
F lo! '3(3 2 16
-/
*
F 1(44
pH F 14(66 p,H
F 14(66 1(44
F 11?./
STRONG VS? WEA) ACIDS AND %ASES
3!rong aci an acid that is assum"d to ioni;" Duantitati#"l 'compl"t"l* in aDu"ous solution
'i("(% p"rc"nt ioni;ation is V 99`*@ HCl'aD*% H+,3'aD*% and H/S,4'aD* ar" th" onl
stron! acids $" $ill $or9 $ith
3!rong <a3" an ionic substanc" that dissociat"s compl"t"l in $at"r to r"l"as" hdro2id" ions@
all of th" m"tal hdro2id"s ar" stron! bas"s
:"a; aci an acid that partiall ioni;"s in solution but "2ists primaril in th" form of
mol"cul"s
:"a; <a3" a bas" that has a $"a9 attraction for protons
p"rc"n! ioni9a!ion +p, 0 conc"n!ra!ion o# aci ioni9" 7 1JJY MH
8
+aB,N 0 p 7 MHA+aB,N
166`
conc"n!ra!ion o# aci 3o$u!" 1JJ
aci ioni9a!ion con3!an! +Ka) "Duilibrium constant for th" ioni;ation of an acid
"(!(% Calculat" th" (a and pH of hdrofluoric acid if a 6(166 molL? solution at "Duilibrium at S>GX has a
p"rc"nt ioni;ation of 4(5`(
H.'aD* H
A
'aD* A .
-
'aD*
(a F PH
A
'aD*Q P.
-
'aD*Q
PH.'aD*Q
PH
A
'aD*Q F 'pL166* PH>'aD*Q
F '4(5 L 166* '6(166 molL?*
F 6(6645 molL?
H&+aB, S H
8
+aB, 8 &
=
+aB,
Initial conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 6(666 6(666
Chan!" in conc"ntration 'molL?* 2 A 2 A 2
EDuilibrium conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 6(6645 6(6645 6(6645
F 6(69//
(a F PH
A
'aD*Q P.
-
'aD*Q pH F lo! PH
A
'aD*Q
PH.'aD*Q F lo! '6(6645*
F 6(6645
/
F 1?1
6(69//
F L?L 7 1J
=4
CHAPTER Z: E(ECTROCHEMISTR* +E(ECTRIC CE((S,
O'IDATION NUM%ER
o7ia!ion num<"r an int"!"r that is assi!n"d to "ach atom in a compound $h"n consid"rin!
r"do2 r"actions
> a positi#" or n"!ati#" numb"r corr"spondin! to th" appar"nt char!" that an
atom in a mol"cul" or ion $ould ha#" if th" "l"ctron pairs in co#al"nt bonds
b"lon!"d "ntir"l to th" mor" "l"ctron"!ati#" atom
RU?ES .,R >SSIK+I+K ,:IJ>GI,+ +U=0ERS
1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of an atom in an uncombin"d "l"m"nt is al$as 6 '"(!(% H/ is 6*(
/( Gh" o2idation numb"r of a simpl" ion is th" char!" of ion '"(!(% Ca
/A
is A/*(
3( Gh" o2idation numb"r of hdro!"n is A1% "2c"pt in m"tal hdrid"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" H
in +aH is -1*(
4( Gh" o2idation numb"r of o2!"n is -/% "2c"pt in p"ro2id"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" , in H/,/
is -1*(
1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup 1 "l"m"nt ions is A1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup /
"l"m"nt ions is A/(
3( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a compound must "Dual 6(
4( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a polatomic ion must "Dual th" char!" on th" ion '"(!(%
,H
-
is -1*(
O'IDATION=REDUCTION
O7ia!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&
1* an "l"m"nt is ch"micall unit"d $ith o2!"n '"(!(% C A ,/ C,/@ carbon is o2idi;"d*
/* a m"tal is chan!"d from an uncombin"d to a combin"d stat" '"(!(% gn A Cl/ gnCl/*
4(5`
3* an "l"m"nt los"s "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has an incr"as" in o2idation numb"r
'"(!(% Ca Ca
/A
A /"
-
*
(oss of El"ctrons is O2idation B(EOC
R"uc!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&
1* an "l"m"nt los"s o2!"n '"(!(% ."/,3 / .", A T ,/*
/* a m"tal is chan!"d from a combin"d to a uncombin"d stat" '"(!(% .", ." A T ,/*
3* an "l"m"nt !ains "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has a d"cr"as" in o2idation numb"r
'"(!(% Cl/ A /"
-
/ Cl
-
*
Gain of El"ctrons is R"duction BGERC
r"o7 r"ac!ion a ch"mical r"action in $hich "l"ctrons ar" transf"rr"d b"t$""n particl"s@ t$o or
mor" atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r@ also 9no$n as oxidation-
reduction r"actions
> all sin!l" displac"m"nt r"actions ar" r"do2% $hil" som" combination and
d"composition r"actions ar"@ doubl" displac"m"nt r"actions ar" n"#"r r"do2
"(!(% o2idation
H/S'!* A ,/'!* S,/'!* A H/,'!*
r"duction
%A(ANCING REDO' E@UATIONS USING O'IDATION NUM%ERS
this m"thod is most appropriat" $h"n d"alin! $ith co#al"nt compounds
1( >ssi!n o2idation numb"rs to all th" atoms in th" "Duation(
/( Id"ntif $hich atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r(
3( J"t"rmin" th" ratio in $hich th"s" atoms must r"act so that th" total incr"as" in o2idation
numb"r "Duals th" d"cr"as" 'i("(% th" total numb"r of "l"ctrons lost and !ain"d is "Dual*(
4( 0alanc" th" r"do2 participants in th" "Duation usin! this ratio(
1( 0alanc" th" oth"r atoms b th" insp"ction m"thod(
3( >dd H
A
'aD* or ,H
-
'aD* to balanc" th" char!"% d"p"ndin! on if it is an acidic or a basic solution
'th" total char!" on "ach sid" must b" th" sam"*(
4( >dd H/,'l* to balanc" th" , atoms(
"(!(% >!'s* A Cr/,4
/-
'aD* >!
A
'aD* A Cr
3A
'aD*
o2idation& lost 1 "
-
'2 3*
L >!'s* A Cr/,4
/-
'aD* A 14 H
A
'aD* L >!
A
'aD* A 1 Cr
3A
'aD* A H/,'l*
r"duction& !ain"d /'3 "
-
* F 3 "
-
'2 1*
%A(ANCING REDO' E@UATIONS USING HA(&=REACTIONS
this m"thod is most appropriat" for ionic r"actions in solution and for r"latin! to "l"ctrical
proc"ss"s
1( S"parat" th" s9"l"ton "Duation into th" start of t$o half-r"action "Duations 'on" for th"
o2idation r"action and on" for th" r"duction r"action*(
A1 -/ 6 A4 -/ A1 -/
6 A3 -/ A1 A3
/( 0alanc" all sp"ci"s% oth"r than , and H(
3( 0alanc" th" o2!"n% b addin! H/,'l* for acidic solutions or ,H
-
'aD* for basic solutions(
4( 0alanc" th" hdro!"n% b addin! H
A
'aD* for acidic solutions or H/,'l* for basic solutions(
1( 0alanc" th" char!" on "ach sid" b addin! "l"ctrons and canc"lin! anthin! that is in "Dual
amounts on both sid"s(
3( =ultipl "ach half-r"action "Duation b simpl" $hol" numb"rs to balanc" th" "l"ctrons lost
and !ain"d(
4( >dd th" t$o half-r"action "Duations% canc"lin! th" "l"ctrons and anthin! "ls" that app"ars
in "Dual amounts on both sid"s(
5( Ch"c9 to "nsur" all "ntiti"s and th" o#"rall char!" on both sid"s balanc"(
"(!(% =n,4
A +/H4 =n,/ A +/
4 P=n,4
A / H/, A 3 "
-
=n,/ A 4 ,H
Q
3 P+/H4 A 4 ,H
+/ A 4 H/, A 4 "
-
Q
4 =n,4
A 5 H/, A 1/ "
-
4 =n,/ A 13 ,H
Q
3 +/H4 A 1/ ,H
3 +/ A 1/ H/, A 1/ "
-
Q
4 =n,4
A 3 +/H4 4 =n,/ A 3 +/ A 4 H/, A 4 ,H
TECHNO(OG* O& CE((S AND %ATTERIES

"$"c!ric c"$$ a d"#ic" that continuousl con#"rts ch"mical "n"r! into "l"ctrical "n"r!@
contains t$o "l"ctrod"s 'solid conductor* and on" "l"ctrolt" 'aDu"ous conductor*@
"ach "l"ctrod" has a cathod" 'A* and anod" '*@ "l"ctrons flo$ from th" anod" to
th" cathod"
<a!!"r- a !roup of t$o or mor" "l"ctric c"lls conn"ct"d in s"ri"s
Ao$!ag" th" pot"ntial "n"r! diff"r"nc" p"r unit char!"@ m"asur"d in #olts 'V*% 1 ^LC
"$"c!ric curr"n! th" rat" of flo$ of char!" past a point@ m"asur"d in amp"r"s '>*% 1 CLs
T*PE
NAME O&
CE((
HA(&=REACTIONS
CHARACTERISTICS
AND USES
primar- c"$$
"l"ctric c"ll
that cannot
b" r"char!"d
dr c"ll
'1(1 V*
/ =n,/ A / +H4
A
A / "
-
=n/,3 A / +H3 A H/,
gn gn
/A
A / "
-
in"2p"nsi#"% portabl"
flashli!hts% radios
al9alin" dr
c"ll '1(1 V*
/ =n,/ A H/, A / "
-
=n/,3 A / ,H
-
gn A / ,H
-
gn, A H/, A / "
-
lon!"r sh"lf lif"%
hi!h"r curr"nts for
lon!"r p"riods
sam" us"s as dr c"ll
m"rcur c"ll
'1(31 V*
H!, A H/, A / "
-
H! A / ,H
-
gn A / ,H
-
gn, A H/, A / "
-
small c"ll% constant
#olta!" durin! lif"
h"arin! aids% $atch"s
3"conar-
c"$$ "l"ctric
c"ll that can
b" r"char!"d
+i-Cad c"ll
'1(/1 V*
/ +i,',H* A / H/, A / "
-
/ +i',H*/ A / ,H
-
Cd A / ,H
-
Cd',H*/ A / "
-
compl"t"l s"al"d%
li!ht$"i!ht
po$"r tools% sha#"rs%
portabl" comput"rs
l"ad-acid c"ll
'/(6 V*
Xb,/ A 4 H
A
A S,4
/-
A / "
-
XbS,4 A / H/,
Xb A S,4
/-
XbS,4 A / "
-
lar!" curr"nts%
r"liabl" for r"char!"s
all #"hicl"s
#u"$ c"$$
"l"ctric c"ll
aluminum-air
c"ll '/ V*
3 ,/ A 3 H/, A 1/ "
-
1/ ,H
-
4 >l 4 >l
3A
A 1/ "
-
hi!h "n"r! d"nsit%
r"adil a#ailabl"
aluminum allos
that produc"s
"l"ctricit b
a continuall
suppli"d fu"l
"l"ctric cars
hdro!"n-
o2!"n c"ll
'1(/ V*
,/ A / H/, A 4 "
-
4 ,H
-
/ H/ A 4 ,H
-
4 H/, A 4 "
-
li!ht$"i!ht% hi!h
"ffici"nc% can b"
adapt"d to us"
hdro!"n-rich fu"ls
#"hicl"s and spac"
shuttl"
GA(VANIC CE((S
ga$Aanic c"$$ consists of t$o half-c"lls
s"parat"d b a porous
boundar $ith solid
"l"ctrod"s conn"ct"d b
an "2t"rnal circuit@
standard c"lls occur at
S>GX and $ith
conc"ntrations of 1(6
molL?
ca!4o" positi#" "l"ctrod"@ r"duction
'!ainin! "l"ctrons b"caus"
"l"ctron"!ati#it is hi!h"r* of
th" stron!"st o2idi;in! a!"nt
occurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll that
is hi!h"r on th" BR"lati#"
Str"n!ths of ,2idi;in! and
R"ducin! >!"ntsC tabl"@ Bred
cat on the roofC reduction at
th" cathod"% hi!h"r half-c"ll
ano" n"!ati#" "l"ctrod"@ o2idation 'losin! "l"ctrons b"caus" "l"ctron"!ati#it is lo$"r* of th"
stron!"st r"ducin! a!"nt occurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll that is lo$"r on th" tabl"
in"r! "$"c!ro" a solid conductor that $ill not r"act $ith an substanc" pr"s"nt in a c"ll
'usuall carbon or platinum*
El"ctrons tra#"l in th" "2t"rnal circuit from th" anod" to th" cathod"
Int"rnall% anions from th" salt brid!" mo#" to$ard th" anod" and cations from th" salt
brid!" mo#" to$ard th" cathod" as th" c"ll op"rat"s% 9""pin! th" solution "l"ctricall n"utral
CE?? +,G>GI,+ ele>trons
>athode ?A@ 6 ele>trol:te 66 ele>trol:te 6 anode ?-@
?redu>tion@ ?oIidation@
CE(( POTENTIA(S
3!anar c"$$ po!"n!ia$ +GE
5
, th" ma2imum "l"ctric pot"ntial diff"r"nc" '#olta!"* of a c"ll
op"ratin! und"r standard conditions
r"#"r"nc" 4a$#=c"$$ a half-c"ll assi!n"d an "l"ctrod" pot"ntial of "2actl 6(66 #olts@ th"
standard hdro!"n half-c"ll% Xt's* E H/'!*% H
A
'aD*
3!anar r"uc!ion po!"n!ia$ +GEr
5
, r"pr"s"nts th" t"nd"nc of a standard half-c"ll to attract
"l"ctrons in a r"duction half-r"action% compar"d to th"
r"f"r"nc" half-c"ll
3!anar o7ia!ion po!"n!ia$ +GEo
5
, r"pr"s"nts th" t"nd"nc of a standard half-c"ll to los"
"l"ctrons in an o2idation half-r"action@ th" #alu" of th"
r"#"rs" r"action $ith an opposit" si!n
GE
5
0 GEr
5
> GEr
5
c"ll cathod" anod"
> positi#" standard c"ll pot"ntial 'UEN V 6* indicat"s that th" o#"rall c"ll r"action is
spontan"ous(
"(!(% SOA OA
>!'s* E >!
A
'aD* EE Cu
/A
'aD* E Cu's*
RA SRA
/ P>!
A
'aD* A "
-
>!'s* Q
Cu's* Cu
/A
'aD* A / "
-
Cu's* A / >!
A
'aD* Cu
/A
'aD* A / >!'s*
UE
N
F UEr
N
UEr
N
c"ll cathod" anod"
UE
N
F UE
N
>!A UE
N
Cu/A
F 6(56 6(34
F J?4L V

SCH 4u Review

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SCH 4U REVIEW 1 of 39

=ass of .u"l 0urn"d& 1(41 !

=ass of Wat"r H"at"d& 94(66 !

=ass of Wat"r Vapouri;"d& 6(15 !

=ass of Xop Can& 13(64 !

G"mp"ratur" Chan!" of Wat"r& //(/ NC

H"at >bsorb"d b Wat"r& D F m c Ut

H"at >bsorb"d b Can& D F m c Ut

H"at Us"d to Vapouri;" Wat"r& D F m _ ?V

Gotal H"at E#ol#"d b .u"l& Dtotal F '9(66 2 16

+umb"r of =ol"s of .u"l& n F m

=olar H"at of Combustion of .u"l& UH F Dtotal

` "rror& 166` "2p"rim"ntal "nthalp 2 166`

first ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" 1Ls

s"cond ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar"

third ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" ?

A 3 +/H4 4 =n,/ A 3 +/ A 4 H/, A 4 ,H

TECHNO(OG* O& CE((S AND %ATTERIES

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