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l
(%) (top)
(%) (bottom) A (m
2
) I
uncr
(m
4
) I
cr
(m
4
)
B4 4036 400 800 50 1, 6 f 25 1, 6 f 25 032 002132 000775
B4 3531 400 800 50 13, 8 f 25 13, 8 f 25 032 002274 000983
B4 3026 400 800 50 16, 8 f 28 16, 8 f 28 032 002419 001185
B4 251 400 800 50 21, 8 f 32 21, 8 f 32 032 002637 001475
Other 40-1 300 625 50 08, 4 f 28 08, 4 f 28 019 000848 000395
Table V. Section dimension and properties of shear walls (A = area; I
uncr
I
cr
= gross, cracked-moment of inertia)
Wall at storey
Flange (mm)
Web (mm)
(%) (Ver. Steel)
(%) (Hori. steel) A m
2
I
uncr
m
4
I
cr
m
4
120 800 800 30, 24 f 32 376 2700 663
400 08, 42 f 25
2140 750 750 21, 24 f 25 331 2280 418
350 022
378 C.-M. CHAN ET AL.
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)
has an instructive signicance for application of the method in practical design. Generally, this method
with 10 load increments, where each load increment is equal to approximately 10% of the full service
load, can provide very accurate prediction as well as efciency in terms of computational time.
Figure 13 presents the exural stiffness of individual cracked members at the 40th storey calculated
using 200 load increments. The coupling beams B4 are found to be critical members where cracks are
rst caused by lateral load. The sudden stiffness reductions in B5, B7, B8 and B10 at the very
beginning of the iteration process are mainly due to the initial applied dead and live gravity loads.
These reduced beam stiffnesses remain basically constant during the entire application of lateral loads.
Several beams at the interior span, such as B2, B4, B6 and B9, exhibit greater stiffness reductions since
a larger shear force is taken by the beams of the interior span.
Figure 12. Lateral loaddeections with various load increments in the Y = direction, 40-storey building example
(F = full lateral load N = 1 = elastic analysis N = 3, 10, 40 and 200 Df = 33%, 10%, 25% and 05% full lateral
load)
Figure 13. Flexural stiffness reduction of cracked member at 40th Storey of the 40-storey building example
RC BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS UNDER SERVICE LOAD 379
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)
It is also noted that points of discontinuous reduction rates occur and are shown in the stiffness
reduction curves of the beams at the interior span with increasing lateral loads. This is apparently due
to the action of constant negative moments, which are generated at both ends of those beams from the
vertical gravity load such as dead and live loads. On the other hand, increasing positive moment at one
end, and negative moment at the other end, are caused by the lateral load with increasing load
increments. The superposition of these two moment diagrams results in the cracks occurring at the end
where two negative moments appear together rst, followed by cracking at the other end when the net
moment is larger than the cracked moments of those members. The probability of crack occurrence
increases abruptly at that moment, leading to discontinuous stiffness reduction rates observed in some
curves shown in Figure 13.
Moreover, the nal stiffness reductions of members B1, B2 and B3 at the full service load are
presented with respect to each storey in Figure 14. The x-axis in these gures contains three ranges of
0100%, to present variations of stiffness of the beams at three locations in the layout of the building.
Owing to the characteristics of the wall-frame building, the shear force resisted by the frame is smaller
at the lower storeys where the shear walls take a large amount of the shear force. The shear force in this
case is the main factor generating the moments in the beams. Hence, from this gure, lower stiffness
reductions are found in beams located in the 1st5th storeys. From the 6th to the 30th storeys, the most
severe stiffness reductions occur in all beams since larger components of the shear force are resisted by
the frame structures.
Not all the beams exhibit the same cracking effects in their stiffness characteristics. The interior
beam (B2) indicates approximately 50% stiffness reduction above the 5th storey. The beams located
leeward are categorized into another group that has approximately 60% of the gross moment of inertia
between the 5th and 30th storeys and 7090% of the uncracked values beyond the 30th storey. The
windward beams are found to have the least stiffness reductions, but the variations of the stiffness
reductions in those beams at the mid-height of the building are larger than the values at both the top
and bottom storeys.
The top deection in the x-direction is calculated by using 10 load increments. Unlike the wall-
frame behaviour of the building under Y-direction wind loading, this tall building can be considered as
a frame-type structure under X-direction wind loading. Hence, the stiffness of the beams contributes
Figure 14. Reduction of exural stiffness of B1, B2, B3 in the 40-storey building example under y-direction lateral
load
380 C.-M. CHAN ET AL.
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)
more to the overall lateral stiffness in this type of structure and loading. The uncertainty of the element
stiffness due to cracking effects has been captured by the proposed method. Concrete cracking causes a
68% increase in the top deection in the X-direction and a 38% increase in the Y-direction, as indicated
in Table VI. Under frame action in the X-direction of the building, most of the beams are found to
crack severely at the lower storeys and have reduced stiffness to values of approximately 50% of their
original stiffness, as shown in Figure 15. Owing to the large gravity load of the building, the cracked
moments in the vertical members are signicantly increased and only minor cracking is found in the
windward vertical members at the 1st storey of the 40-storey building under respective X and Y-
direction lateral loads.
6. CONCLUSIONS
61. An effective stiffness model, based on the probability of cracking in the reinforced concrete
members, has been presented and integrated into a linear nite element package in an incremental
manner to take account explicitly and quantitatively of the cracking effects on the lateral stiffness of
tall reinforced concrete buildings.
62. The proposed method can be used to determine the loaddeection history of reinforced concrete
buildings. The advantages of this approach are that it is computationally more efcient and more direct
than the typical nonlinear nite element analysis method.
Table VI. Comparison of top deection of elastic and proposed method along x- and y-directions
Top deection analyses along x- and y-direction
Wind direction Elastic Drift Proposed Drift D
crack
x 0265 1/529 0446 1/314 68%
y 0240 1/583 0312 1/449 31%
Figure 15. Reduction of exural stiffness of B11, B12, B13 in the 40-storey building example under x-direction
lateral load
RC BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS UNDER SERVICE LOAD 381
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)
63. Validation of the proposed method has been presented by the results of tests conducted on a rigid-
frame and a wall-frame structure.
64. Within a load level up to about 70% of ultimate, the exural stiffness reduction due to cracking is
found in the tests to be the dominant factor in the resulting nonlinear loaddeformation response of
reinforced concrete structures. Beyond the range up to approximately 70% of ultimate, material
nonlinearity becomes a signicant factor in the behaviour of reinforced concrete structures.
65. Cracks occurring in the beams of tall reinforced concrete buildings are found to be the main factor
in the loss of lateral stiffness for lateral load resisting systems.
66. The effects of cracking on the top lateral deections of structures are dependent on the type of
lateral load resisting system. The increase of the lateral top deection of rigid-frame structured due to
cracking effects is found to be more than that of wall-frame structures. The greatest reduction in beam
stiffness occurs at approximately 1/3 of the height of wall-frame structures, but in the lower storeys of
rigid-frame structures.
7. NOTATION
A
i
n
= the axial force of the ith member in the nth iteration
D
(n)
= the lateral deection of an RC structure at the nth iteration
f'
c
= the ultimate strength of concrete
f
r
= the modulus of rupture of concrete
F
(n)
= the applied force at the nth iteration
I
cr
= the cracked moment of inertia
I
e
= the effective moment of inertia
(I
e
)
i
(n)
= the effective moment of inertia of the ith member in the nth iteration
I
g
, I
uncr
= the uncracked moment of inertia
(I
uncr
)
i
(n)
= the uncracked moment of inertia of the ith member in the nth iteration
M,M(x) = the moment distribution on the member
M
cr
= the cracking moment in a concrete exural member
M
i
(n)
= the moment distribution of ith member in the nth iteration
(M
cr
)
i
(n)
= the corresponding cracking moment of the ith member in the nth iteration
N = the total iteration number corresponding to the load increment
p(x) = the probability density function
P
cr
= the probability of occurrence of cracked sections associated with the
outcome I
cr
P
uncr
= the probability of occurrence of uncracked section with outcome I
uncr
S = the total area of the moment diagram
S
cr
= the area of the moment diagram segment over which the working moment
exceeds the cracked moment M
cr
y
t
= the distance from centroid of gross section to extreme bre in tension
v
= the axial compressive stress
DF = the load increment
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong under Project No. HKUST-
543/94E, and was based upon the research conducted by Mr Feng Ning under the supervision of Neil
Mickleborough and Chun-Man Chan for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of
Civil Engineering at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong.
382 C.-M. CHAN ET AL.
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)
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RC BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS UNDER SERVICE LOAD 383
Copyright 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Struct. Design Tall Build. 9, 365383 (2000)