Levers

Working Documenl
JUNE 2004
centre de
dveloppement
pdagogique
Pour la formation gnrale
en science et technologie
LEVERS
- Theory -
A
SECTION
Pencil sharpener
Nail claw (claw hammer)
Lever to lift a rock
Bicep curl
Centre de dveloppement pdagogique
pour la formation gnrale en science et technologie
2
CONCEPT OF LEVER
This practical lab is intended to help participants:
understand the concept of lever
acquire the vocabulary associated with this concept
recognize levers in everyday objects
Following this lab, participants should be able to use levers in concrete
applications (i.e. in the design of technical objects).
This companion document comprises three sections:
Theoretical aspects
Experiments with simple materials (classic levers)
Experiments with materials used in everyday objects
Record your observations and results throughout the process.
Have fun!
3
Theory
To Read . . . and Reread
What is a force?
If an object moves, a force is being applied to it (it is being pushed or pulled).
An object cannot move, activate, accelerate, slow down, change direction, stop or distort without a force
being applied.
What produces force?
Energy is what produces force. It makes it possible to perform a task. A person can lift a dumbbell using
muscle energy. This energy makes it possible to apply a force to the dumbbell.
Only for those who want to know more
The concept of force is one of the foundations of mechanics and is closely tied to the concept of motion
and the principle of inertia. A force may be defined as:
the only effect likely to alter the motion of a body
Thus, a body in motion tends to continue in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force (principle
of inertia). The following equation is the mathematical version of this definition:
F = ma
where F is the vectorial sum of all forces applied to a body of mass m(mass considered constant in this
case) and ais its acceleration (i.e. the variation in its speed). If F = 0, the body undergoes n acceleration (a
= 0), its speed is constant and the principle of inertia comes into play.
4
A force is a mechanical action that can:
- cause an object to move
- modify the speed and trajectory of an object
- distort an object
The symbol for mechanical action is an arrow (F ), referred to as FORCE.
Force is entirely determined by four properties:
- point of application
- orientation
- direction
- intensity (amount of force)
A forces intensity is measured in newtons (N) using a dynamometer.
Types of force:
o Tension (force that stretches)
o Compression (force that crushes)
o Torsion (force that twists)
o Shear (force that cuts)
o Flexion (force that bends)
These are the most common forces applied to and by technical objects.
Other types of forces also exist, such as friction, buoyancy (Archimedean force), pressure,
centripetal force and inertia.
Teachers note :
For students, effort and force are usually applied by muscles, which results in fatigue.
Understanding that an inert object can apply a force on another object is a difficult concept.
We therefore suggest that you use the physics term force, rather than effort or action, which
are more likely to conjure up intervention by a living organism.
The word effect refers to the concept of the moment of force.
Moment is equal to the product of the distance of the lever arm from the fulcrum and the intensity
of the force. This concept will be discussed in more detail later in the document.
5
Force
Fulcrum
Moment arm
Force application point
Levers
Generally speaking, a lever is a rigid body that can turn about a fulcrum and that is subject to at least two
forces known as effort and load.
Levers are used in a wide range of machines.
We will now define and illustrate three types of levers:
1) Those where the fulcrum is placed between the effort and the load (seesaw)
2) Those where the load is placed between the fulcrum and the effort (nutcracker)
3) Those where the effort is placed between the fulcrum and the load (sugar tongs)
6
Effort
Load
Fulcrum (rotation axis)
1 First-class levers
The fulcrum is placed between the
effort and the load (e.g. seesaw).
2 Second-class levers
The load is placed between the
fulcrum and the effort
(e.g.nutcracker).
3 Third-class levers
The effort is placed between the
fulcrum and the load (e.g.
tweezers).
1
2
3
Effort
Load
Load
Effort
The lever armof a force applied to a solid is the distance from the fulcrum to the line of action of this
force F. Equilibrium is reached when the algebraic sum of the moments of forces in relation to the fulcrum
is zero. This means that two forces must be applied in opposite directions at equal intensities in relation to
the lever arm.
Archimedes* law of levers maintains that unequal forces applied perpendicularly to the ends of a rod that
pivots are balanced if:
F 1 x r 1 = F 2 x r 2
where r 1 and r 2 are the distances between the fulcrum and the force application points. Both the forces
and their distances from the fulcrum must be taken into account.
The moment of force is the measurement of the torque produced about a specific axis. It is the magnitude
of a force multiplied by its distance. The product of the force generated through the lever arm is
expressed in newton-metres.
Weight of an adult F 1
Weight of a child F 2
Lever arm r2

Lever arm r1

*Archimedes (287-212 BC) was the first person to establish the laws of equilibrium. He claimed that if he were given a long
enough lever arm he could lift the Earth.
7
Force
Fulcrum
Moment arm
Note: The mechanics torque wrench measures torque. This torque is commonly known as torque.
Torque wrenches used in North America are often calibrated in foot-pounds rather than newton-metres.
F
In technical diagrams, the following symbols
are used to represent applied force:
because the symbol is
used to indicate linear motion..
Mechanical Advantage or Disadvantage
When designing a lever, designers must work with an energy source that can perform the work the
machine requires. They must often use levers to make the work of a user or component easier. A
machine is said to have a mechanical advantage when the effort force required is less than the load
force. It is expressed by a number indicating the ratio between the effort force and load force. If the
applied force is four times less than the value of the load force, the mechanical advantage is said to be 4.
Force and Movement
When forces are applied to a lever with a mechanical advantage, the levers movement at the effort
force application point is greater than that of the load force. As such, what is gained in force is lost in
distance covered.
Distance D
Effort force
application point
Fulcrum
Load force
application
point
Distance d
Lifting lever
Load force
Load to lift
A
f
Ai: Initial position of force application point
Af: Final position of force application point
A
i
8
Force
Fulcrum
Moment arm
Working Documenl
JUNE 2004
centre de
dveloppement
pdagogique
LEVERS
- Lab -
B
SECTION
Pencil sharpener
Bicep curl
2
CONCEPT OF LEVER
This companion document comprises three sections:
Theoretical aspects
Have fun!
An Experiment
For You to Try
EXPERIMENTING WITH THE MATERIALS
Now that you have learned the theoretical aspects of levers, its time to conduct an experiment using
the following materials :
- Material A includes marked weights and a plastic plate that is screwed to a vertical mount
- Material B includes dynamometers (devices used to measure force) and a plastic plate bolted
to a perforated panel
Arrange the components to create the different types of levers.
Write a report on your observations and check the math.
How do you plan to present your results?
A
B
The holes are
1 cm apart.
A few pictures
Do you understand what happens when there
are two forces (effort and load)? Now try using
two load forces and one effort force.
What happens?
Diagram of your assembly, indicating forces, lever arms and fulcrum
1 cm dentraxe
EXPERIMENT REPORT
Explanation of your results (mechanical advantage, distance covered)
Mathematical explanation
FIRST-CLASS LEVER
1 cm dentraxe
EXPERIMENT REPORT
SECOND-CLASS LEVER
1 cm dentraxe
EXPERIMENT REPORT
THIRD-CLASS LEVER
Levers can be found in:
Wheelbarrows
Oars and paddles
Car doors
Shovels and garden forks
Hand pumps
Hand trucks
Nail pullers and nail claws
Seesaws
The human skeleton (e.g. arms, legs, neck)
Screwdrivers
Salad tongs
Hole punches
Crescent wrenches
Staplers
and more
Now you need to be able to recognize them!

Back to Reality
We took pictures of certain familiar objects (salad tongs, combination pliers, a hammer,
a wheelbarrow and a crescent wrench) then mounted them on a polystyrene board and
punched a number of holes at various locations.
These holes correspond either to a location where effort or load could be applied or
where the fulcrum could be placed. You can reproduce a number of different operating
scenarios for each object.
COMBINATION PLIERS
Assembly diagram and explanation
WHEELBARROW
SALAD TONGS
CRESCENT WRENCH
CLAW HAMMER
Working Documenl
JUNE 2004
centre de
dveloppement
pdagogique
LEVERS
- Applications and Answers -
C
SECTION
Pencil sharpener
Bicep curl
2
CONCEPT OF LEVER
This companion document comprises three sections :
Theoretical aspects
Have fun !
3
LEGEND
Effort
Load
Rotation point
Third-class lever TCL
Second-class lever SCL
First-class lever FCLi
Mechanical advantage:
positive +MA
nil 0MA
negative MA
4
OTHER APPLICATIONS
All the objects in the following pictures make use of a type of lever. Use coloured
pencils to indicate the type of lever, the forces in effecteffort (FE) and load
(Fr)and the fulcrums of each lever directly on the pictures.
Stapler
Scale
Scissors
example
Fm
Fr
5
Scissors
Paper clamp
Broom clip
Tweezers
Can opener
Compass
6
Caulking gun
Camera tripod
7
Snap fastener
Plastic injection
machine
Screw-and-nut
fastener
8
Screwdriver
Spring clamp
Hole punch
Nutcracker
Nutcracker
Cherry picker
pour la formation gnrale en science et technologie 9
10
ANSWERS
11
LEGEND
Effort
Load
Rotation point
Third-class lever TCL
Second-class lever SCL
First-class lever FCL
Mechanical advantage:
positive +MA
nil 0MA
negative MA
12
Stapler
Scale
Scissors
examples :
FCL
0AM
FCL
+AM
FLC
+AM
SCL
+AM
SCL
0AM
13
OTHER APPLICATIONS
All the objects in the following pictures make use of a type of lever. Use coloured
pencils to indicate the type of lever, the forces in effecteffort (FE) and load (Fr)and
the fulcrums of each lever directly on the pictures.
Scissors
Paper clamp
Broom clip
Tweezers
Can opener
compas
FLC
+AM
TLC
-AM
FLC
+AM
being opened
Spring
SCL
+AM
14
TLC
+AM
Caulking gun
Camera tripod
FLC
+AM
SCL
+AM
FLC
+AM
FLC
+AM
15
Snap fastener
Plastic injection machine
Screw-and-nut
fastener system
SCL
+AM
SCL
+AM
SCL
+AM
16
Screwdriver
Spring clamp
Hole punch
Nutcracker
Nutcracker
SCL
+AM
SCL
+AM
FCL
+AM
SCL
+AM
17
Cherry picker
SCL
-AM
SCL
-AM
18
19
TCL
-AM
FCL
-AM
The effort is being
spleet in two
The load is being
spleet in two
The effort is being
spleet in two

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