Definition of Terms

Contemporary Development- an aspect in which state and non-state actors are expected to
provide factors of development to the society the factors may include; micro-credits,
participatory land-use planning, enterprise development, community health programs, and
gender practice.
Contemporary Society- according to social and political scientists is characterised by at least
three fundamental directions:
increasing human interconnection through a network of relationships that is progressively
covering the whole planet;
the pace and depth of the evolution of human ways of life determined by technological
innovation represent an absolute novelty in human history;
the scale of anthropological and ecological transformation due to the interaction between
evolutionary factors (social, cultural, economic, and technological) has no historical
precedent.
Community Development Defined
common definition of community development is not simple to attain, nor is it universally
agreed upon. !art of the confusion rests with the fact that community development is both
process and product. "he practice of community development is not one focused solely on
material resource development, nor is it devoted exclusively to systems for addressing
community needs. #ones and $ilva (%&&%) consider an integrated model of community
development that includes problem solving, community building, and systems interaction. $tated
another way, they posit that a truly integrated approach assesses the problem, goes on to build
community capacity, and importantly, addresses the problem.
'ommunity refers to the focus of the interest at (uestion. )n fact, community of interest is a
useful characteri*ation of the term. )t implies more than merely a physical place, although it can,
and often does include a geographic element. )t may, however, reference a discrete collection of
persons about which a common interest is shared, yet they may be collected from far different
places, not necessarily even corresponding about their shared interest. "he community of interest
need not be made up of similar perspectives. )ndeed, it often is made up of diverse perspectives
surrounding a common issue.
s difficult as community is to define, finding a common definition of development may be
more problematic. "he field of community development grew in large part out of the
industriali*ation model of the mid-%&++s. ,et, the term development in contemporary community
development means far more than industrial or economic development. "he best substitute for
the word -development,. in this context, is terms that are more supportive of process concepts
such as advancement; betterment; capacity building; empowerment; enhancement; and nurturing.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
/efinition of "erms000000000000000000000000000.ii
"able of 'ontents000000000000000000000000000....iii
1ist of bbreviations00000000000000000000000000...v
2eferences
LIST OF ABBREIATIONS
AATF frican gricultural "echnology 3oundation
ADRA! dventist /evelopment and 2elief gency 4enya
AN""CAN frican 5etwork for the !revention and !rotection against 'hild buse and
5eglect6s
B#I 7ody 8ass )ndex
B#R 7asal 8etabolic 2ate
CBOs 'ommunity 7ased 9rgani*ations
CC$ 'entre for 'orporate :overnance
CC! 'hristian 'ouncil of 4enya
CSOs 'ivil $ociety 9rgani*ations
CSR 'orporate $ocial 2esponsibility
$B :reat 7ritain
ICFE# )nter-/enominational 'hristian 3ellowship 8inistries
ICS )nternational 'hristian $upport 3und
#%&O 8aendeleo ,a ;anawake 9rgani*ation
#%&O! 8aendeleo ,a ;anawake 9rgani*ation in 4enya
N$Os 5on-:overnmental 9rganiastions
"Os !eoples6 9rgani*ations
"TA !arents-"eachers ssociation
SA"s $tructural d<ustment !rogrammes
'N =nited 5ations
%#CA ,oung 8en 'hristian ssociation
T(E CONTE#"ORAR% ISS'ES IN CO##'NIT% DEELO"#ENT
)*+ Introduction
"he government of 4enya has faced many challenges of governance of development since
independence leading to poor economic performance and hence negative conse(uences on the
country (8wen*wa, >++?). 9ne area in particular focus is planning that largely left grassroots
leaders and local communities playing an insignificant role in decision-making and
implementation of planned development pro<ects.
t the same time, beneficiaries have for the most part been passive as opposed to active partners
in development which has given rise to heightened dependency. "his forced lack of participation
in community-initiated development; pro<ects have largely evolved into shadows of their true
potential or stalled altogether (8isati and 9ntita, >+%>). "his has resulted in extreme wastage of
resources, dotting the country with stalled pro<ects. "he top-down mentality and approach to
development was inherited from the colonial administration and very little has been seen to
change it especially during the first three decades of independence.

)*) Definition of Community Development
broad understanding of community development include policy, planning and action as they
impact on the life of communities in the contemporary society. )t focuses on the right of people,
including those living in poverty, to participate in the formulation of public policy decisions is
now generally uncontested. )n fact, this right is supported by law in a number of areas. "he aim
is to exercise effective participation in ways that enhance tangible, measurable, and positive
changes. )t is linked, on the one hand, to the ability of people to use existing opportunities to
participate and to have additional such opportunities created. )t is linked, on the other, to a
commitment and ability on the part of government to make the re(uired changes in public policy,
following such advocacy.
!roponents of community development view it fundamentally as enabling people who are
marginali*ed to have a voice in the democratic process. "hey view community development
activities as having the potential to effect changes that will combat poverty and social exclusion
and address power imbalances in policy making. )n other words, at its best, community
development is seen as a powerful force for social and political change.
)*, Contemporary Issues
)n the contemporary world, the society6s wellbeing is threatened by poverty, which is a multi-
faceted phenomenon. !overty is a situation where a person lacks the necessary capabilities and
entitlements to satisfy his or her basic needs and aspirations. )ts fight must consist of establishing
entitlements that allow the vulnerable group in the society especially the poor to access the
material, social, and spiritual means to develop their capabilities.
contemporary society faces many challenges including climate change, environmental
degradation, unpredictable weather pattern, ccess to 2esources, 1and and 'redit and $avings.
)n 4enya, these challenges range from governance, corruption, and institutional reforms among
others. country like 4enya that has long been viewed as an institutionally strong and
democratic, is faced with issues of violence that affects its community development aspects for
example, the violence following the elections of /ecember >++? has shaken its developmental
progress. ;hile the country has managed to forge a coalition government and is attempting to
right its course, issues that had been kept beneath the surface, such as corruption and ethnic
rivalries, have come to the fore. "hat means that the political future of 4enya hinged on the
government6s active support for institutional reforms.
"he challenges affecting contemporary community development falls within: political,
economic, and social challenges currently affecting 4enya6s development. "he state expects to
vigorously focus particularly on economic reforms, corruption, constitutional reform and the
issue concerning the prosecution of politically correct individuals who commit crimes and go
scotch free.
4enya6s economy must be transformed to rely on industry and services, and that this
transformation must also incorporate the needs of millions of unskilled poor people. "o begin
this transformation, investment is necessary, particularly in infrastructure. 3or example, the
construction of railroads along new routes will bring previously underdeveloped regions of the
country into connection with the ma<or trade cities. number of other issues will shape the path
of development as well, including the need to shift to green energy, to increase human capital
through education, and to increase credit access and marketing capabilities to all 4enyans.
"he contemporary development approaches focus on empowerment of the poor as the crucial
re(uirement for a sustainable solution to poverty and hunger. @mpowerment is defined here as
the ability of people, in particular the least privileged, to: have access to productive resources
that enable them to increase their earnings and obtain the goods and services they need; and
participate in the development process and the decisions that affect them. "hese two aspects are
related; one without the other is not empowerment.
)*,*) Access to "roductive Resources
key re(uirement for any escape from poverty and hunger is access to productive resources.
"his has been a great challenge to many developing countries including 4enya. "he rural
population which largely depends on agriculture faces lack of access to productive resources
such as credit facilities, land ownership, farm inputs, and information. 9thers include
technology, seeds and fertili*er, livestock and fisheries, irrigation, marketing opportunities, and
off-farm employment.
1ack of public infrastructure facilities, particularly of roads and market outlets, have resulted in
to wastages of little produce from rural households, however, there are campaigns and lobbying
to connect rural population with good road networks so that their produce can easily find their
way to market places.
)*,*, "rovision of Access to (ealt- Resources
Aealth care has been a primary responsibility of a prevailing government. Aowever, in many
countries the governments especially in the developing countries such as 4enya, there are
primary healthcare services that the governments have failed to avail and access to people. )n
particular, the rural population has lacked access to such primary healthcare. "his has
necessitated shortages of access to primary health care in countries such as 4enya especially its
rural population.
"he state has failed to provide such basic healthcare leaving the sick in a hopeless state. "he poor
ma<ority of 4enyan population lack accessibility to these services. "he intervention is seen in
provision of health services that include; providing voluntary counselling services and anti-
retroviral medicine, mother to child healthcare, cheap primary health care, free mos(uito nets,
free eye check-up, educating the population on balancing locally available foods nutrition,
paying funeral expenses, establishing community pharmacies and doing circumcision campaigns.
"he intervention to bridge the gap by extending the health service delivery into the locals by
opening up health centres in rural areas as well as slums in urban centres is a key concern in the
contemporary development. "his is because a healthy population is considered a productive
population hence a developed economy. "he focus in contemporary community development is
to come up with community healthcare services and health centres where a community health
officer and the entire community can be responsible to the proper management of the facility. "o
date there is need to construct many community health centres to enhance attending to rural and
slum areas. "he activities manifested in the area of health include; access to family planning,
access to prenatal care, access to skilled delivery at birth, access to emergency obstetric care for
complications and access to postnatal care.
,*)*. "rovision of Facilities for Re-a/ilitation of Street C-ildren
"he street family menace is also a current challenge in the contemporary community
development. "he need to rehabilitate and transform them into good citi*ens is an issue of
concern to the stakeholders such as the government, the 5:9s, '79s, '/9s, and '$9s among
others. "o change the face of any society there is need to come up with policies of protecting,
rehabilitating and transforming and integrating the street families into their communities.
)n 4enya for example, many organi*ations are involved in the food provision, health service
provision, education and training, vocational training, and accommodation of street families to
ensure they are well access the normal lifestyle as any other non-street persons. "his intervention
involves the establishment of rehabilitation centres andBor feeding centres for street children
especially in the ma<or urban areas notably 5airobi. )n rural settings, local organi*ations do not
only set up homes to rehabilitate children but also look for foster families in which these children
can be integrated and provide subsidies for their survival.
,*,*0 En-ancin1 Access to Clean &ater
ccess to clean water after the environmental degradation has affected the larger source of water
bodies. s a basic need, access to clean water is an issue of community development concern
since without this, the health ha*ards especially water related problems will be facing the
community and this will interfere with the normalcy of development and growth. lthough this
is the case throughout the country, the situation is much more serious in arid and semi-arid areas
of the country. nd it is in these areas that some 5:9s have been actively engaged in addressing
the problem of scarcity of water. 9ne such organi*ation, 5orthern id, has been very active in
the provision of water in the northern part of the country one of the most arid regions in the
country.
s a result of its activities, water sources have been established around settlement areas, bringing
them much closer to the communities. "his has had the impact of reducing time spent looking for
and fetching water, and the pastoral communities now spend the time saved to engage in income
generating activities. 7esides, availing water within the reach of families makes female children
hitherto involved in long distance water-fetching to find time to concentrate on schooling.
7esides the above, /asapei ;ater and @nvironmental !ro<ect has established over >,+++
boreholes in ;estern !rovince.
,*,*2 En-ancin1 Access to Education
;ithin the education sector, it is possible to sketch out some principal 5:9 activities. "hey have
traditionally taken on the role of gap filling; that is, taking on activities of basic education
provision where the government lacks the capacity to do so or does not consider it a priority.
5:9s focus in education include constructing schools, constructing and e(uipping laboratories
and libraries, providing fees for orphans, paying pre-primary school teachers, instituting feeding
programmes in schools, provision of sanitary pads, <igger cleaning campaigns, deworming
school children, donating books and other teaching-learning materials especially to children with
special needs, providing voluntary teachers from overseas, facilitating exchange programmes for
both students and teachers, sponsoring academic competitions and extra-curricular activities and
providing internships to bright students.
$ome schools and community members have benefited from local organi*ations that pay pre-
primary school teachers who are supposed to be paid by the school !arents-"eachers ssociation
(!") rather than the government. "his has guaranteed a smooth transition of many children to
primary school. ;orld Cision has also participated in identifying the needy children and paying
for their school fees, apart from feeding programmes in the rural areas. )n 4enya, @ducation
provision is primarily the task of the 8inistry of @ducation. Aowever, its lack of capacity and the
weak nature of the state in general have opened up the education sector for 5:9 involvement.
5:9s provide a large part of educational services and help reinforce government efforts in
achieving universal primary education.
,*,*3 Land Accessi/ility
@nabling the rural poor to have access to land whether through land redistribution or
resettlement, or through changes in the nature of the rights and duties that underlie tenure
remains a crucial element in the (uest to eliminate poverty and hunger. Aowever, for various
reasons, the experience of agrarian reform during the last D+ years has been less positive than
had been hoped. 1andholding is too deeply embedded in other social processes kinship, politics,
religion, history, and often subtle forms of symbolism for land to be treated solely as a resource
to be allocated. "he vested interests of politicians, bureaucrats, and local elites, have militated
against implementation of agrarian reform policies, even when written into law. grarian reforms
have often had unintended impacts, fre(uently including a worsening, rather than its
improvement, in the distribution of holdings.
grarian reform, then, seems to work only when a series of specific conditions are met. )t needs
to be accompanied by access to technology, credit, and infrastructure (markets, roads, health
services, education). $uccessful land reform re(uires not only committed public institutions, at
the national and the local levels, but also strong and committed organi*ations of the intended
beneficiaries, that are capable of acting as countervailing forces against powerful groups opposed
to the reform process (indeed, these organi*ations might have been the prime movers in putting
pressure on governments to enact land reform legislation in the first place).
,*,*4 Advocacy and Lo//yin1 A1ainst $ender Discrimination
"he enhancement of womenEs access to land and to all productive resources in 4enya is a
challenge. s a result of factors as varied as population pressure, economic development,
privati*ation, legal impediments, or separation from their husbands, many women have been
losing whatever access to land they had. 9ften these women are heads of households: loss of
land dooms them and their children to extreme poverty. :iven the patriarchal nature of most
societies and of most governments, aid agencies, churches and 5:9s any change in this situation
will in all likelihood come about only as the result of organi*ed pressure from women
themselves.
,*,*5 Emer1ence of Tec-nolo1ical Crime
9ne of the ma<or changes in the social disorders in modern society is crime. "his social behavior
has undergone transformation, and in the contemporary society, a community development is
faced with crime that is no longer as easily traceable and concretely defined as it once was. "he
advanced technology over the last several decades has given birth to technological crime for
example, many developing nations, such as 4enya, have seen the emergence of technological
crime. $ince the <udicial system often works as a reactive mechanism, the <uvenility of cyber
offenses has put 4enya in a very difficult situation.
)n the fight against this vice, the challenge is that there are minimal personnel within the 4enyan
!olice 3orce who possess any computer training and cyber legislation is <ust starting to take
effect. #ust recently, the 4enya /efense 3orces (4/3) twitter account was attacked, hacked and
controlled by thugs due to cyber crime practice. "hese computer related crime play unfortunate
roles in contemporary society, and in 4enya, pertains mainly to money laundering and fraud
(9mani, personal statement, >+%+). -After losing control of their Twitter accounts for more than
12 hours yesterday, the Kenya Defence Forces (KDF) regained control of their accounts. But
after only four hours, the hacer(s) were !ac at it again and this time taing control of other
high "alued go"ernment we!sites# (4"$8, >+%F). "he ongoing cyber-attacks on web and social
sites operated by the government, the military and top leaders is part of an effort to expose
corruption in 4enya, a EhacktivistE group has claimed. member of hacker group nonymous on
3riday told 2adio 3rance )nternational (23)) that they infiltrated "witter accounts belonging to
4enya /efence 3orces and defaced several government websites after unnamed anti-corruption
crusaders Gcried for help6 (/5, >+%F).
"hese criminal acts make it simply impossible for a nation to prosper economically, politically,
culturally, and socially without proper safety and security (=59/', >++&). )ncreased
globali*ation gives 4enyans greater access to goods and services offered worldwide whether
positive or negative. 1arge-scale organi*ed crime and terrorism operate on a transnational level,
putting the burden on 4enya, as well as the international community, to gain a grasp on the
situation are some of experiences that the contemporary community development faces in many
developing nations.
$ustainable peace and tran(uility has eluded the region for a long time and conflict and civil
strife has been seen to escalate in the last two decades with the fall of the $iad 7arre regime in
the former 2epublic of $omalia. )ndeed, disarmament of the pastoral communities while the
international borders remain porous is unlikely to achieve much.
,*. Facilitatin1 Communication
5:9s use interpersonal methods of communication, and study the right entry points whereby
they gain the trust of the community they seek to benefit. "hey would also have a good idea of
the feasibility of the pro<ects they take up. "he significance of this role to the government is that
5:9s can communicate to the policy-making levels of government, information about the lives,
capabilities, attitudes and cultural characteristics of people at the local level.
5:9s can facilitate communication upward from people to the government and downward from
the government to the people. 'ommunication upward involves informing government about
what local people are thinking, doing and feeling while communication downward involves
informing local people about what the government is planning and doing. 5:9s are also in a
uni(ue position to share information hori*ontally, networking between other organi*ations doing
similar work.
,*0 Improvement of A1ricultural Tec-nolo1y
"he challenge faced globally is that of malnutrition and food insecurity in developing nations.
"he concern is that there is lack of proper farm practices that enables provision of sustained food
security and nutrition. Aence the world over, malnutrition is reported as a ma<or killer especially
to children and women the world over. )n the current development process, ;orld Aealth
9rganisation (;A9) considers household food and nutrition security a basic human right. )t has
therefore undertaken a multi-country study on malnutrition6s main causal factors.
/ue to this fact, many countries especially in the developing nations such as 4enya have focused
on agricultural technological improvement to enhance poverty eradication especially in rural
areas. "his has seen development of policies and regulations that favour improved farming
practices. 8ore effective government policies: agriculture taxation fallen to about %+H of
agriculture value from F+H and public expenditure to agriculture increasing. 'ommodity price
increases makes agriculture more profitable and more effective local frican management of
pro<ects and more intense frican civil society attention. 2emittances to frican rural areas by
frican migrants and up-tick in private investment in some countries.
9ther concerns include stronger participatory analysis and gender perspective in pro<ect
development, implementation and evaluation. 'ommunities have to elaborate their own priorities
and particular needs for public services. s women are critical players in ensuring household
food security and nutrition, any A3$ and nutrition analysis has to start with a gender perspective.
,*2 Empo6erment and "articipation
t the centre of all definitions of community development is the idea that it has the capacity to
develop a voice for the voiceless; that those who experience isolation from the political process
can be brought right into it and enabled to participate effectively in the democratic process. )t is
this idea that creates the impetus to achieve social change and to fight against poverty and social
exclusion.
n understanding of and a commitment to community empowerment and participation are at the
core of community development in the contemporary society. 'ombat poverty agency in the role
of community development in tackling poverty defines community development as: enabling or
empowering people to actively work for social change which will improve the (uality of their
lives, the communities in which they live andBor the society of which they are a part. "his is a
collective process that recogni*es the interdependence of people to fully walk the same path
together. )t helps people to identify and articulate their needs, and influence the decision-making
processes and structures that affect them, their communities and wider society.
,*3 Summary of t-e Discussion
)n the 7ible we learn that there are those times of severe famine and hunger could strike forcing
people to source for food from long distance travels. $ocieties in the 7ible were also not all the
same, there were those blessed with a lot of wealth and those without. 5:9s act as
implementers, catalysts and partners. "he implementer role is concerned with the mobili*ation of
resources to provide goods and services to people who need them. "he service delivery role
embodies a very wide range of activities carried out by 5:9s in fields as diverse as healthcare,
microfinance, agricultural extension, emergency relief and human rights. $ervice delivery work
has increased as 5:9s have been increasingly Gcontracted6 by governments and donors within
the last two decades of governance reform and privati*ation to carry out specific tasks in return
for payment; it has also become more prominent as increasing emphasis
5ongovernmental organi*ations bridge the gap between government and the community.
'ommunity-based organi*ations are essential in organi*ing poor people, taking collective action,
fighting for their rights, and representing the interests of their members in dialogue with 5:9s
and government. 5:9s, on the other hand, are better at facilitating the supply of inputs into the
management process, mediating between people and the wider political party, networking,
information dissemination and policy reform.
"he role of the various factors, including 5:9s, in social economic development has been
redefined. "he new roles encourage governments to work in partnership with the private sector
and with civil society bodies and communities in which they work. "he government-5:9
relations in 4enya have varied from cold to warm in different eras and depending on the area of
operation of 5:9s. ll 5:9s held that their ma<or impediment to successful delivery is the lack
of an 5:9 policy and legislative framework in the country. )ts availability would create an
enabling environment for 5:9s to operate effectively and efficiently in the social and economic
transformation of the country.
,* Discuss t-e follo6in1 Roles of t-e elderly
"he age group of IJ years and above is defined by =nited 5ations as the EelderlyE or older
person; this is not globally, accepted definition hence it is sub<ect to a prevailing country6s policy
guiding on who should fit as an older person. 8eaning that there are commonly used definitions
of old age, there is no general agreement on the age at which a person becomes old. "he common
use of a calendar age to mark the threshold of old age assumes e(uivalence with biological age,
yet at the same time, it is generally accepted that these two are not necessarily synonymous.

"he elderly group of persons in the society includes grandparents, great-grandparents and even
great-great grandmother. society would be extremely fortunate to have experienced these
individuals. "hey are sources of inspiration that defines the texture of the fabric of society. "he
elderly among us are vast resources of knowledge, experiences and insights that should be
cherished by all of us. "hey own a wealth of resources in knowledge and skills covering various
areas such as cultural, social, economical, technological, religious, and political among others.
"he elderly group is a source of reference to the younger society in different fields.
9lder persons are becoming an ever-greater proportion of the total population, with the
proportion of the very old (K+ years and above) growing the most rapidly. t the same time,
those reaching retirement age are healthier and fitter than ever before.
a7 Social8Economic Roles
"he ageing of the population is a force behind the spirit of living beyond a certain period of life
span. 3or example those who are at their &+ years and above, are forces of consideration of
possibly extending active life beyond the current average retirement age. "he sustainability of
social security systems was strictly linked to the capacity of countries to increase the overall
level of employment. #ust as important were instruments that encourage the market to offer older
people opportunities to work.
"he elderly are part of social networks of friends and family, are active in clubs and associations,
work as volunteers and are economically active. !otential obstacles to e(ual social participation
of older persons include poverty, poor health, low educational levels, lack of transportation,
access to services and age discrimination. "his participation of the old person in these activities
brings all social groups and individuals into the political, social, cultural and economic structures
of a society so that they can participate in the decision-making process on issues that concern
them. "herefore it is important that exclusion should be minimi*ed and eliminated, and that all
those who are disadvantaged should be assisted by society.
"hese people help building values, relations and institutions for a society where all individuals,
regardless of race, sex, age, ethnicity, language or religion, can fully exercise their rights and
responsibilities on an e(ual basis with others. @very person should be allowed to age in security
and with dignity and be in a position to contribute to society in the most meaningful way. $uch
an environment is at the root of stable, safe and <ust societies where all members, including
vulnerable ones, en<oy e(uality of opportunities.
bove all, social cohesion, a vital element of a healthy society is the anchor in which the elderly
persons have necessitated the social economic roles in the society. )t denotes the capacity of a
society to ensure the welfare of its members, minimi*ing disparities and avoiding polari*ation
and conflict, and it re(uires fostering solidarity and reciprocity between generations
9lder persons have gathered substantive experience throughout their lives. "hey should be
enabled to capitali*e on this experience, for example by pursuing entrepreneurial activities and
<oining the labour market. "he workplace provides income as well as social networks and a sense
of being needed and contributing productively to a society to people of all ages. 8any employees
who reach retirement age still feel healthy and fit enough to continue working. 9thers depend on
the income and may choose to continue working for that reason. )f the formal employment sector
does not accommodate them, they may be driven to the informal sector and suffer from worse
conditions, becoming more vulnerable.
/7 "olitical Roles
"he elderly are of great importance to the world since the bear the witness to the young
generation as to the importance of the struggle for political salvation. "hese great leaders in the
struggle for democracy, such as 9ginga 9dinga, #omo 4enyatta, 4wame 5kurumah, 5elson
8andela, and #ulius 5yerere epitomi*ed the courage and contribution older persons had made to
freedom, democracy and human rights in the woerld over, without their being, it would have
been difficult for the young generation for example the second struggle for democracy in 4eny
of the young "urks of the likes of :itobu )manyara, !aul 8uite, #ames 9rengo and anyang6
5yong6o among others was greatly influenced by the elderly persons such as 8asinde 8uliro,
9ginga 9dinga and 4enneth 8atiba. Aowever, the legacy of apartheid had manifested itself in
severe poverty and social exclusion, especially for older persons.
9rgani*ations of older persons provide an important means of enabling participation through
advocacy. 3or example, 4alen<in, 1uo, 4ikuyu 'ouncils of elders, in 4enya brings together
nearly the members of their communities into the political fold in the country. "he goals of these
councils of elders are improving older persons6 (uality of life by providing information and
services in a broad array of areas affecting their communities. "rade unions may also provide
retired workers with a political platform. "hey should actively engage in the debate of
developing more favourable conditions in the labour market to reali*e the right of all generations
to be economically active by way of paid employment.
"herefore, older persons should be e(ually represented within trade unions, alongside other age
groups. )n the countries of the 'ommonwealth of )ndependent $tates, organi*ations of war
veterans play a significant role in representing older persons6 interests. )nternational 5:9s such
as Aelpge )nternational, the )nternational 3ederation on geing ()3), the )nternational
3ederation of ssociations for @lderly !eople (3)!) and others work to promote grassroots
activities, influence policymaking and assure representation of older persons in local
governments.
c7 Reli1ious Roles
"he interconnections between religion and old age though complex is important to understand
the religious aspect of the society as the concept of age itself has for a large part of human
history been determined by religious understandings of life. )n traditional societies, religion
played a crucial part in structuring the transitions between one stage of the life and the next and
in defining maturity and fulfillment.
9lder people have always been more religious than the young. ;hether elderly people have
regarded :od as <udgmental (the source of all their troubles) or as a father figure (a rock in the
storm of life), they have always taken him more seriously than their sons and daughters. "his
kind of generational difference has been reflected in church membership studies for some time,L
and is, increasingly, supported by studies of religious belief.
2eligion and family are very important in the traditional societies. "he main role for the elderly
has been to function as an advisor in every day matters, as well as in important decisions. 9nly
when there are important issues the elderly are consulted. "he elderly experience a change in
society but provide the yesterday memory of religious beliefs, ceremonies, rituals, to the younger
people who hold on to academic degree, and work in high positions.
"he old represent the religious units such as traditional kinship system, council of elders and the
modern religion fort the rule-setting system for social relationship and consists of groups and
individuals in a particular people group. )t determines for example where a couple will settle
down after marriage, who will succeed whom, who will inherit, who is senior, and who can
worship at a specific shrine. )n a traditional society the kinship system determines almost
everything: economy, politics, family life etc. 4in includes two main descent groups: the clan
and the lineage. "hese differ to a great extent from one society to another. clan is a group of
individuals who are believed to have descended through one line. "he clan is also connected to
taboos and totems. @ach clan has their own totem that is believed to have a special relationship to
their clan. 3urthermore, a taboo is usually something that is forbidden to eat for the members of
the clan. "he lineage, then, is the part of the clan that lives in the same locality.
d7 Social Roles
@lderly people have great wisdom and experience. "hey have the knowledge of all the years of
their lives. 7y sharing this knowledge, they greatly benefit society by enhancing the knowledge
of younger people. "hey make a valuable contribution to society by sharing what they have
learned in the past which the future generation lacks.
"he elderly people have great wisdom and experience in social life. "hey have the knowledge of
all the years of their lives. )f they are allowed to share this knowledge, they can greatly benefit
society by enhancing the knowledge of younger people. "hey can still make a valuable
contribution to society by sharing what they have learned. 8any older people are actively
involved with, and indeed may be the lynchpins of, local clubs, societies, faith groups and other
community-based organisations. "his includes active participation in democratic institutions
such as parishBcommunity councils, and boards of school governors.
$ocial integration is a process of building values, relations and institutions for a society where all
individuals, regardless of race, sex, age, ethnicity, language or religion, can fully exercise their
rights and responsibilities on an e(ual basis with others. @very person should be allowed to age
in security and with dignity and be in a position to contribute to society in the most meaningful
way. $uch an environment is at the root of stable, safe and <ust societies where all members,
including vulnerable ones, en<oy e(uality of opportunities.
)n some other countries where war and A)CB)/$ have had a devastating conse(uences on lives
of many parents and guardians, many children have been left under the care of the elderly
persons such as grand father or mother. "he elderly persons are caring for grandchildren and
younger adults providing care for older persons as well is eminent. "here is much older and
younger persons can learn from each other. $uch processes ultimately help reali*e the goal of
achieving a $ociety for ll ges.
9lder people are very often the driving force for local community-based organisations, with
active retirees combining their expertise, skills and experience to provide the leadership, as well
as a disproportionate (uantum of the membership, of many local organisations, groups and
societies. "hey cover a multiplicity of interests and remits, including education, sport, culture,
leisure, conservation and the environment. 9lder people spend more time than any other age
group in leadership roles, spending an average of J hours per month.
9lder people are extremely active in their neighbourhoods, taking part in activities such as
Glooking out6 for vulnerable neighbours and helping them stay independent for longer. IJH of
older people regularly help out elderly neighbours and are the most likely of all adult age groups
to do so in addition to the one fifth (>%H) of over IJs who help elderly parents or relatives.
number of stakeholders highlighted the specialist skills and expertise that older people can
offer, both in terms of the paid workforce and also the volunteer workforce. )n terms of the paid
workforce, older people will have a role to play in helping to address the national shortages in a
number of craft and technical skills. 3or the volunteer workforce, older people often have
particular and specific organisational skills andBor technical expertise in areas such as leadership,
legal matters, financial management and human resources, that can be brought to bear in a wide
range of situations.
. a7 Define and Discuss Ant-ropometric Nutritional Assessment
Definition
5utritional anthropometry is a measurement of the variations of the physical dimensions and the
gross composition of the human body at different age levels and degrees of nutrition (#elliffe,
%&II). "hese nthropometric nutritional assessment measurements are of two types, growth and
body composition. "hey are applied in the assessment of the nutritional status of both children
and adults. "he selection of the ideal single or a combined use of anthropometric indicators
depends upon the sensitivity and specificity of the indicator chosen. $ensitive indices are ideally
suited for nutritional status assessment in screening or surveillance activities as they are capable
of detecting even small changes that occur in nutritional status during conditions of food
inade(uacy.
"he ;orld Aealth 9rgani*ation (;A9) cites anthropometric aspects and intake of ade(uate
nutrients as determinants of fetal growth, demonstrating a close association with these
parameters and weight and gestational age at birth. nthropometric measurements, among the
most fre(uently applied methods for assessing nutritional status in pregnant women, are
recogni*ed as effective tools in the prevention of perinatal morbi-mortality, the prognosis of
child health, and the promotion of womenEs health, and have undergone considerable
improvement over the past five decades. 5utritional anthropometric measurements, indices and
indicators are defined, and the commonly used indicators for the diagnosis of under nutrition
throughout the life cycle (infants, children, adolescents, adults and elderly).
)n addition, their easy application, low cost, and non-invasive nature reinforce their viability as a
nutritional assessment method. "he anthropometric nutritional indicators provide a reflection of
the nutritional status of the community and hence complement the information obtained by other
approaches.
Infants and c-ildren
)n infants and children under five years of age, assessment of growth has been the single most
important measurement that best defines their nutritional status. /isturbances in nutrition as a
result of inade(uacy of food intake, severe and repeated infections or a combination of both,
operating very often as a vicious spiral, invariably affect the growth of a child. "hese adverse
conditions are closely linked to the general standard of living and the populationEs ability to meet
its basic needs for nutritious food, safe water, good housing, acceptable levels of environmental
sanitation, and ready and easy access to health care.
ssessment of the nutritional status of the child by the use of nutritional anthropometric
indicators of growth has thus been used not only to provide information on the nutritional and
health status of children but also as an indirect measure of the (uality of life of the entire
community or population, and thereby as an indicator of the nutritional status and ade(uacy of
food of all members of that community. Aowever, there are growing doubts whether estimates of
under-nutrition based on nutritional anthropometric survey data in children alone necessarily
reflect the overall nutritional status and the ade(uacy of food availability within the entire
community (39, %&&F).
Aeight and weight are the most commonly used indicators of the nutritional status of a child.
ccording to a ;A9 ;orking :roup (%&KI), appropriate height-for-age of a child reflects linear
growth and can measure long- term growth faltering or stunting, while appropriate weight-for-
height reflects proper body proportion or the harmony of growth. ;eight-for-height is
particularly sensitive to acute growth disturbances and is useful to detect the presence of wasting.
;eight-for-age represents a convenient synthesis of both linear growth and body proportion and
thus can be used for the diagnosis of underweight children.
"he presence of undernutrition in children is assessed using these three anthropometric
parameters (weight-for-age, height-for-age and weight-for-height) and by comparing them with
internationally accepted reference standards (;A9, %&KD).
Adolescents
dolescents comprise a significant proportion of the worldEs population; some estimates put the
number of youth at over D+ percent of the world population. "he proportion of adolescents
within a population group is also rising relative to other age groups, and an overwhelming
proportion of young adolescents live in developing countries. )ncreases in height as well as
weight occur during this period. bout >J percent of an individualEs attained height is achieved
during adolescence as a result of the adolescent growth spurt that marks the end of the growth in
height. Cariations in adolescent body si*e and the timing of maturational events are determined
genetically in populations whose environment allows full expression of the genotype.
;here this is limited by environmental constraints, including nutrition, the observed growth and
maturation during adolescence reflect environmental rather than inherited potential. )t is now
clear that growth differences among groups are also related to nutritional status, socio -economic
and other factors. :rowth in adolescence may be limited by prolonged undernutrition, infections
and chronic disease. $tunting or short stature in adolescence is not only indicative of past
undernutrition during childhood but also may be a cumulative indicator of nutritional status
during adolescence.
$tunting among adolescents reflects increased health risks, particularly among females who
would also tend to have a small pelvis, leading possibly to obstructed labour during childbirth.
:ains in weight are also considerable during the adolescent years with increases in both muscle
and fat. :irls tend to gain relatively more fat, while boys gain relatively more muscle.
=ndernutrition in girls during adolescence is characteri*ed by a low weight, which may result in
poor pregnancy outcomes, particularly low birth weight. =ndernutrition also may limit school
achievement and work productivity in later years. "here is emerging evidence that stunted
individuals are at increased risk of overweight and obesity when food availability increases and
lifestyles change (!opkin, 2ichards and 8ontiero, %&&I).
Adults
"he lack of a true definition for the assessment of adult under nutrition is due to the difficulty in
establishing satisfactory reference standards for normality and in delineating cutoffs to help
distinguish between well -nourished and undernourished adults in population groups. chronic
state of under-nutrition in the adult has its cost in terms of risk to health and impairment of
function, which may include a lowered work capacity, a reduced ability to sustain economically
productive work or even socially desirable physical activities and possibly an impaired immune
function with a predisposition to repeated infections (39, %&&F).
Elderly
dults I+ years of age and older represent the fastest-growing segment of the population
throughout the world. /ecline in height with age is well documented in the elderly, and reduction
in weight also occurs with increasing age, although the pattern of change in weight is (uite
different from that of height and varies with the sex of the individual. "he use of anthropometry
is relatively recent in the elderly, and the anthropometric index of choice is the 78), as in the
case of non-elderly adults.
"hus, height, weight and 78) are good indicators of nutritional status and the risk of morbidity
and mortality in the elderly population. Aeight can be difficult to measure in the elderly as a
result of increasing spinal curvature with age; there are no guidelines regarding the degree of
spinal curvature that would invalidate the measurement of height. )t can be estimated from knee
height or from arm span, although ;A9 (%&&J) recommends knee height as being the more
satisfactory of the two. "he estimated height can then be used to derive 78), using the
recommended cutoff points of M%K.J for under- weight and N>J for overweight, the same as those
used for non-elderly adults.
/7 Discuss Nutritional Life Cycle Interactions
8edications have become an integral part of life for many people. 8edicine serves to help
people when they are sick, allowing them to live longer and healthier lives. ;ith rapidly growing
research and technology, medications are more beneficial, and new ones continue to be
discovered. /rugs do need to be taken with caution, however. ll medications, whether
prescribed by a doctor or bought over-the-counter, are capable of harmful side effects. "he foods
people eat contain nutrients that are used by the body to produce energy. $ometimes, certain
medications may interact with both the food eaten and the nutrients the food gives to the body
for proper functioning. ;hen the body is unable to use a nutrient due to a drug that has been
taken, a nutrient-drug interaction has occurred.
"his provides a detailed view of the nutritional foundations necessary for human growth,
development and reproduction, including normal functioning of individuals in each stage of the
life cycle, from preconception to the final stages of life. "he life stages covered are
preconception, pregnancy and lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age.
5ormal nutrition for each stage of life is covered followed by some clinical aspects of nutritional
interventions in each phase of the cycle. 8echanistic principles of nutrition and their application
in preventive and curative aspects of human health throughout the life cycle are covered. "his
area additionally covers biological anthropology and human evolution and variation in the
context of i) nutrient-gene interactions and their role in developmental as well as degenerative
conditions, and ii)the biological implications of a shift away from historicalBnatural dietary
patterns
)n order for community development path to be realistic, macro-economic stability, sustained
governance reforms, e(uity in poverty reduction opportunities, viable infrastructure, and
ade(uate energy for wealth creation and use of science and technology for innovation are
important elements among other necessary items.
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