ALGERIA

Assessment of Land Degradation

Processes for Sustainable
Environmental Management of
Natural Resources in the costal
Areas
Algeria, Egypt, Lebanon, Libya,
Syria, Tunisia, Yemen
PROPOSAL
2009
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 Table of Contents

Abstract............................................................................................................ 6
Executive Summary.........................................................................................7
Introduction and literature review..................................................................10
Introduction............................................................................................... 10
Location..................................................................................................... 12
Egypt...................................................................................................... 12
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 13
Lybia...................................................................................................... 13
Syria....................................................................................................... 14
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 14
Yemen.................................................................................................... 15
Morphology and climate ...........................................................................15
Egypt...................................................................................................... 15
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 17
Libya...................................................................................................... 17
Syria....................................................................................................... 19
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 21
Yemen.................................................................................................... 23
Soil information ........................................................................................25
Egypt...................................................................................................... 25
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 26
Libya...................................................................................................... 26
Syria....................................................................................................... 27
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 27
Yemen.................................................................................................... 28
A. Driving forces.................................................................................... 28
1. Urban encroachment.............................................................................28
Egypt...................................................................................................... 28
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 29
Syria....................................................................................................... 30
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 30
Yemen.................................................................................................... 31
2. Land cover change.................................................................................31
Egypt...................................................................................................... 31
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 32

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 Syria....................................................................................................... 32
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 33
Yemen.................................................................................................34
B. Pressure.............................................................................................34
1. Forest fires............................................................................................. 34
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 34
Syria....................................................................................................... 34
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 35
Yemen.................................................................................................35
2. Land pollution........................................................................................ 36
Egypt...................................................................................................... 36
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 37
Syria ...................................................................................................... 38
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 39
3. Soil erosion............................................................................................ 39
Egypt...................................................................................................... 39
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 40
Syria....................................................................................................... 40
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 42
C. Impact................................................................................................ 43
1. Climate, water and droughts...............................................................43
Egypt...................................................................................................... 43
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 44
Syria....................................................................................................... 44
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 45
2. Other stresses.....................................................................................46
Egypt...................................................................................................... 46
Lebanon.................................................................................................. 47
Syria....................................................................................................... 48
Tunisia ................................................................................................... 48
Yemen ...................................................................................................49
Justification and benefits................................................................................52
Objectives......................................................................................................53
Scope.............................................................................................................. 55
Methodology and work plan..........................................................................56
From this point the text not updated yet.........................................................58
Methodologies in Work packages..................................................................58

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 WP 00: Project coordination and management.........................................58
WP 01: Collection, evaluation and screening of existing data..................59
WP 02: Investigate land degradation and start methodologies.................60
WP 03: Assess chemical contamination.....................................................62
WP 04: Identification and monitoring of hot spots/bright spots and
indicators................................................................................................... 65
WP 05: Identify effective remedial measures............................................67
WP 06: Map, establish database and information System.........................68
WP 07: Development management plan....................................................71
WP 08: Design and enhance participatory approach................................73
WP 09: Design and enhance capacity building, policies & institutions....74
WP 10: Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation.........74
Expected outputs and applications.................................................................75
Project requirements......................................................................................79
Management and organization plan...............................................................83
Budget and funding plan................................................................................86
References...................................................................................................... 90
Appendices..................................................................................................... 96

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Assessment of Land Degradation Processes for Sustainable Environmental
Management of Natural Resources in the costal Areas,Algier, Egypt,
Lebanon, Libya, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen

Abstract
Deterioration of natural resources, and their losses, are increasing the stresses
felt by communities benefiting from them. Land degradation leading to direct
loss of soil, and indirect impacts on plant cover, with resultant desertification,
is the major concern of this proposal. It aims to define a proper framework for
sustainable management of the soil cover against land degradation and
mitigation of desertification on socio-economic aspects in the eastern
Mediterranean, i.e. Lebanon and Syria.
The work entails collection of existing data, and investigating the nature and
extent of land degradation through field work and remote sensing. This will
include physical deterioration and chemical contamination, leading to
mapping and assessing remedial measures. Obviously, monitoring is an
important component, especially with the use of standard indicators. Building
upgraded-updated data information systems and maps will contribute to a
well established management plan for proper protection.
Natural resources are integrated entities, and the public plus other
stakeholders have a significant contribution in their protection. Participatory
approaches are emphasized with respect to remediation measures. This will
be enhanced by capacity building for relevant institutions and training for
human know-how. Working policies that link institutions and the stakeholders
with a sustainable outlook, will strengthen protecting those natural resources.
Exploitation plans and dissemination of knowledge will permeate the benefits
and sustainability of the project.
The cooperation of experienced interdisciplinary teams from relevant
ministries in the two countries, led by the remote sensing agencies in both,
will assure a fully integrated project. It is proposed for a duration of four
years, covering the humid coastal zone, the mountains and the semi-arid inner
plain to the slopes of the eastern mountain chain. A variable output will
reflect the interdisciplinary nature of the proposal, including dissemination
workshops, training materials, maps for decision-makers and the public,
reports on status of land degradation, hot spots, workable indicators for
monitoring, and a management plan containing remedial measures based on a

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land degradation data information system (LDDIS). The proposed budget is
US$ 1,270,000 to be co-financed between the lead agencies of the two
countries at 25% each and international organizations. There are several
international programs relevant to land degradation and desertification, be it
with GEF, UNCCD, FAO, the European Commission, and bilateral interests.
These would ease up co-funding this proposal.

xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Keywords: Eastern Mediterranean, land degradation, environmental hot-spots,

regional mapping, monitoring indicators, participation, capacity building,
sustainable management.

Executive Summary
1. The project focuses on assessing land degradation along the eastern
Mediterranean covering most of Lebanon and western Syria, which
constitute vital socio-economic areas in the Region. It is concerned
with investigating the nature and extent of land degradation processes
as they are becoming crucial to the sustainability of local communities
who are losing land productivity.
2. Detailed work will assess the different causes, using field and remote
sensing techniques, with highly experienced interdisciplinary teams.
This is achieved through partnership and cooperation between the
remote sensing agencies of both countries as project leaders, and the
relevant ministries of agriculture, environment and municipalities.
3. The project serves several purposes including characterization of the
degradation in different micro-climatic zones, i.e. from the coastal
humid, through the mountainous and into the inner dry semi-arid. The
experience can be later applied to other Arab countries. Thematic maps
at different levels of work will be produced. Some will serve for
planning purposes at the level of the decision-maker, others will be for
experts and researchers, and the third will help the community at large.
4. The component of human impact is given high significance as human
interference is a prime factor in the degradation, plus being affected
itself by the consequences. Accordingly, public participation is

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 considered throughout the phases of the project, implemented through
seminars, workshops and interviews.
5. Of course, a general evaluation of the status quo and available data will
be undertaken. This should cover old works, digital coverage and
attribute data on degradation processes, environmental impacts and
socio-economic aspects which would prove useful for the laying out of
maps and identifying change trends. This is also crucial for the
integrated interdisciplinary approach of the project where experts on
databases, remote sensing and GIS, socio-economists,
environmentalists, soil scientists and earth resources people will be
working together.
6. The integrated approach will help identify effective remedial measures
within a proper management plan. Although preventive measures
should be given priority, yet the team and plan would be open to others,
i.e. mitigation and restoration measures as well. These would cover
both technical and policies/institutional sides, assuring that capacity
building and a monitoring program have built in a reliable mechanism
for sustainability of the project, after its termination.
7. Geographic coverage from the coast inland to the edge of the eastern
mountain chain will assure that different physiographic, climatic,
terrain and local communities are represented. Monitoring, mapping
and prioritization will assure covering different criteria to select “hot
spots” and “bright spots”. International standards and geo-indicators on
soil, water and plants will be applied for categorization and
prioritization of those spots, but taking local characteristics into
consideration.
8. Again, output maps will be designed for different stakeholders in order
to make them “user friendly”. Detailed work on stability, erosion, land
use, agro practices, land value and trends of changing patterns will help
determine the remedial measures for the hot spots.
9. The project builds up incrementally to reach the management plan. This
requires training and capacity building for the different stakeholders.
Different types of stakeholders are envisaged, i.e. ministries,
municipalities, NGOs, researchers and private sector. This would
include policy-strategy analysis, the knowledge base needed and
relevant legislation and organization. Aspects and procedures should

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 cover cooperation, technical upgrading, regulations, rehabilitation,
economic incentives and public participatory modalities.
10. Since public participation is important to the project, observation tools,
reflecting on extent of degradation, i.e. indicators, are given for
monitoring by the public. The implementation must be approved by
the concerned stakeholders, and verification procedures are given for
that purpose.
11. Post implementation and sustainability funding can be secured through
local interest groups, and act as seed for encouraging external
support. The project funding of US$ 1,270,000 is proposed to be
shared by the lead agencies in both countries and international
support.
12. The project ascertains two important working issues, one is that it
raises no ethical issues, and two it gives due significance to gender
issues.

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Introduction and literature review
Introduction
Land resources in the eastern Mediterranean have been continuously subject
to increasing human pressures. Several natural and human-induced factors
contribute to the deterioration of land resources in the region. The abundance
of bare and deteriorated lands with shallow soils points to processes of severe
erosion and land degradation.
Analysis of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) shows that considerable
percentage of the Lebanese and Syrian (mainly in the coastal zone) territory
has complex landforms with sloping and rugged lands, implying that steep
slopes are a major physical factor enhancing soil erosion. The torrential
rainfall causes flash floods and erosion, sometimes leading to mass
movements due to poor drainage and weak lithology. Among the oldest direct
human-induced erosion factors are deforestation and degradation of
vegetative cover in the mountains. Forest fires, and chaotic urban sprawl
amplify the negative impact of deforestation thus enhancing soil erosion by
water and wind. Inappropriate irrigation practices and fertilizer application
contribute to the development of soil salinity, not only in the arid and semi-
arid areas, but also in the more humid Mediterranean coastal areas especially
with greenhouse agriculture. Seawater intrusion and mismanagement lead to
deterioration of groundwater quality and soil contamination hazards. An
integrated approach is needed to facilitate the monitoring of land degradation,
extraction of indicators and the elaboration of responsive measures to prevent
and reverse land degradation processes where possible.
Egypt occupies an area of over 1 million square kilometers (km) characterized by
an arid and hyper arid climate. The main agro ecological zones are the north coastal
belts, including the north-west coastal area, the Nile Valley, which encompasses
the fertile alluvial lands of Upper Egypt, the Delta and the reclaimed desert areas
on the fringes of the Nile Valley, the inland Sinai and the Eastern Desert with its
elevated southern areas, and finally the western desert, oases and southern remote
areas. The population is concentrated along the Nile and within the Delta, where
most of the country’s agriculture is practiced.
The area of the coastal zone of Egypt is subject to different types of land
degradation as a result of physical, chemical and biological processes. Land
degradation is due to the low natural resilience of the soil as well as various
environmental and human pressures. The low soil fertility and weak structure are

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due to the overall characteristics of these soils, which are sandy and silty with low
organic matter content. This makes these soils highly vulnerable to wind and water
erosion. With the reclamation of the land, further deterioration of its quality is
occurring as a result of misuse and mismanagement of land resources. Productivity
has been limited, in part, by high salinity levels and by the encroachment of urban
settlements onto previously cultivated lands. The natural protection from coastal
erosion and the formation of coastal lagoons were due to the high sand dunes.
However, coastal erosion is being accelerated by the retreat of the shores resulting
from the insufficient sediment load of the Nile River water discharged into the
Mediterranean Sea. In fact, the erosion rate of the shoreline of the north-west coast
has increased in the past two decades and satellite images show that the areas
already lost to the sea are in the thousands of feddans.
There are soil salinity problems, which are caused by the overexploitation of
groundwater on the fringes of the Coastal Zone of Egypt; in addition, the prevailing
soil resources and the physiography are of low quality, and there are inappropriate
land management practices. Waterlogging, and the mismanagement of irrigation
coupled with restricted drainage conditions are leading to increased soil salinization
and to soil sodicity development.39 Wind and water erosion are aggravating the
problem and leading to a loss of plant cover and genetic resources. In the north-
west coastal zone, the effect of tillage and inappropriate land use is leading to high
annual soil losses (10.6 tons/ha), which are 93 per cent greater than losses
occurring through wind erosion. The use of pesticides and other agricultural
chemicals is leading to the pollution of soils and to serious environmental hazards.
For example, the use of chemical fertilizers increased fourfold in the past two
decades, and the same holds true for herbicides, which are used to control
submerged weeds and water hyacinths in canals and drains.
The expansion of irrigation into desert lands is increasing the pressure on the
available and often nonrenewable groundwater resources. The demand for water
has been increased, due to the high population growth and to the development of
irrigated agriculture, which has further aggravated the conflict for water.
The overexploitation of groundwater resources is leading to an intrusion of
seawater into coastal aquifers and this is causing deterioration of the quality of
water, which is becoming more and more saline. Its use in irrigation further adds
salts to the soil, and this is negatively affecting land productivity. The problem is
more severe in the reclaimed areas of the north-west coast where groundwater is
the main source of freshwater resources.
Over the upcoming decades, the coastal zone of Egypt is expected to be affected by
climate change and a possible sea rise, the overall impact of which will largely
depend on the degree of coastal alterations. An intensified use of land in the coastal
region will inevitably be due to the continued growth of the population. The

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anticipated agricultural intensification and increased land reclamation, irrigation,
urbanization and other activities that negatively affect the soil and water quality
will amplify the negative impact that climate change and sea rise will have on the
area. Land degradation as a result of urban encroachment on the highly fertile
agricultural land is one of the recent problems that have affected the agricultural
sector of Egypt. The expansion of cultivated areas into rangelands and the
cultivation of low productive land, prone to erosion, are causing a substantial loss
in biodiversity and are reducing the grazing lands traditionally used by Bedouins.
This is also affecting the total water balance and as a result might increase soil
erosion.
Libya consists mostly of desert terrain. Only the narrow coastal strip receives sufficient
rainfall to make it suitable for agriculture and this is where ninety three percent of the
population lives. In the coastal belt is where the main agricultural areas are also located.
The study area located in northwest part of Libya, known as the Al-Jifārah plain in, is the
most advanced economic region in the country. Intensive development and population
growth combined with water scarcity during recent years have resulted pollution of the
groundwater aquifers which represent the only dependable water supply of a burgeoning
and expanding economy.

Most of the area has 5–10 inches (125–250 mm) annual rainfall, except for the coastal
area around Tripoli, which has about 15 inches (380 mm). The coastal strip supports
many palm groves; some fruit and grain crops are grown. The central region of the
Jifārah, with a much lower water table, supports only nomadic herding of sheep and
goats. The narrow piedmont area of al-Jifārah (up to about 1,000 feet [300 m] above sea
level), a desert region with scattered oases, is everywhere separated from the Saharan
upland by pronounced scarp ridges, or cuestas

Location
Egypt
Officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, a country in north-eastern Africa bordered
by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Palestinian and the Red Sea to the east,
Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west. The principal geographic feature of the
country is the Nile River. It located between longitude 24.2 and 37.3 E and Latitude
21.3 and 32.1 N. Egypt has a maximum length from north to south of about 1085
km (about 675 mi) and a maximum width, near the southern border, of about 1255
km (about 780 mi). It has a total area of 997,739 sq km (385,229 sq mi).
Geographically, Egypt can be distinguished into four main geographic regions; Nile
Valley & Delta, Sinai Peninsula, Eastern Desert and Western Desert.

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Lebanon
Lybia
Jefara Plain located in Northern west of Libya between Longitude and Altitude
(31.45 – 33.00) and (14.30 – 10.45) started from Gabes Gulf in Tunisia ,west to
Ras-Elmasin Zone in ElKhomes in Libya ,east and Mediterranean sea ,north Nafosa
mountain chain ,south.

Location of study area

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Syria
Tunisia
Tunisian coasts extend over almost 1300 Kms, without considering the shores
of wet zones opening onto the sea. The sandy beaches, located mainly at the
bottom of the bays and gulfs of the eastern façade of the country, extend over
about 575 Kms. In addition, there is a fairly large number of islands and
islets.
The study site is in the village of Korba situated in the north-eastern part of
Tunisia, administratively attached to the Governorate of Nabeul.
Built on a hillside, 20Kms from Nabeul city, Korba is famous for its sandy
beaches its garden market products and its arboriculture.
As consequence, the case study represents un area with many conflicting
pressures which are increasing rapidly.

Localisation of Study Site

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Yemen
The investigated area is extending about 135 km along the Red Sea shoreline
of Yemen. It lies between –longitudes 42º 51' 39" to 42º 57' 15'' E and
latitudes 15º 02' 27'' to 15º 03' 12'' N. The only existing city in the study area
is Hodeidah beside some villages e.g. Nukhaylah, Al-Mandar , Al-jabanah,
Al-Urj. Two main islands are located in the investigated area namely
Mujamilah and Al-Hylla.
Morphology and climate
Egypt
The Northern coast of Egypt extends for about 1050 km from Rafah to the east, on
the Egyptian-Palestinian border, to Sallum in the west, on the Egyptian-Libyan
border. The coastline borders both the Arabian desert and the Sahara, including
the Suez Canal and the Nile delta as the northern gateway to Africa.The total
Northern coastline of Egypt can be divided into three major sub-zones; North
Coast of Nile delta, Northwest Coast and the North Coastal Areas of Sinai (NAP,
2002 and NEP, 2007.
1-Northwest Coast
The Northwest Coast of Egypt forms a belt about 20 Km deep, which extends for
about 500 Km between Amria (20 Km west of Alexandria) and El Salloum near the
borders with Libya.

Physiography
The region can be subdivided into five physiographic areas, each with its own
particular topographical features:

Alexandria to Alamein: The coastal plain is wide and includes three main ridges
running parallel to the coast – a recent coastal ridge covered by sand dunes, and
two old consolidated ridges – with flat depressions in between. The coastal plain
rise to the Maruot Plateau at an elevation of 5-40 m asl.

El Alamein to Ras El Hekma : This is an irregular succession of alternating low

hills and closed depressions, sloping from south (60 m asl) to north (the coastline).
There is an almost continuous range of dunes along the coast.

Ras El Hekma to Ras Abu-Laho: The cliffs of the Libyan Plateau run parallel to
the coast. A discontinuous series of dunes develops at a distance varying from 200
m to 3 Km from the coast. There are some saline depressions in the lower part of

15
the plain, some with outlets to the sea. The escarpment of the plateau is deeply cut
by wadis .

Ras Abu-Laho to Sidi Barrani : This region is characterized by a uniform

topography. The coastal belt of alluvial soils is narrow and intermittent. South of
the coastal belt, a large area of gentle uniform slopes extends up to the Libyan
Plateau.

Sidi Barrani to Salloum : A flat coastal band 2-4 Km wide, is found South of the
dunes, starting some 10 Km east of El Salloum. A few large depressions occur
along the edge of the Libyan Plateau at 200 m asl. Some important wadis dissect
the escarpment, especially southwest of Sidi
Barrani.

Main Climatic Features

The North West coast (NWC) is characterized by dry Mediterranean climate, with
average high and low temp of 18.1 0C and 8.1 0C in the winter and 29.2 0C and 20
0
C in the summer, respectively.
Rainfall in the Northwest Coast ranges between 105.0 mm / yr at ElSalloum and
199.6 mm / yr at Alexandria. Data from eight stations situated near the coastline
show that most of the rainfall (70% or more) occurs within the winter months
(November to February ), mostly during December and January .
There are significant variation in rainfall from one location to another, which is
attributed mainly to the orientation of the coast at these locations. The prevailing
rainfall gradient from north shows that the average mean decreases sharply from
150 mm near the coast to 50 mm at 20-70 Km inland. The NWC area has the
highest average wind speed in Egypt in the winter where wind speed could reach
18.5 Km/hr. Wind speed drops gradually inland.

2- North Coastal Areas of Sinai

Physiography
The northern strip to depth of about 5 Km from the shore line has a very gentle
slope in south / north direction reaching about 20 m asl in the southern parts. Then
a medium slope develops towards inlands reaching elevations of 90 m asl. The
physiography of North Sinai sub-zone is characterized by the Tina Plain in the east
which is formed of Nile alluvial deposits in the lowest lying areas of Sinai. In the
middle is the Bardaeweel lagoon (Shallow Lake). South of
Bardaweel extend desert plains with large areas of sand dune belts and sand sheets.
The eastern parts of the coastal areas have the highest average rainfall in Egypt. It
is dissected by the largest wadi in Sinai, Wadi Al Arish, which emerges from

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elevated gravelly plains and terraces in the south to a distance of about 20 Km till
the Mediterranean Sea coast.

Climatic Features
North Sinai areas are characterized by the dry Mediterranean climate type with
relatively rainy, cool winters and dry hot summers. Air temperatures are similar to
those of the NWC but with large variations diurnally, seasonally and
geographically. The annual wind speed is around 14.0 Km/hr and the prevailing
wind direction is north-west and north. The amount of rainfall in Sinai decreases
from the north-east towards the south-west. The greatest amount of rainfall is found
in Rafah (304 millimeters / yr.) in the north-east. The annual average along the
Mediterranean coast amounts to 120 mm / yr. Rainfall decreases in the uplands to
the south to about 32 mm / yr. On the whole, the average annual rainfall in the
entire Sinai Peninsula is 40 millimeters, of which 27 millimeters are estimated to
come from individual storms that may provide 10 millimeters at a time.
Rainfall occurs in Sinai mainly during the winter season (November to March) and
during spring or fall. Rainfall is practically absent from May to October. Along the
Mediterranean Coast, 60% of the rain occurs in the winter, while 40% falls during
the transitional seasons. Due to differences in water availability, growing seasons
differ in the different parts of the Governorate of North Sinai.

Lebanon
Lebanon is an east Mediterranean country enjoying a mild winter and hot
summer on the coastal area, with subtropical cold winter and dry summer in
the mountains. The annual precipitation is between 600 and 1200 mm with a
semi arid area in the Northeast Bekaa where it is less than 300 mm. The
country consists of a narrow coastal plain, and two parallel mountain chains,
the western and eastern, separated by the Bekaa plain. Lebanon has a complex
geomorphology of mainly hilly and mountainous slopes dominated by hard
limestone rocks.
Libya
Al-Jifārah slopes southward from the Mediterranean coast up to the tableland
of the Sahara in three distinct regions. In the north is a narrow, low, coastal
strip characterized by sandy beaches and many small hollows covered with
sabkhah (saline plains with small lakes in the rainy season). South of this is a
gently rolling area of steppe vegetation, varying in elevation from about 160
to 650 feet (50 to 200 m) above sea level. The southernmost region is a
piedmont at the foot of the Saharan upland, known in Libya as the Nafūsah

17
Plateau. In Tunisia this tableland sends out a long north-south spur that forms
the western border of the coastal plain.
Climate
The Mediterranean Sea and Sahara Desert are the dominant climatic
influences in Libya. In the coastal lowlands, where 80 percent of the
population lives, the climate is Mediterranean, with warm summers and mild
winters. The climate in the desert interior is characterized by very hot
summers and extreme diurnal temperature ranges.

Summer temperatures in the north range from 26.7° C to 32° C. The ghibli, a
hot, dry, dust-laden desert wind, which can last one to four days, can change
temperatures by 17° C to 22° C in both summer and winter. Precipitation
ranges from light to negligible. Less than 2 percent of the country receives
enough rainfall for settled agriculture.

The mount areas of the north receive a yearly average of 381 to 508
millimetres. Other regions get less than 203 millimetres. Rain usually falls
during a short winter period and frequently causes floods. Winters can be
bitterly cold, with temperatures below 0° C. Frost and snowfalls sometimes
occur in the mountains. Evaporation is high, and severe droughts are
common.

Libya is vulnerable to climate change because of prevailing arid and semi-

arid climate conditions, recurrent droughts, inequitable land distribution,
and overdependence on rainfed agriculture. Precipitation is the main
parameter of climate, which may control the socio-economic prospects. It
begins usually in autumn to winter, which is the rainiest season and end is
spring, while a negligible precipitation occurs in summer. High precipitation
variabilities and severe precipitation intensities over Libya may cause severe
moisture stress on cultivated crops and reduce yields. As a common rule,
precipitation in arid and semi-arid areas has in most cases negative effects.
Due to high temperatures, most water evaporates without any benefit to
agriculture, whereas a small percentage of precipitation only infiltrates to
groundwater. (EL-TANTAWI, 2003)

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 Source: Metrological Department

Figure 2.3. Climate map of Libya

Syria
Geomorphologically, Syrian coastal region can be divided into 5 main
geomorphological areas: shore –line, coastal plain, hilly areas, river valleys,
and mountainous areas.

There are 2 major plains in the zone, Jableh-Latakia plain in the north
(approximately 50 x 10 km) and Akkar plain in the south (very narrow near
Tartous, more than 10 km wide toward the border with Lebanon). Both plains
gently slope toward the sea. Thus, most rivers and wadis run towards the west
or southwest carrying fluviatile deposits.

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East to the first coastal mountain chain, there is one major plain in the country
called Al- Ghab plain which is mainly used for agricultural purposes. It is
located in between the two coastal mountainous chains.
Millennia of combined effort of the forces of sea and wind have produced
very long and broad beaches along the coastline. They run all the way from
Latakia to the Lebanese border, with relatively short interruptions south of
Jableh and south of Banias. The longest beaches, the one south of Latakia and
the other one south of Tartous, are almost 1 km deep (wide), more than 15 km
long, and combined with impressive belts of sand-dunes in the background.

Climatically, The entire coastal region belongs to the Mediterranean humid or

subtropical types of climate, with the amount of rainfall and temperature
gradually increasing from the west to the east and decreasing from the higher
to the lower slopes of the coastal mountains and from north to south down the
Bassit block (PAP/RAC, 1990). Thus, a general characteristic of the coastal
zone is a combination of high temperature and medium amount of rainfall.
The annual temperature averages for Latakia and Tartous are almost 20 oC, as
compared to 12.5 oC for Slenfeh, in the mountainous hinterland (Climatic
Atlas of Syria, 1977, and Eid 2004).
Temperature: The coldest month in Syria is January, while the hottest month
is August in the coastal area. The mean monthly temperature values increase
continuously after January to reach their maximum during July. In the coastal
area, the mean monthly temperatures range from 10 to 12o C in January and
up to 26o C in July. In the mountainous regions these values drop to 4 to 6o C
in January and to 20 to 22o C in July. The average maximum temperature in
the coastal area ranges from 15 to 17o C in January to 28 to 29o C in July. In
the mountainous regions they vary from 6 to 8o C in January to 24 to 26o C
during summer. The highest minimum temperatures are found in the coastal
plain with 6 to 8o C in January, in the coastal mountains these values are 2 to
4 o C.
Rain fall: In Syria, rainfall distribution and reliability are mainly affected by
the seasonal routes of the Atlantic cyclones passing eastwards along the
Mediterranean.
The rainfall season usually begins in September over the coastal area and
reaches the maximum in December and January. The season extends till June.
The precipitation amount in the coastal area reaches values of 850-860 mm
over the coastal low land. In the coastal mountains the annual average of the

20
rainfall increases gradually with increasing elevation to reach a maximum of
1500-1600 mm at the ridges of the mountains.

Tunisia
 Morphology
The cap bon peninsula corresponds to an anticline structure known under the
name of “anticline of Jebel Abderrahman” or “Oued chiba”.
The mio-Plecenous stratigraphy series is presented by a succession of marly
beaches, sandstone or sand.
The anticline of Jebel Abderrahman is lined on the East-West sides by two
synclines essentially composed by marly layers: the synclines of Takelsa on
the West and Dakhla in the East.
The anticline of Jebel Abderrahman constitutes, in fact, a set of mountains of
600m height. These various reliefs are subjected to severe erosion.
Indeed, the heart of the anticline which should present the maximum
convexity was eroded by oued Chiba to from an egg-shaped anticline having
15 km long and 7 km width. This anticline is cut in Eocenous marls.
 Climate
The Korba region belongs to the Mediterranean Bioclimatic class, which is
semi-arid and having a warm winter. Like all the Mediterranean regions, the
climate has got 4 seasons. Korba region is characterised by a hot summer and
a warm winter with an irregular pluviometry.
Temperature
The averaged temperatures as well as the maxima and minima recorded
in the Nabeul station are detailed in the table below.

Monthly temperature Precipitations related to the meteorological station of Nabeul

The maxima are recorded during the period form June to September.
The minima correspond to the period from December to march (see figure
below). We notice that the extreme temperatures can reach 37.6°C in august.
The extreme minus temperatures reach 7.5°C in January. The temperatures

21
 show a thermic contrast between a hot and dry summer and a cold and humid
winter.

Precipitation

The area of Korba has a precipitation average situated between 400 and
500mm per year. The rainiest months of the year are from September to April
and the driest from June to August. These climatic conditions are favourable
to bathing in summer. The following table represents the monthly values of
the precipitation in Nabeul station

Wind Monthly Precipitations related to the meteorological station of Nabeul 1997

Wind

The dominant winds are NW-EW. They can be violent and exceed 20m/s.

Month jan Febr march april may june july aug sept oct nov dec
Direction WNW WNW WNW W ENE NW NNW WNW NNW SW WNW WNW
Speed(m/s) 28 26 30 24 27 22 21 19 22 30 25 26

Monthly maximum absolute wind (Nabeul station) (2002)

22
 Yemen
The Hodeidah study area lies in the Tihama coastal plain which is a part
of the tectonically formed Red Sea coast. The plain is almost sandy desert,
gently sloping and slightly undulating from the base of the foothills of the
Western Highlands to the Red Sea. It is occasionally dissected by wadis
(Wadi Siham and Wadi Nakhla); the downstream of them are located near the
shoreline. Commonly the upper boundary of the coastal area is marked by a
zone of perennial vegetation and dunes. In the Kwar Katib, Al-Urj, Al-Hylla
and Al-Mandar; the mangrove and seagrasses are located.
The area is characterized by a hot summer and warm winter. The air
temperature and the evaporation rate are high in summer months (June to
September). In Hodeidah city the maximum value of air temperature in
summer is 43ºC and the minimum value is 26.6ºC. Table (1) shows the
distribution of the temperatures during the period of 2004-2007. In the winter
months (November to February) the lowest values are reaching 17.8ºC in
January and the highest values are reaching 33.9ºC in November (Figure 1).
The rainfall is usually very sparse; it is mostly in the form of showers of
short interval often associated with thunderstorms and occasionally with some
dust storms. The monthly rainfall distribution is reported in table (2), showing
that the annual precipitation in the investigated area ranges from 4 mm in
winter to 50 mm in summer, most of which occurs during August and
September and from December to April. Relative humidity is a convenient
means of expressing the dryness or wetness of air. Along the main land of the
coastal zone, the humidity is usually rather lower than over the sea. Relative
humidity in the study area reaches its maximum value in winter (81 %) and its
minimum value in summer (68 %).

Table (1) Monthly Mean Air Temperatures (Degree C°)

Mo
nth De
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov.
Element c.
Maximum 30.6 30.9 33.4 35.9 37.4 38.8 38.9 38.1 37.5 36.1 33.9 32.5
2004 Minimum 17.8 20.5 24.2 26.9 28.1 28.2 28.4 27.1 26.1 24.2 21.5 19.1
Mean 24.2 25.7 28.7 31.5 32.7 33.5 33.6 32.6 32.0 30.2 27.7 25.8
Maximum 31.5 31.4 32.7 34.6 35.0 37.1 38.3 37.7 36.2 34.4 32.5 30.8

23
 Minimum 19.3 20.8 23.9 25.1 36.3 27.8 28.3 29.9 26.3 25.1 23.3 22.7
2005
Mean 25.5 26.1 28.1 29.9 30.7 32.4 33.3 33.7 31.3 29.8 27.8 26.7
Maximum 30.2 31.2 32.2 34.5 36.0 36.4 37.9 36.9 36.5 34.9 32.6 30.7
Minimum 21.0 23.5 25.0 26.2 28.0 29.2 30.3 29.0 27.8 25.7 22.4 21.6
2006
Mean 25.5 26.9 27.9 29.9 32.0 32.5 33.6 32.5 32.3 30.1 27.5 26.1
Maximum 30.7 31.3 32.9 34.8 36.5 37.2 38.5 38.2 36.8 35.3 32.5 31.0
Minimum 18.5 22.8 23.5 25.8 28.1 28.3 28.9 29.1 28.2 25.1 22.3 21.8
2007
Mean 25.4 26.1 28.3 29.9 32.3 32.8 33.7 32.6 32.5 30.4 27.4 26.2

The maximum value of wind speed recorded at Hodeidah station is

observed in July (11 Knots; KT) and the minimum one (8.6 KT) is observed
through October with annual mean 9.5 KT. Wind speed at the study area is
generally weak. The surface wind is mostly warm and may be loaded by
sandy and /or muddy dust.

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
Tide (m)

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Months

Figure (2) Diagram of tidal current values during year

The tide is essentially oscillatory semi-diurnal. The high spring in the

summer reach to (0.8) m and the low (-0.1) m with an average (0.3) m. In
winter the spring range is -1.4 m and the low is 0.4 m with an average 0.7 m.
Figure (2) shows the annual change of the tide. The high tide is 1.5 m in
January (winter) and low tide 0.4 m. In September (summer) the high tide is
1.0 m and the low tide is -0.2 m.
The water temperature varied form winter (average 27.5oC) and

24
summer (average 38oC) in the Hodeidah coastal area. The pollution in the
investigated area is need to study of the soil and shallow marine water and
sediment near the Hodeidah port, sewage outfall, industrial and domestic
waste disposal sites.
Soil information
Egypt
The North Coastal of Egypt including the following soil information.

1- Soil of the North West coastal:

Soil types and properties are highly influenced by geomorphic and pedogenic
factors. The main soil units could be summarized as follows:
• Coastal oolitic sand dunes.
• Soils of the lagoonal depressions.
• Consolidated dunes.
• Deep sand and clay loam soils.
• Moderate to limited depths of sandy to clay loam.
• Wind blown formations.
• Soils of the alluvial fans and outwash plains over the plateau.
Water resources are mainly that of rainfall, groundwater resources are limited and
usually of low quality especially with respect to varied salinity content.

2- North Coastal Areas of Sinai

The desert soils of northern Sinai are of three different origins: aeolian, alluvial and
soil formed in situ. The latter is related to land form and is found in the plateau
region of Wadi Al Arish on either calcareous or volcanic parent material. The
majority of alluvial soils were formed under recent climatic conditions. They
constitute the present wadi beds and they are characterized by a granulometric
differentiation according to flood intensities and sedimentation times. As a
consequence, soils in the upstream of the wadis are coarser in texture than the soils
further downstream. In the dune area the soils are generally different than in the
gravel plain. The dune area is dominated by soils with almost no signs of soil
forming processes. Saline soils are found exclusively in the coastal zone. Haplic
calciosols dominant the desert region in the gravel plains (El-Shaer and El-Morsy,
2008).
The Tina plain in the west was formed of alluvial Nile deposits as a natural
extension of the old Nile Valley. The soils are heavy textured with high salinity
contents due to water logging condition attributed to the near-sea and low lying

25
location. Water resources are varied; Rainfall water with possible runoffs if the
rainfall exceeds 10 mm per rainy storm. When runoff occurs wadi beds will begin
to carry water depending on the amount and duration of rainfall. It is estimated that
60 percent of the mean rainfall in Sinai is lost to evpotranspiration. Groundwater in
Sinai may be classified into two types. Shallow groundwater, occurs mainly within
weathered layer of igneous and metamorphic rocks, quaternary rock, recent
deposits such as wadi fill or sediments and sand dunes. Deep groundwater mainly
occurs as semi – confined aquifers of per-Quaternary formation. Groundwater
resources in the North Coastal area are limited in nature and in general of low
quality. A third water resource is being introduced to the area, namely “ Al Salam
Canal” which will convey mixed Nile and agricultural drainage water across the
Suez Canal to reclaim 400,000 feddans in Northern Sinai.

Lebanon
Early attempts of soil mapping focused on the use of aerial photos to produce
small scale reconnaissance maps (Geze, 1952) and analyze the landscape
pattern developed over specific substratum (Verheye, 1988). More recent
studies used remotely sensed data to update soil information (Darwish et al.,
2002) and to asses land resources for large-scale soil studies and mapping
(Darwish, 1999). Other studies monitored land vulnerability to water soil
erosion, erosion pressure, movement of geologic and soil materials (Faour et
al., 1999; Boukheir et al., 2001a), and pollutants movement in karstic rugged
mountainous areas (Khawlie et al., 2002). Obviously, there are several
reasons behind the deteriorating soil cover, which constitute a hazard that can
be dealt with through the European DPSIR system (Driving forces, Pressures,
Status, Impact and Response).
Libya

Soils in western Libya (from Tunisia to Misurata in the east) are: inceptisols
and entisols (49.1 %), aridisols (11.5 %), salorthids (10.7 %) and sandy soils
(3 %; UNEP, et al., 1996: 266). Sandy soils bear more developed vegetation
with a more regular and higher primary productivity than finer textured soils.
Thus, profitably and commercials cultivated rainfed olive orchards are grown
on deep sandy soils under as little precipitation as 200 mm/year in Tripoli
area, but this is not possible without an additional runoff complement on silt
soils (LE HOU´EROU, 2001: 108).

26
Soil salinization and alkalization occurs in the case of irrigated lands, with
inadequate leaching of salts contained in the soil or added in irrigation water.
Salinization and alkalization of soils prevail on the northwestern Al-Jifārah
Plain where soils are converted to saline soils by the salinity of groundwater
used for irrigation and the result of faulty technology in water development
schemes such as using too salty water on too heavy soils and insufficient
drainage or even no drainage at all (LE HOU´EROU, 1977: 21).
Syria
Red soils are overwhelming in both coastal plains (Jableh and Akkar). These
soils contain clay and loam, and vary in depth. However, the coastal zone, i.e.
in the two plains, their depth usually goes to 1 m or more. The soils of highest
quality can be found in the western parts of the Jableh and Akkar agricultural
plains which have largely benefited from the combinations of factors such as
favorable climate, abundance of groundwater, easy access to agricultural
mechanization, easy transport and the existing infrastructure network.
In general, Latakia soils can be divided into main five groups (GORS, 1991)
coastal plain soils, piedmont soils, summit soils, river bed soils, and forest
soils.
According to the land directorate in Tartous, There are seven soil types:
Alluvial soils, Hill soils, Valley and Drainage Soils, Low Mountain Soils,
High Mountain Soils, Steep Slope soils and Summit Soils (Darwish et al.,
1986).
Tunisia
On the oriental hillside of the cap bon and more particularly in the region of
Korba, we can distinguish the following sets.
 Ancient glacis: the high zones corresponding to glacis of erosion are
occupied by limestone and fragments of red grounds. On the other
hand, the low zones corresponding to glacis of accumulation are
occupied by deep soils: brown limestone grounds.
 The glacis connection to the thyrrehenien dune (red soils); on the
hillsides of thyrrhenien dunes and on the ancient glacies close to the
sea, the Mediterranean red soils meet. They rest on the encrusted
dune. These soils have a rough texture, a stable structure and a good
porosity

27
  The tyrrherienne dune: except the red soils, observed on its hillside
and in the intermediate depressions, the tyrrhenienne dune presents
very eroded limestone soils.
 The coastal area: the shore is lined with a fringe of salted soils
situated between the coast and the tyrrhenienne dune

Yemen
Several units of environments are associated with the Hodeidah study
coastal area. These environments are Wadi plain, downstream, Coastal plain
and sabkha.the soil in these units are variable. The wadi plain soil vary in
texture containing sand, mud and some gravel (cobble, pebble and granular);
showing well rounded, spherical and elongated shape and poorly sorted
grains. The distribution of the soil is maily fine sand and mud in the
downstream area. The soil in the coastal dunes is mainlyfine sand; it is related
to wind regime and direction. The distribution of soil of the sabkha (gravely
and sand, mainly poorly sorted) is related to types of source sediments. The
sand fractures are related to continental source while the gravels are related to
marine source.
Soil degradation is deterioration in the physical and chemical properties
of the soil due to environmental change causing soil erosion, loss of fertility
and salinization. The increase of coastal dunes, sabkha and saltmarsh area
affected the soil.

A. Driving forces
1. Urban encroachment

Egypt
Population densities in some areas along the Nile River are greater than 1,000
people per square kilometer. Egypt’s population has increased more than seven
folds from 11 million in 1907 to almost 77 million at the beginning of the year
2008.
Rapid population growth is straining natural resources as agricultural land is being
lost to urbanization. The pressure of an increasing population combined with the
scarcity of cultivable land, leads farmers to demand more from the land than it can

28
yield. The pressure increases all the more rapidly as the spatial growth of human
settlements, especially cities, takes a direct toll on the surrounding land resources:
based on FAO data it has been estimated for instance that between 1973 and 1985
Egypt lost 13 % of its farmland to urban sprawl. It is commonly said that the land
developed thanks to the Aswan Dam merely compensates for that loss to
urbanization (UN, 2007).

Lebanon
Rapid chaotic urban growth is one of the principal causes of desertification
in the Mediterranean area (Eswaran, 1997). This is particularly true in
Lebanon where the total urbanized areas exceed 646 km2, or 6.3% of the
Lebanese territory. The most important urban agglomerations are
concentrated on the coastal zone, where 19.3% of the country comprises
47% of the total urbanized area (Dar-Iaurif, 2002).
The urbanized area has increased more than two fold, about 2.36 times,
from 254 km2 in 1963 to 599 km2 in 1998 in and around Beirut. Urban
sprawl encroached on agricultural land near the coastal cities Tripoli,
Sidon, Tyre and invaded the forested mountain slopes overlooking the
coastal plains, e.g. Jounieh bay. The average rate of annual urban sprawl
encroachment on natural and agricultural land is 10 km2 (ECODIT-
IAURIF, 1996).
Moreover, on the coastal zone of Lebanon, 225 km length and 8 km width,
more than 24% of the terrain is urbanized (Huybrechts, 1997). The
integration of remote sensing and GIS provides an efficient way to monitor
changes, thus contributing to environmental assessment of land
degradation. This is reflected in the multi temporal image analysis of the
second largest Lebanese city Tripoli and surrounding, located in north
Lebanon, between 1984 and 1997. It reveals that the urban area increased
about 51% with a simultaneous expansion of grassland/degraded land to
about 61%, and a decrease of olive plots and horticulture land of about
34% and 61%, respectively (Darwish et al., 1999a). The intersection of
land use and soil capability maps of Tripoli area showed a mean loss of
43% of best productive lands. This loss of natural resources implies
threatening the productivity, the quality of life and non-sustainability for
coming generations (Darwish et al., 2004).

29
Syria
The main characteristics and problems related to the population of the
coastal zone are the high population growth and the high population
density in the coastal zone. Population growth rates are indeed very high.
The distribution of population over the coastal region points at the
significance of intra-regional migrations, from mountains and hilly areas
towards the coastal plains, or in or around cities. Furthermore, with the
exception of the area of Damascus, the coastal region is the most densely
populated region in Syria, which is a direct consequence of the high
population growth and migration dynamics. The highest population
densities are in the coastal cities.
From satellite images we can see clearly that 90 % of the urban areas are
falling in the coastal plain with an area of 80.48 km2 (about 11% of the
lower coastal plain) which is the fertile arable land. This land is used from
hundreds years for agriculture. It is wise to keep this land for agriculture
and look for less fertile land for urban expansion.

Tunisia
The coastal landscapes of Korba are facing an increasing human-induced
pressures including population increase, overgrazing and tourism
development.
During the last decade, the Mediterranean basin and specially the costal
zones faced several kinds of environment degradation. The coastal zones of
Korba were dominated by the urban and touristic infrastructure extension. In
the same case, we note an increase in the agriculture and industry
development that involve an overexploitation of water resources. Then, this
development affects and aggravates the sensibility and the vulnerability of
this fragile ecosystem.
Thus, the management of the coastal ecosystem environment needs a
global comprehension of the relationship between coastal resources, their
exploitation and their evolution.
The increase of tourism and industrial activity induce conflicted
consumption of water resources and area. This pressure engenders and affects
the natural environment by hydric throwing out, solid wastes, atmospheric

30
pollution, land uses, surface and ground water consumption and supply.

Yemen
The urban areas (Hodeidah city, towns and villages) increase during the
period (1972- now). The Hodeidah city increase toward the east (dune and
barren plain area) where the beach, mangrove area and tidal flat were affected
by the human activities. Some national security sites (such as port, power
station and harbors) are constructed on the beach of the study area. Some of
these constructions are affected on the habitats in the shallow marine and
beach area.

2. Land cover change

Egypt
Land cover / land use changes are very dynamic in nature and have to be monitored
at regular intervals for sustainable environment development. The monitoring of
land use/land cover changes along the northern part of the Northern Coastal of
Egypt is very important for the planner, management, government and non-
government organizations, and the scientific community. This information is
essential for planning and implementing policies to optimize the use of natural
resources, and accommodate development while minimizing the impact on the
environment. Therefore, there is severe pressure and demand, dictated by the
growing population, on this limited area of agricultural land. The demand of this
growing population for housing, utilities, services and infrastructure has been
steadily taking away valuable acreages of land from this limited agricultural area. A
loss estimated to be at the rate of about 30,000 acres per year, makes this problem a
very serious one if let uncontrolled. Therefore, land use patterns are constantly
changing, commonly with agricultural land being converted to urban use.
If land in Egypt, both in this traditional agricultural area and in desert type areas, is
to be allocated to its most appropriate use, planners must have two types of
information: information on current land use patterns; and information on potential
land capability. In the first case satellite data, with the aid of computer
categorization and classification and supplemented by ground truth data, proved to
be a valuable tool in providing up-to-date information on regional land use patterns.
Also, repetitive satellite coverage proved to be very helpful in monitoring changes.
In the second case, satellite data, with aircraft and field observations, can provide
valuable information on soil types, potential groundwater resources, mineral

31
resources, and other parameters, which can be used, in conjunction with
information from other sources through GIS application. The main objective is to
determine suitability of other non-agricultural areas and establishing new
communities away from the limited valuable agricultural area.

Lebanon
Recent analysis of land cover change between 1963 and 1998 at country
level shows an augmentation of barren and deserted land from 1076 km2 to
4370 km2 (Masri et al., 2002). During the same period, all types of green
cover diminished according to the following proportions: Forest 32%,
citrus 35%, olives 31%, vineyards 82% and fruit trees 72%. These changes
are explained by climatic factors, socio-economic conditions and market
conditions.
The largest forest decrease is noticed in the inland semi-arid zone around
El-Bekaa plain. Increasing rate of land cover deterioration can be
attributed to natural causes, like the decrease in precipitation, and
anthropogenic causes revealed by socio-economic pressures since the late
fifties. Those pressures have especially affected limited access to
rangeland on the eastern mountain chain, as well as not very productive
land in poor forest areas, thus creating hot spots. On the contrary, more
favorable climate, added to better economic conditions of Mount Lebanon
region, have probably helped its population in preserving some, and even
enhanced forestry areas (bright spots).
Change detection study in the Bekaa Valley, the richest agricultural zone
of Lebanon, using two landsat images (1987 and 2000) pressed the need
for land cover change monitoring in Lebanon (Jomaa and Khawlie, 2002).
It was demonstrated that during recent years, drastic changes in land cover
systems have taken place in the area. Land degradation reflected, as bare
lands and rocks developing on the surface, represent the largest category
among the degradation classes. Analysis of NDVI showed a 40% decrease
in the vegetation cover within the study area. Moreover, the supervised
classification used demonstrated a high increase in urbanization that
reached in some cases 80% or more between the two years.
Syria
The natural land cover of the coastal area in Syria is similar to those
natural covers in all Mediterranean countries. According to morphology of
the land in the coastal zone, the vegetation cover can be divided into strips.

32
 The first strip till 600 to 800 meter above sea level: most of this category
land are arable land where crops, legumes, tobacco, citrus, fruit trees,
olives and figs. Pinus L. and Quercus L.. Some ever green species also can
be found like Quercus calliprinus and Myrtus comminus and others.
The second strip from 800 to 2000: the main vegetation cover in this strip
is Pinus L. and Quercus L. Most of this vegetation cover either it is cut or
it is degraded.
The upper strip from 1200 up: the main vegetation covers of this strip are
Cedrus libani, Fruxinus L., Cedrus libani, Fraxinus L., Sorbus torminalis
and others. At the top of the mountain near Slenfeh Cedrus libani and
Abies cilicica can be found accompanied with other wide leaves species.
The main problems in the first strip (plain area) is the urbanization
encroachment on the fertile arable land as well as the mismanagement of
irrigation water and the misusage of fertilizers and pesticides.
In second and third strips the main problems are more related to
agricultural practices and mismanagement of the natural resources. From
the bad agricultural practices: planting with direction of contour lines
without terraces. The mismanagement of the natural resources can be
presented in forest cut, forest fire….

Tunisia
In the case of Cap Bon, agriculture is predominant even if the tourism
sector has grown enormously during the last decades on the coastal front.
Most of the interior of Cap Bon is dedicated to agriculture (where the
terrain permits such practice) or represents natural/semi-natural soils,
primarily where the topography is rugged. The coast, on the other hand,
represents a mosaic of land-uses with typical coastal regions biotopes.
Depending on the topography, a substantial portion has been converted to
cultivated land. The areas which are not appropriate for cultivation are
dedicated to pasture. Large and flat plains are mostly cultivated for cereal
or extensive olive plantations; more manageable parcels of land are used
for crops and orchards. The coastal stretch between Nabeul and Korba, is
quite rural in character and mainly cultivated with olives and crops. An
apparent pressure on the coastal areas of the promontory is development,
from privately owned dwellings and extensive complexes for recreation
and leisure.

33
 Yemen
The landcover changes in the study area are located by cultivated land,
coastal dune, sabkha wit land and habitate (coral, mangrove and seagrasses).
The cultivated land increased in the downstream areas of the Wadi Nakhal
and Wadi Siham. The coastal sabkha basins represent one of the most
common environmental type in the backshore zone where cover an estimated
12 km2 from the land of the study area. the surface of the sabkhas is divided
into two subunits; wet and dry sabkha. The sabkha have decreased over
barren and sparsely vegetated plains in Hodeidah study area affected by the
movement of the coastal dune.
The shoreline change of the Hodeidah study area is concentrated in the
spits and island sand as well as in some other small parts taking the direction
NW-SE. According to causative factors two types of the shoreline change
were recognized: natural shoreline change and human shoreline change. The
natural shoreline changes are related by wave, current and tide.

B. Pressure
1. Forest fires
Lebanon
Forest fires are still one of the major threats to land cover in Lebanon. A
total number of 1413 forest fire events took place in 1997 alone. The
reason behind forest fire initiation can be attributed more to neglect and
mismanagement than to natural causes (Masri, 1998). Mapping forest fire
prone areas in broadleaved and coniferous Lebanese areas revealed that
only 8 km2 on the southern exposure slope of western Mount Lebanon
chain belong to “very high and high” potential hazard, while 183 km2 on
the northern aspect were classified as “low to medium risk” category areas
(Masri et al., 2003).
Syria
Similar to Lebanon, forest fire in Syria is also one of the major causes of
forest area decrement. Based on the statistics of Forestry directorates in

34
 Syria (1993), there are 786 fire in Lattakia, 166 fires in Al- Ghab, 385 fires
in Hama, 434 fires in Idleb and 800 fires in Tartous. reasons behind forest
fires can be attributed to neglect, mismanagement, man smoking, random
tourism, Hunting, electricity lines, burning agricultural residuals and
children. Natural causes can be considered as negligible causes compare to
the man derived causes.
Tunisia
Fire has a long history in Mediterranean landscapes and can be considered to
be an integral process in the evolution of cultural landscapes. Fires occur
naturally in the Mediterranean climate. Aside from naturally occurring fires,
however, fire may also result from a variety of anthropogenic
activities/processes, such as landfills, burning of vegetation for agricultural
purposes, and deliberate actions such as arson. According to climate change
predictions, Mediterranean region will become drier. Fire is increasingly a
threat and deliberately set fires may easily spread out of control and result in
the destruction of expanses of natural vegetation. Recommendations therefore
include the strict control of activities that may lead to fire, primarily during
the drier months in areas where seasonal vegetation (e.g. grasses) is dry and
prone to fire. This should also be accompanied by widespread educational
campaigns and strict monitoring and surveillance.

Yemen
The mangroves are distributed in the tidal flats in the north and south of
the Hodeidah city and al-Urj a but high concentrated in the Kwar Katib. Two
species mangrove characterized the study area, Avicennia marina and
Rhizophora mucronata(Figures 3 & 4). The mangrove area has decreased

35
 4
3

Figure (3) Avicennia marina mangrove in the Al-Urj tidal flat

Figue (4) Rhizophora Mucronata mangrove to the north of Hodeidah

toward shoreline. This decreasing is related mainly to the camels grazing

and to cutting for different purposes.
Patch reefs are massive and soft coral reefs where massive living Porites sp.,
Acropora sp. and Fungiia sp. are dominante. Fragments of Stylophora sp.,
Pocillopora sp. and Acropora sp. are located in the sandy onshore of Al-Urj
and in the west of Hodeidah city. The coral reef and seagrasses changes may be
related by diving, fishing and global climatic change. The decreased wit land
(tidal flat) is ralted to Human activities, where concentrated in the southern side
of Hodeidah and Ras Katib.

2. Land pollution
Egypt
Before the construction of the Aswan High Dam a few decades ago,
agricultural productivity in the old Nile Valley and Delta was renowned

36
 for its excellent quality and high productivity. Application of high doses of
naturally produced organic fertilizers with few complementing chemical
fertilizers were perfected and practiced as long standing farm traditions.
After the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the seventies, there has
been a sharp reduction in the sediments load carried by the Nile water.
This has been one of the negative consequences of the construction of the
High Dam since these sediments that are rich in the nutrients are lost. The
farmers use more intensive mineral fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides
to increase productivity in the same farm unit especially after the
liberalization of prices of agricultural products. The use of pesticides
increased in Egypt from 2143 tons in the fifties up to 11700 tons in 1990.
The causes of soil and water pollution come from many sources including:
the dumping of industrial waste water in to irrigation canals, the seepage of
some sewage water with low treatment levels, chemical fertilizers and the
residues of applied insecticides and pesticides (Bahna, et al., 2006). The
pollution in the soil and water are directed and indirected increasing
human diseases. Also, As a result of atmospheric pollution many
contaminants tend to precipitate into the River Nile. In addition to this
contamination there is treated sewage water and agricultural drainage
water that is fed to the Nile containing fertilizers and pesticides and
therefore deteriorating the major source of irrigation water which
consequently has an effect on the lands that will be irrigated.
Lebanon
A numerical morphometric approach in karstic regions defined conduit
flows or conduit/fracture orientations, and proved a genetic connection
between all routing systems causing the ease of pollutants transmitted by
water from surface to subsurface media (Shaban et al., 2000). The coastal
rugged mountainous area in Lebanon is highly karstified, as revealed
through detailed fieldwork, and is usually under heavy pressure from
tourism and human interference. This implies the likelihood of water
pollution, thus water becomes non-usable, and yet it is difficult to trace
that pollution through the carts (Khawlie et al., 2000). To do that requires
obtaining multi-layers of data reflecting both the characteristics of the
terrain like geology, slopes, soil cover, drainage, hydrogeology, and
human interference like landuse, administrative boundaries, roads network,
etc. (Khawlie et al., 2002).

37
 On the other hand, industry, manufacturing and agricultural activities
result in slight accumulation of some heavy metals in the soil with possible
contamination of sediments and water resources with Ni, Cr and nitrates in
some limited areas of Central Bekaa plain (Darwish et al., 1999b). Excess
fertilizers input coupled with poor rotation, low water and fertilizer
efficiency resulted in increased nitrate content in the soil and possibly
groundwater (CNRS/NCRS, ACSAD and BGR, 1997-2003). The soil
protection effectiveness and its shielding effect from the possible heavy
metal transfer to deeper soil and aquifer layers need an assessment. This is
due to the high nitrate concentration found in the arable lands at 5 m depth
and the high nitrate concentration in deep wells, which need to be
evaluated for human consumption and irrigation according to the
international norms (WHO, 1993; FAO, 1985; ISO, 5667-11, 1995)

Syria
Regular analysis of water and sediments showed that the following
pollutants are available in different watersheds in Syria with different
severity. The following major conclusions could be made on the basis of
the interpretation of the water quality data.
- Due to irrigation there is an early onset of salinization in the coastal
agricultural plain indicated by sodium in sediment and an increase in
the Specific Conductivity of the water.
- Nickel and chromium are high in some rivers sediment. High
chromium levels are probably due to leather tanning, and both
elements are increased as a result of metal plating activities.
- Phosphorus levels are extremely high along the course of some
rivers and together with high ammonium nitrogen indicate sewage
from human waste and to a lesser extent from direct animal access to
the waters. Nitrate is high and mainly derived from fertilizer use
while the high nitrite is a result of the flagrant disposal of solid
domestic waste directly into the river, on riverbanks and on
roadsides throughout the watershed.
- Bacterial infection with total coliform and faecal coliform is
extremely high and results from sewage waste. Settlements pipe
their untreated sewage directly to the river resulting in water unfit

38
 during both summer and winter for any human use including direct
contact, irrigation and the washing of fruit and vegetables.
- DDT parent compound was found in the river sediment at higher
levels than its metabolite indicating current use of this banned
substance.
- The springs that were analyzed are polluted by direct animal access
and by bacteria nutrients from surface land use up flow of the
springs. Aquifers are open and highly sensitive to land use of
potentially polluting substances.
Tunisia
The city of Korba is very sensitive to the bordering urban structures. The
voluntary or unvoluntary accumulation of the diverse wastes (household
waste, industries, tourism) represents a permanent nuisance for the study area.

3. Soil erosion
Egypt
Due to Egypt’s arid nature it is constantly threatened by wind erosion which
amplifies the desertification process especially in the eastern, western and Sinai
deserts that are categorized as sensitive and fragile habitats having very little
vegetation and experience severe droughts. Some studies have concluded that the
wind erosion ratio in Egypt is 5.5 tons/hectare a year in oases areas in the western
desert and 71-100 tons/hectare a year in areas where agriculture is rain fed such as
the northwest coast. This exemplifies how wind erosion poses a threat on soils in
these areas ranging from moderate to severe. Rainfall in addition to wind can also
serve as an erosion factor where areas in the north coast, Red Sea, Aqaba Gulf,
south Sinai and some eastern desert valleys experience what is known as water
erosion also have serious impacts on soil that bring about desertification.
The erosion rate of shorelines of the Nile Delta has been enhanced in the last two
decades. Satellite imagery estimated the areas lost to the sea to be several thousand
feddans. This was attributed to the lack and change of sediment load of the Nile
water discharged to the Mediterranean Sea at the end of Demiatta and Rashid Nile
main branches. Other investigations warn of the impacts of climate change on the
coastal areas of fertile valley. These could present more serious and adverse
impacts than the present erosion rate of shorelines (UNESCO and DTR., 1973,
Torab and Azab, 2007).

39
On the other hand, the soils in the North Coastal zone of Egypt face the dynamic
problems of water and wind erosion (Fryrear, et al., 2008). The main factors
conducive to soil degradation are natural relevant to intensity and duration of
rainstorms which could be enhanced by terrain attributes as well as human overus.
Conservation practices should be elaborated based on an integrated management
approach including soil, water, plant, and animal resources. The trade – off
relations between agricultural expansion and resource conservation is the subject of
maximum consideration (Daels, et al., 1993).
In conjunction with the expansion of cultivation, the level of mechanized land
preparation has also increased to a point where only a few farmers continue to use
animal draft power. The higher number of tractors has enabled larger areas of
cereal land to be prepared. Access to additional tractors for use by groups of small
farmers could improve the timeliness of cultivation , but the methods of plowing
and the levels to which tractors become available , need to be carefully monitored
in view of the potentially adverse effects of mechanized cultivation on soil
structure which in turn could enhance wind and water erosion.

Lebanon
The assessment of erosion using RS and GIS in the central Lebanese
mountains showed more than 90% of the area having moderate and high
erosion rates (Faour et al., 1999; Bou kheir et al., 2001a). One of the
essential dynamic factors in this concern is related to the human impact on
soil accumulation. Mainly, excavation processes such as quarrying,
construction practices and deforestation represent these processes.
Unfortunately, human implements for soil conservation are not sufficient
to face those geo-environmental problems (Bou Kheir et al., 2001b).
Erosion is accelerated by the abundance of steep slopes and barren lands
notably in the mountain areas. The analysis of potential soil erosion as a
function of soil characteristics (soil depth, structure, texture, organic
matter content, structural stability), geomorphology and climatic
conditions showed the frequent occurrence of medium, high and very high
erosion on the escarpments of the western mountain chain in North
Lebanon (Darwish et al., 2002a).
Syria
The coastal area has excellent agricultural conditions. However, the region
is being confronted with various types of land degradation, deforestation
and improper utilization, and leading to ecological and environmental

40
problems which are becoming more and more serious. Moreover, as a
result of various conditions such as agricultural development, urban
expansion, deforestation, overgrazing, inappropriate agricultural practices
and forest fire. Soil erosion by water is becoming a major problem in
several areas of Latakia and Tartous. Furthermore, large areas of the
rolling hills and gentle mountain slopes have been turned into bare land. If
soils are not properly managed, soil erosion leads to decreasing soil
productivity in the short term and to irreversible soil degradation in the
long term (Abed, 2000).

Nahal 1984, mentioned that the amount of eroded soils exceed 200 tons
per hectare per year in the coastal mountains when facing the combination
of heavy rainfall, steep slope inclination and bare slope surface. This rate
was also mentioned by the FAO report in 1980. The FAO cited that the
soil loss rates range between 50-200 t/h/y in the coastal mountains with
deteriorated natural vegetation cover, 10-50 t/h/y in coastal mountains with
less deteriorated natural vegetation cover, 10-50 t/h/y in the coastal plains.
The soil erosion risks mainly occur on the southern and northern parts
around Kurdaha city, as well as in some eastern and northern mountain
areas where the combination of heavy rainfall events, barren mountains
and the steep slopes prevails. These regions have the greatest erosion rate
of 275 tons per hectare per year.

According to Abed (2000), the soil erosion extent and severity mainly
occur on the eastern and northern high mountains in Latakia, where the
heavy rainfall, barren mountains and the steep slopes exist. These regions
are mainly located near to the east of Slunfa city and in separate areas
north to Rabiha city as well as in some northern parts of Latakia southwest
of the Kasab area. These areas have the greatest erosion rate of 275 tons
per hectare per year. The other sites that have serious erosion problem are
those of barren lands which are located near to the north and south of
Kurdaha city, with an erosion rate of 275 tons per hectare per year while
the coastal plain region erode at a rate of 0 to 50 tons per hectare annually,
and then northern mountains at 10 to 70 t/h/y.

41
 GORS, 2004 mentioned that 6% of the Syrian coastal zone is very high
susceptible and extremely susceptible to water soil erosion and 64% is
moderate and high susceptible to water soil erosion.

Sheet erosion is the dominant erosion type in the region. Rill erosion and
gullies spread over some spots, while mass movements may be found on
steep slopes.

PAP/RAC (1992) reported that the rates of annual loss of soil per hectare
have been the lowest throughout most of the coastal zone (below 30
tone/ha/year). Only areas north of Latakia and in the hinterland of Banias-
Tartous coast have been categorized as exposed to "medium" or "strong
erosion" (30-60, and 50-100 t/h/y, respectively)

Some projects were realized in Tartous such as a reforestation project, a

fruit trees plantation project, and an agricultural development project.
While for Latakia the currently active projects are reclamation of stony-
lands project (Fruit trees plantation project), the martyr Ali Al-Ali Project,
and an agricultural development project.

In order to combat soil degradation, local farmers usually apply terracing

and land reclamation techniques.
Tunisia
Most of Mediterranean countries like Tunisia show nowadays an
intensification of agricultural practises related to an increasing of human
supplies. Because of their specific climate and soil sensitivity, soil erosion
due to water has indeed reached a worrying level. Soil loss from cultivated
lands and the decrease of water storage capacity in reservoirs are examples
of the negative incidence of this phenomenon on soil and water resources.
Therefore, accurate estimation of soil water erosion at catchment scale for
various land-use and climate scenarios is an important key to define
sustainable management policies. In the last decades, several studies have
been carried out to build models suitable for quantifying soil erosion.
Among these models, the Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP,
Flanagan and Nearing, 1995) is a physically based, distributed parameter
model that has been developed and mainly validated in USA. But only few

42
 studies have investigated its applicability to environmental conditions that
differs from those where the model was developed. The aim of this work is
to test the efficiency of the Wepp model to quantify soil erosion at
catchment scale in a Mediterranean semiarid area. To this end, soil erosion
measures collected at the outlet of an experimental catchment (Kamech
catchment, 2,45 Km², Cap Bon, Tunisia) since 1994 were used.
This large data set (more than 200 erosive events) allows us to analyse
Wepp performance during a continuous period of 10 years. The differences
between observed and simulated values are finally analysed and discussed.

C. Impact
1. Climate, water and droughts
Egypt
Egypt has been distinguished into four Agro-ecological zones on basis of climate in
combination with the physiography, natural resources, agriculture and other factors
affecting the socio-economic activities. This approach would facilitate the
investigation and identification of the active factors of desertification, their
impacts, capacity building needs, participating stakeholders, required legislations,
economic tools and social implications. It would also facilitate the selection of
indicators and measures for monitoring ongoing and future desertification
processes.
Drought is a normal feature of climate, but also one of the most common and
severe of natural disasters. In most world regions the economic damages caused by
droughts are greater than those caused by any other events such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions. World-wide population growth has intensified the pressure on
water resources and increased the vulnerability to drought. Prolonged drought
cycles are a major factor in land degradation processes and affect extensive
geographical areas. While such a natural hazard may strike any climatic region, its
occurrence is more frequent in arid and semiarid regions. Low erratic rainfall and
long drought periods are by far the most dominant limiting factors in the rangelands
of Egypt. However, drought diminishes rangeland productivity but also adversely
affects feed species diversity and the composition and size of grazing herds.
Furthermore, drought and poor soil developed in arid lands impose a highly fragile
ecosystem in which vegetation and soil resources are vulnerable to deterioration
from slight misuse (NAP, 2005).

43
Lebanon
Lying in the semi arid-sub humid eastern Mediterranean zone sensitive to
climate change, Lebanon is witnessing a higher frequency of droughts and
episodic torrential rain signifying its apparent trend towards more aridity.
Water mismanagement is leading to increase wastage and, coupled with
increasing demand, is making securing the needed water a problem.
Existing conditions and plans for water supply and demand clearly show a
water deficit building up annually anywhere between a low of 140 Mm3
and a high of 800 Mm3 for a business-as-usual scenario, and a low of 250
Mm3 and exceeding 800 Mm3 for a climate change scenario in the year
2015 (Khawlie, 1999). This is further linked to another deterioration
factor, namely, the possible effects of sea level rise as seawater intrusion
will increase, further impacting the quality of coastal fresh water. In fact, a
general increase with time the last three decades in the Cl- content of
coastal water wells in the capital Beirut is observed. Parallel to this trend,
the precipitation regression line over the same area is negative as plotted
from 1880 to 2000. Following lower precipitation rates and a decline in
water quality in Lebanon (Khawlie, 1999), the groundwater quality in the
coastal area has been deteriorating, especially with excessive pumping
promoting seawater intrusion (El Moujabber & Abou Samra, 2002).
Environmental deterioration of water in Lebanon, or its vulnerability, is
due to three major aspects: improper management, reduced water
availability and climate change. The over-arching effects seen in
desertification and land degradation are accompanied by major impacts
hitting natural and human systems (Khawlie, 2001). Major among the
natural impacts are deteriorated springs, soil erosion, mass movements,
ecological imbalances, deforestation and reduced nutrients to plants.
Impacts on humans include diseases, negative life-cycles, reduced sectoral
growth, social conflicts and ill-targeted development.
Syria
The inland east to the first coastal mountain chain, the rain fall average
decreases making a higher frequency of droughts making the trend towards
more aridity. Water mismanagement either in coastal zone and in land is
leading to increase wastage and, coupled with increasing demand, is
making securing the needed water a problem.

44
 Ground water degradation in the coastal plain is occurring because of over
drawing of the ground water for the agricultural purposes and this make
the sea water to be mixed with the fresh ground water. On the other hand
fresh water (wells and springs) is getting polluted by fertilizers and
pesticides.
Land and soils are also deteriorated through mismanagement of irrigation
water, mismanagement of agricultural practices and mismanagement of
applying fertilizers an pesticides. These can cause soil erosion, mass
movements, ecological imbalances and deforestation.
Tunisia
Tunisia's geographical location, bordering the Mediterranean on the east
and north and stretching to the Sahara in the south, gives it a diverse
climate. The climate changes from Mediterranean to semi-arid and arid,
from humid in the extreme North to desert-type in the extreme south.
The exploitation of the cap bon water table during several years succeded
to cover the whole water needs in the region. The exploitation increased
with the introduction of citrus trees in the beginning of the last century.
Water scarcity is endemic in Cap Bon region, which makes the area
particularly vulnerable to any reduction in supplies. The common
benchmark for water scarcity is 1.000 m3/per person per year. In Cap Bon
water availability falls below this level. Variability of precipitation directly
influences runoff and ground water levels through-out Cap Bon region.
But also other processes damage conventional water supplies, such as poor
infiltration due to soil degradation, which reduces aquifer recharge and at
the same time reservoirs could be seriously affected by severe
sedimentation due to soil erosion.
The problem of reduced water availability will be compounded by demand
increases resulting from both socio-economic factors and climate change
itself. The problems of salt intrusion will be further exacerbated by
reductions in runoff and by increased withdrawals in response to higher
demand. Excessive demand already contributes to saline intrusion
problems in many coastal areas of Cap Bon.
There is no doubt that many opportunities exist to improve supply, through
demand side management and increasing the efficiency of water use, for
example through improved irrigation systems, changes in crops. However,
an improvement of the conventional water resource management is

45
 necessary, as it will contribute significantly to higher water use distribution
efficiency.

2. Other stresses
Egypt
Other pressures and factors leading land degradation in Egypt

1-Sand Encroachment

Sand dunes and other sand forms in the coastal and inland deserts are the most
vulnerable to wind erosion and deposition, consequently they constitute a serious
threat to the agricultural development, rural and urban settlements, road traffic and
public health. Active dunes and sand encroachment cover more than 166000 km2,
i.e., about 16.6% of the total country area. The erratic rainfall, active winds, soil
unstability, scarcity of plant cover, increased these detrimental phenomena
especially in the coastal area due to overgrazing and cultivation of marginal land
which led to severe disturbance of the natural equilibrium of the ecosystem.The
characteristics of sand dunes either active or inactive and their potential threatening
of the agricultural land in the Nile Delta and Valley were studied using the
multitude land satellite imageries across the area surrounding the cultivated land.

2- Loss of Natural Vegetation Cover and Threaten of Biodiversity

Nature vegetation cover of Egypt is variable conditions due to the variability of

water resources mainly. Rain falls edaphic and topographic conditions. However,
about 45% of the total rangelands areas are severely degraded and could be
described as very poor, ranges, 35% as fair, 15% as good and 5% as excellent
ranges. The last two categories are restricted to far rough topographic areas, lacking
water point and/or areas protected by tribes, governmental agencies or for military
purposes.

46
3-Salinity
Salinity problems are wide-spread in Egypt. Almost 30% of the irrigated farmlands
are salt-affected. It is estimated that 60% and 20% of the Northern cultivated land
and both Middle and Southern Delta regions, in sequence, are salt-affected soils.
Meanwhile, in the Nile Valley, i.e., Upper Egypt, salt affected soils represent about
25% of the cultivated areas. Likewise, many areas of the reclaimed desert land
adjacent to the Nile Valley and Delta as well as in Sinai and the Oases suffer from
water-logging and high salinity. The process of salinity is due to;
 Excessive application of irrigation water.
 Irrigation with poor-quality water, e.g., using low quality mixed
drainage water, and increased use of low quality ground water.
 Inadequate salt leaching practices.
 Inefficient or impaired drainage conditions.
 Evaporation from water-table especially when it is within 2m,
significantly contributes to root-zone salinity.
 Poor land leveling with consequent localized redistribution of salts can
often cause salinity problems of significant magnitude.

Lebanon
More than two thirds of the soil resources in Lebanon are facing other
significant stresses like alkalinity, moisture deficit, urban expansion and
salinity (Darwish, 2002). In greenhouses, a steady increase in the soil
electrical conductivity (ECe) from 0.4 dS.m-1 to 15 dS.m-1 was observed
(Solh et al., 1987). This was mainly associated with the excess input of
fertilizers (Atallah et al., 2000) and use of saline water in irrigation. In
open field, more than 52% of the monitored sites in Hermel area, northeast
Lebanon, show an ECe in the range of slightly saline and saline soils
(Khatib et al., 1998; Darwish et al., 2002b). The recent monitoring of the
electrical conductivity of the saturated-paste extract of 75 samples in Qaa
indicates an increasing proportion of salt-affected soils in comparison with
the previous field sampling undertaken in 1997 for the same area (Darwish
et al;, 2005).
In an attempt to relate soil secondary salinization with farmers’ practices, a
direct correlation between the amount of added manure and soil salinity
was not observed. It is rather the combination of high evaporation rate, the
use of manure with high salinity index fertilizers coupled with
mismanaged irrigation that possibly enhanced the soil salinity buildup.

47
 The evaluation of soil vulnerability to desertification based on soil
parameters like depth, texture, organic matter content, water retention
capacity and structural stability reveal that more than 75% of the territory
is highly prone to desertification (Darwish, 2002). If this figure is
intersected with the geomorphology, vegetation, climate and social
indexes, the area prone to desertification becomes close to 90% of the total
area of the country (NAP, 2003).
Additional studies on Daher El Baidar area (Central mountain chain)
demonstrate the human impact on inducing desertification. Monitoring
using three images with different times showed that the negative changes
in NDVI are occurring mainly at quarries and land excavations.

Syria
Other significant stresses on environment and soil resources in study area can
be defined by Liquid wastes of olive presses, phosphorous dusts rising up
from seaports, widespread of solid wastes and irrigation crops and orchards
using none treatment sewage water in additional to moisture deficit, urban
encroachment, water logging, and salinity, deforestation, forest cut and fire
and some socio- economic problems.
- Liquid wastes of olive presses: more than 800,000 m3 of liquid wastes
coming out of 500 olive presses located in study area, its contains high
percentage of oil (> 20%), organic maters and toxic substances….. which
destroying soil aggregates and increasing fine fractures in soil texture, leading
indirectly to soil degradation and desertification.
- Phospho-gypsum dust moves from the ports in Latakia and Tartous during
the exportation and boarding theses substances into the shipping ships. This
dust move with wing and cover large areas surrounding the ports influencing
the vegetation cover either the orchards or crops as well as influencing the
health of the surrounding settlements. Cement factory in Tartous is also
causing similar effects.
- irrigation with swage water in the coastal plain cause deterioration for soils
in the area and indirectly causing reduction in the yield.

Tunisia

48
 The coastline space constitutes the backbone of the country. It is the
favoured location for human activities which are more and more focused
within this small and vulnerable space.
Many pressures generated by urban development and the concentration
of socio-economic activities have been exerted on the coastline, arising from
the following factors:
 The establishment of tourist facilities on coastline sites has often
underestimated ecological requirements;
 Tunisian tourism remains above all a seaside tourism. It constitutes a
coastline concentration factor insofar as major accompanying and have
been established and have accelerated the urbanisation of the coastline;
 The port developments and the construction of dams on the major wadis
disrupt the sedimentary transit and supply along the coastline;
In addition, the tourist zones are now beginning to be accompanied by
urban in depth extension, either to house the population directly or indirectly
working there, or for purpose of secondary housing. In both cases, the
pressure on the coastline increases inexorably, thus translation into increased
presence in the most vulnerable spaces (destruction of dunes is a major cause
for the beginning of erosion or its aggravation) and by encroachment by
constructions and infrastructures on the coastline.

Yemen
In Hodeidah, reclamation is confined to building the seawalls and the
corniche along the shoreline, construct stage at the southern side of Hodeidah
and building harbors at the eastern side of Khawr Katib. The activities include
road development, seaport works, fish port and fishing boat harbor. Rubbish
of building materials are disposed in a landfill on the beach and tidal flat. A
direct adverse human impact on palm occurs when it is used for primitive
industries and constructing material for houses (Figure 5).
The sewage pipe of Hodeidah city discharges directly into the sea (Figure 6)
and other sewage pipe located to the north of Hodeidah discharges into
Khawr Katib after treatment (Figure 7). The solid wastes of houses in
Hodeidah are disposed in the north of Hodeidah (Figure 8).

49
50
5 6

8
7

Figure (5) Cut the palm west of Al-Homrah village

Figure (6) Sewage pipe rubbish of Hodeidah city pour directly in the sea
Figure (7) Trough of sewage indirectly pour to sea
Figure (8) The rubbish of houses north of Hodeidah;

51
Justification and benefits
The project will encompass different disciplines, which provides the possibility for
integrated analysis and management. For the first time in the two countries, soil
erosion will be studied on the level of watershed, linking the natural factors with
the socio-economics. This will help overcoming the lack the information on the
quantification of soil erosion to elaborate mitigation programs. During the life time
of this project, data on the state of land degradation will be collected and analyzed
and a database will be created. It will help assessing the driving forces, nature and
extent of land degradation. On the other hand, the project will study the nature and
extent of soil contamination with heavy metals and provide for the first time an
assessment of land capability and suitability based on soil quality.
The government and public involvement in the project will ensure the adaptation of
the assessment methods and elaboration and implementation of remedial and
preventive measures. The production of several levels of thematic maps will serve
the decision-making circles and public awareness. The project findings will support
the conservation and improvement of soil productivity. The analysis of production
and market conditions and socio-economic factors behind land abandonment will
ensure the means for better economic and environmentally sound production
systems. This will alleviate poverty and migration and provide the women a role in
the progress of local societies.
The training provided at local, municipal and ministry level will help building
national capacities for the remediation of hot spots and monitoring of bright spots.
The high cost of land degradation in the area and its social and economic
consequences justify the analysis of land degradation, which can contribute to
improved living standards, and conflict resolution of shared resources.
Assessing the actual risks of soil erosion and contamination and the development of
management plans to protect natural resources will maintain the required quality of
soil and water resources, and alleviate/reduce the heath hazards related to the
deterioration of the environment. Elaborating simple methods and indicators for the
assessment and monitoring of land degradation, producing the means for an
effective control during the implementation of remedial measures and
dissemination of knowledge and proper exploitation plans will raise the
effectiveness of the society to manage its resources.

52
Objectives
• Collect, evaluate and screen existing data: Information on land
degradation in Lebanon is recent, and studies analyzing the driving
forces and impacts of degradation have started in the fifties but covered
different aspects sporadically. They were mainly related to natural
factors, and to a less extent to human factors. Analyzing the existing
data in the spirit of Driving forces, Pressure, Status, Impact and
Response (DPSIR) and elaborating gaps for the execution of land
degradation assessment using the adapted FAO’s LAnd Degradation
Assessment (LADA) methodology is a prerequisite for a successful
study.
• Investigate nature and extent of Land Degradation: The project aims at
studying the state and extent of land degradation integrating the
biophysical and human factors. Initiate studies addressing the
quantification of the physical, chemical and biological degradation to
build a database on the watershed level relating the causes and effects
of land degradation.
• Assess levels of chemical soil contamination: With the expansion of
urban, agricultural and industrial activities, land is subject to increased
pressure on its quality due to probable increasing level of soil
contamination with toxic heavy metals. The project will assess the
nature, extent and spatial distribution of heavy metals in the arable soil
layers, and assess the protection that different soil types can provide to
groundwater and plants.
• Identify effective indicators for bright and hot-spots: The project aims
at identifying different environmental indicators that are simple to
quantify using the available and produced information. Indicators will
characterize each component of land degradation. They are also
applicable in control of the implementation of remedial measures in the
hot spots, and for the monitoring of the improvement of bright spots.
• Map and establish data bases and information system: Three levels of
thematic maps will be produced to serve the purpose of decision-
making process, technical staff and local players. They will be based on
the information stored in the database which is regularly updated
following any change in land use, urban expansion and other driving
forces.

53
• Develop a management plan to protect natural resources: According to
the project goals, the assessment of land degradation is oriented to
define a scheme for areas of priority intervention. The management
plan will cover not only unstable areas but also stable managed and
natural areas undergoing degradation.
• Enhance participatory approaches contribution to remediation
measures: Based on the assessment procedures and elaboration of
indicators, the project will work in close interaction with government
bodies and local stakeholders to elaborate and execute the remedial
measures. A special focus is oriented to the gender issue, which is still
not actively involved in rural action programs.
• Build up capacity to strengthen institutional setting and policies: Based
on institutional technical and infrastructural background, which plays
an important role in the elaboration of appropriate policies, the project
aims to strengthen institutional capacity building to fulfill gaps in the
current legislation addressing the conservation of natural resources in
the area.
• Disseminate appropriate knowledge and proper exploitation plans: To
ensure public awareness, the applicability of data elsewhere, and
scientific merit of the methodologies, the project will widely
disseminate relevant information to ensure the proper management and
implementation of results.

54
Scope
The focus of the proposal on sustainability of natural resources, notably soil,
stems from their significance to socio-economic stability in the region,
especially Syria and Lebanon. The impacts of land degradation, or
desertification, is huge indeed. This theme has, in fact, taken international
significance as witnessed by the following programs (more details in Funding
Section): UNEP – MAP CAMP projects, EC SMAP projects, UNDP – GEF
component on desertification, UNCCD, GTZ Regional aid on desertification,
FAO LADA and GLCN projects, CIDA – Canada and SIDA of Sweden …
etc.
The remote sensing agencies of Lebanon and Syria will coordinate the work
in each country, working with partners from ministries of agriculture,
environment and municipalities. A project steering committee (PSC) will
have an overall view throughout the project. Work packages will have
responsible leaders to assure coordination, scheduling and proper
implementation. Careful monitoring of project progress and reporting against
its milestones will assure minimal risk to project success. Several meetings of
the PSC and technical committees will secure the above. The project has a
full work package for proper dissemination of knowledge.
The project will be performed by highly experienced interdisciplinary teams
of soil scientists, earth scientists, information and remote sensing specialists,
agronomists, economists and sociologists to cover its requirements on data
collection, assessing land degradation, identifying remedial measures,
monitoring hot spots and differential mapping output for different
stakeholders. An upgraded database will serve several purposes, especially
the proposed management plan. The inherent nature of land degradation,
intertwined so closely with the community, demands that participatory
approaches and capacity building are followed. This is important in order to
strengthen institutional and policy formulation. Obviously, dissemination of
the resultant knowledge is crucial, and will be taken at different levels.
The work plan of the project follows five overlapping phases, starting with
initiation where integrating inputs, plus project management and coordination
are defined, and existing data are collected; Phase II carries on, in addition, to
investigating physical land degradation through field work and remote
sensing; this continues in Phase III with exploring extent of chemical
contamination and defining hot spots; the control starts in Phase IV where

55
monitoring of indicators and remedial measures is operative, plus mapping of
outcome. In the final Phase V, refining the database, the maps, and
establishing a management system is completed. All phases will end with
reporting, and several workshops plus dissemination activities, for
participatory and capacity building purposes, will be done.

Methodology and work plan

The work plan of the project will follow five overlapping phases, which will
go in parallel with marked milestones and accompanying work packages
where different methodologies will be applied delivering the expected outputs
of the project. The detailed work packages below delineate the methodologies
and their tasks.
The five phases relationships are structured so that the project carries on
smoothly from one into the other without delays of interruption (Figure 1).
Phase I, the initiation, starts with coordination of the integrated inputs and
defining project management, while collection of data starts (work packages –
WP00 and WP01), this carries on in Phase II where investigating the land
degradation through field work and remote sensing proceeds (WP02, WP03),
then identifying and monitoring hot/bright spots begins in Phase III including
finding out the remedial measures (WP04, WP05), these carry on inputing
data for Phase IV where project control and building up the final maps and
databases have started, as well as feeding inputs to start the last phase (WP06,
beginning of WP07). All the previous results are being checked in the final
Phase V, where participatory approaches, capacity building, refining data
outputs and management plan for post project implementation are completed,
followed with reporting (WP08, WP09, WP10).
The work details are described later in the relevant work packages. But it is
important to reflect on the sequence of activities and show it in a Gannt Chart
(Figure 2) (see Appendix).

56
Phases I
II III IV V
Project End
WP00

WP02

WP03
WP08

WP01 WP06 WP07

WP09
WP04

WP05

WP10

Figure 1. Graphical presentation of work packages and phases

57
From this point the text not updated yet
Methodologies in Work packages
The different partners in Lebanon and Syria will work cooperatively together
under the leadership of the coordinator in each country, the CNRS-RSC in
Lebanon, Partner 1, and GORS in Syria, Partner 2, the other partners are
numbered as shown below:

Lebanon Syria
P01- CNRS-RSC P02-GORS
P03-MoA P04-MAAR
P05-MoE P06- MoLAE
P07-MoM

WP 00: Project coordination and management

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 48 Total effort: 48
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
16 25 1 2 1 2 1

Objectives:
The objectives of project management include:
• Maintenance of communication with the Funding Agency(ies)
officer(s), compilation and preparation of all reports
• Maintenance of communication within the project partners
• Coordination and synchronization of individual work packages
• Coordinating project meetings
• Monitoring of project according to its schedule, milestones and outputs
• Monitor the quality of the work in close collaboration with partners
• Document tracking and management

Tasks:
• Setting up necessary communication structure with e-mailing, website
and on-line discussion

58
 • Maintaining communication with officers of funding agencies, and
project partners through applicable media, mostly electronic
• Monitor project progress, compile all reports and outputs for timely
transmission to the relevant officers
• Organization of project meetings (PSC and Technical Committee) at
rotating locations, starting with a kick-off meeting, review meetings, all
synchronized with the work plan, milestones and dates of deliverables
or outputs

Deliverables and Milestones

• Regular management and progress reports
• Annual reports
• Final report

WP 01: Collection, evaluation and screening of existing data

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 10
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
4 6 0 0 0 0 0

Objectives:
• Design data collection strategy and compile inclusive list of works done
in the countries and region on land degradation assessment to identify
data gaps
• Define the local stakeholders and ensure their direct involvement
• Record and document the data requirements of the proposed system
• Adapt the methodology requirements against local conditions
• Evaluate limitations and alternative approaches if necessary.

The main objectives of this work package are to ensure that relevant
desertification problems, as defined by local stakeholders, are tackled, that all
end users are defined, and published information on the status of land
degradation is collected and analyzed, and that data requirements and
proposed tools are matched and adjusted according to local constraints.
Tasks

59
 • Identify and contact key institutions local actors in the decision making
process, to ensure early involvement and support of relevant network
and database
• Document the sources of information and collect the relevant data
• Compile checklist of soil and land degradation problems, relevant
indigenous and proposed solutions, define a meta data structure for their
documentation, and obtain gender specific information on issues where
available
• Analyze the published information to characterize the status of land
degradation in the area and link the impacts of desertification trends on
environmental and socio-economic aspects
• Validate data availability against project requirements, the state of
different agro-ecological zones and field assessment tools to adapt the
methodologies.

Deliverables
D01.1 First Workshop
D01.2 Report – analysis of available data
D01.3 Structure of Data Information System

WP 02: Investigate land degradation and start methodologies

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 55
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
16 25 4 6 1 2 1

Objectives
• Identify driving forces (demographic changes, economic activities,
landuse change, institutional roles, policies and legislation) and their
effect on the degradation of soil resources
• Assess the types of land degradation, its status, extent pressure and
response of different stakeholders in major agro-ecological and climatic
zones
• Apply the methodology of land degradation assessment framework in
different land units and land facets according to local conditions

60
 • Define the representative areas and scale within each landuse pattern,
select the procedures, indicators and tools
• Analyze field data integrating RS and GIS within a structured database
and information system
• Validate results and assess their accuracy.

Tasks
• Following the LADA approach, classify the area of study into land units
representing similarities in major landform and lithologies
• Subdivide land units into land facets based on repeated landuse and
physiographic, mappable, pattern
• Develop a questionnaire and field data collection forms on the current
agricultural and environmental management practices, socio-economic
and biophysical aspects based on the “five capitals”, i.e. social,
economic, environmental, institutional and ecological
• Define the baseline for the land degradation assessment
• Assess the dynamics of land degradation by the type of land uses: forest
systems in two densities: dense and rare (pine forest, oak forest, mixed
forest), agricultural areas (orchards, field crops, protected agriculture),
mixed forest-agriculture, bare lands, urban areas, per urban agriculture,
wild life, industry).

Deliverables
D02.1 Report – Land degradation status
D02.2 Assessment of applying methodology
D02.3 Report – Applying remote sensing & GIS in land
degradation

61
WP 03: Assess chemical contamination
Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 12 End month: 38 Total effort: 23
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
6 9 1 2 2 3 0

Objectives
• Define the background value (natural concentration) of heavy metals in
the soils.
• Study the nature, extent and map the soil heavy metal contamination
• Implement the European standards and criteria for the assessment of the
level of heavy metals in the soil and adapt them to local conditions
• Allocate suitable uses of lands according to their quality based on
Eikmann-Kloke charts presenting a threshold of heavy metal content in
the soil and the corresponding land use
• Investigate the level of salinity, nitrate and nitrite in the groundwater
used for social needs and irrigation
• Integrate the results of this study into the landuse planning projects in
each country.

62
63
The main objective of this work package is to use the available facilities and

Ste p M ode l for the Utilization of Contaminate d Soils for Cropping Syste ms

acceptor related toxicity range

C restore
BW III
safety range

site and protection group

land use options BW II
renewable
increasing content of hazardous

prime materials
industrial
substances in soil

plants ornamental plants

B tolerate fruit
vegetab. cotton
leaf sugar flax
vegetab. cereals beet
BW I

A protect Posibilidad Multifuncional

multifunctional land usede Uso

After EIKM ANN & KLOKE, in: ROSENKRANZ et. al. 1988-2000
BW = soil value

capacities in each country to assess the state of land contamination by toxic

heavy metals like Cr, Ni, Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Co and Pb. It will help assessing
the risks of heavy metal transfer in the soil toward the groundwater or into the
food chain through plant uptake by using a module for the evaluation of the
soil protection effectiveness. This approach will be based on soil physico-
chemical properties and its attitude to fix heavy metals according to the state
of its pH, calcium carbonate, organic matter and clay content, and the depth
of the unsaturated zone and percolation rate, as prescribed in the ISO
standards and German concept on soil protection effectiveness.

64
Tasks
• Use the RS technique to identify and classify the sources of pollution
• Link the type and level of heavy metal found in the arable soil layer
according to the cropping pattern (upper 0-30 cm for annual crops and
0-60 for perennial crops) with different sources of pollution
• Identify the current and projected impact of major landuses on the state
of soil heavy metal contamination, notably agricultural activities and
the application of low quality fertilizers and irrigation with
contaminated water
• Collect soil samples from the root zone in a density of one sample per
km2, analyze them using nondestructive methods and modern nuclear
techniques (particle induced X-ray emission-PIXE and particle induced
gamma ray emission-PIGE)
• Produce maps at 1:50.000 scale on the spatial distribution of toxic
heavy metal according to the adapted Eikmann-Kloke standards using
the krigging method
• Elaborate plan of possible, alternative, land uses from multifunctional
land uses and going through different cropping systems until industrial
zones and parks according to the level of metals in the soil
• Assess the quality of groundwater and the type of its uses based on
available data of the EC, NO3 and NO2 content according to the WHO
standards for drinking water, FAO criteria for irrigation water quality
and ISO standards for water chemical contamination.

Deliverables
D03.1 Report – Chemical contamination status
D03.2 Field work assessment
D03.3 Evaluating results of chemical analysis
D03.4 Chemical contamination hot spots

WP 04: Identification and monitoring of hot spots/bright spots and indicators

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 18 End month: 42 Total effort: 31
Person-months per partner:

65
 P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
8 13 2 3 2 3 0
Objectives
• Map areas with different intensity of degradation and show the aerial
extent of land degradation
• Identify the coupled effects of several land degradation processes
aggravating the state of land degradation of a land facet, making it the
severest among the assessed areas, thus allowing its classification in the
hot spot class
• Identify and map bright spots, stable areas with no or very little human
interference or recovered hot spot areas, by an assessment comparing its
recent state with a previous one, where land degradation has been
mitigated, stopped or reversed
• Characterize land management and society response including the
applicability and feasibility of measures and the stakeholder’s
involvement
• Design indicators for the description and measurements of land
degradation or land recuperation.

The main objectives of the work package are to distinguish the degree and
spatial extent of the degradation process for comparison purposes. This is
done by integrating all the elements of the DPSIR approach and the indicators
of the state (type and intensity of degradation) to characterize the type of land
degradation (physical, chemical and/or biological), and causes (driving forces
and pressure), allowing to identify the hot spots and highlight them on a map,
using the legend proposed by LADA. In addition, the objectives consist of
comparing the state of a degraded area with a base line, which allows
assessing the current state of the land, and notice any improvement reflecting
the response and remediation measures, which permit classifying the area as
bright spot.

Tasks
• Link the state of land degradation with the driving forces and pressure
to interpret the results of the field measurements and questionnaire
(interviews with the farmers and other stakeholders) to compare the
severity of land degradation in the assessed areas

66
 • Establish a network of causal chains using a manual procedure or
automated integration decision support system
• Retrieve improvement trends from the monitoring of the state of land
degradation, as compared with a previous situation, using comparable
and measurable indicators to judge on the amelioration of the state
transferring the area from hot spot to bright spot
• Design and categorize indicators characterizing the indirect (driving
forces) and direct (pressure) causes of land degradation, and
characterizing its state, impact and the stakeholder’s response.

Deliverables
D04.1 2nd Workshop
D04.2 Report – Hotspots/Bright spots status
D04.3 Field work assessment
D04.4 Establish indicators & monitoring system
D04.5 Prioritize Hotspots/Bright spots action plan

WP 05: Identify effective remedial measures

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 24 End month: 36 Total effort: 26
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
5 8 5 8 0 0 0

Objectives
• Observe and describe applied remedial measures
• Involve end users in the process of assessing currently applied remedial
measures and propose alternatives or improvements
• Design effective measures to reduce soil erosion, improve soil
conditions, stop forest clearing, remediate and prevent chemical
degradation (salinity, sodicity, toxicity, contamination) and biological
degradation (land cover, soil moisture, aridity), and to mitigate the drop
of water table depth, drought, climatic change, decline in crop yield
• Upgrade farmers skills through activation of extension services to stop
the buildup of nitrates in the soil and groundwater
• Design remediation measures to protect groundwater quality.

67
The work package will analyze the currently applied protective, curative and
remedial measures to assess their effect on the current state of land
degradation. These will be categorized in term of their importance for land
conservation. It will also analyze the dynamics of decision-making regarding
the adoption of effective measures and define the role of different
stakeholders in proposing, supporting and implementing these measures. It
will review the applied policies and legislation regarding the causes and
impacts of land degradation. Based on the pressure and response of different
stakeholders, the work package will propose cost effective and simple
remedial measures and define the role of each governmental body, NGO and
rural community in stopping and reversing land degradation.

Tasks
• Integrate the on-site and off-site effects of land degradation within a
comprehensive plan to propose workable and applicable remedial
measures
• Ensure the direct people involvement in the process of evaluating and
proposing effective remedial measures
• Propose effective measures to prevent soil erosion and the
contamination of surface water bodies with soil sediments rich in
nitrogen and phosphorous that can affect the river water quality and
aquatic life
• Combine the double effect of hydrology, land stability and land use on
landslides and mass movement to properly analyze the risks related to
prone areas in term current and of future land uses
• Integrate the physical and socio-economic factors in the understanding
of the causes and effect of land degradation to propose remedial
measures that answer specific conditions.

Deliverables
D05.1 Report – Remedial measures status
D05.2 Contribution to effective approaches in the field
D05.3 Analysis of different scenarios of remediation
WP 06: Map, establish database and information System
Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 26
Person-months per partner:

68
 P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
10 16 0 0 0 0 0

Objectives
• Collect, evaluate and screen available data on soil degradation and
designing suitable database to involve all kinds of data which will be used in
the project (description of samples, Chemical analysis, Land forms,
Physiographic units, pollutants…..)
• Assess the types of information systems, to select a suitable one for
serving the tasks of the projects.
• Establishing compatible database to be linked with Geographic
information system (GIS).
• Thematic mapping for degradation status, factors, and risks at three
levels: decision makers, institutional research and the public.

Tasks
• Classification of available data according to desertification factors in
the study areas and determination of data types representing degradation
status according to Land Units and Land Facets.
• Subdividing database into sub-databases according to degradation
factors, and creating a uniform code (related with different ranks of units
based on land facets, landuse classes and physiographic units) and link sub-
databases to Geographic Information System (GIS).
• Applying field and remote sensing mapping methodologies for
cartography to create useful maps and schemes representing the study area
status of degradation for highlighting the hot and bright spots.
• Creating thematic Maps in two different scales to meet different users
as well as factors of degradation will be defined at three levels as shown in
the following Table:

69
 Scale Scale
Maps
1:25.000 1:50.000
Planning Maps
Yes (districts)
(Decision makers)
Thematic maps
Yes (based on topo sheets) Yes (topo sheets)
(Researchers & concerned institutions)
Community awareness maps
Yes (districts)
(local people)

• Creating maps-schemes for each degradation factor at a scale of

1:25000 and ranking the factors into four categories (High, Medium, Low
and None) to execute spatial analysis of factors in process of creating final
maps as follows:
Hot Spots Bright Spots
Description Level
Soil, water & plant are deteriorated High • Protected area
Less deteriorated Medium • Rehabilitated area
Minor deteriorated Low • Managed land
None: lands with very low or no effect of man (natural forest)

Ranking of soil and plant factors will be executed as follows:

Soil factor will be classified into High (h), Medium (m), Low (l) and None
(n).
Plant factor will also be classified into high (H), Medium (M), Low (l) &
None (n).
The ranking of the two factors is explained in the following Table:
Soil Factor
h m l n

h H H M -
Plant Factor

m H M L -

l M L L -

n - - - N
Soil and plant are limiting factors

Ranking of soil-plant and water factors will be executed as follows:

soil-plant factor will be classified into high (H), Medium (M), Low (L)
& None (N).
Water factor will also be classified into high (h), Medium (m), Low (l)
& None (n).

70
 The ranking of Soil-Plant and Water factors is explained in the
following Table:

Soil-Plant Factor
H M L N

h h h m -
Water Factor

m h m m -

l h m l -

n - - - n
Soil - plant are limiting factors
• Finalizing Data Information System based on Geographic Information
System (GIS) for easy handling and distribution of project output in the three
mentioned levels above.

Deliverables
D06.1 Report – Land degradation mapping status
D06.2 Applying field methodologies mapping
D06.3 Applying remote sensing mapping
D06.4 Refining and establishing database
D06.5 finalizing data information system

WP 07: Development management plan

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 29
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
10 16 1 2 0 0 0

Objectives
• Protect natural resources by analyzing the stable managed areas and
applying preventive measures
• Assign and apply appropriate curative measures over hot spots areas

71
• Integrate the results of the physical assessment and related descriptive
mapping with the aggravating socio-economic conditions.
• Assess the proposed remedial measures and evaluate/monitor their
performance
• Involve local authorities and population in managing hot spots areas
• Serve policies & legislation for sustainability of natural resources.

Tasks
• Set up priority problem areas based on a prioritization procedures
integrating of the physical assessment and thematic mapping
considering actual and potential land use values according to different
views, notably the perception of the local population, established
national policies and assessment of potential for forestry, agricultural
use and other land use forms
• apply stakeholder approval mechanisms for PPP involvement & a
special awareness program will be designed for this purpose
• Link remedial measures to relevant stakeholders in order to define the
concerned institutions to be responsible and the role of each player
• Define indicators (factors) of soil degradation, considering local
conditions of study area. These indicators will be further weighted and
defined in details. The following Table shows the indicators in general
with the level of impact:

Indicators High Medium Low

A. Demography
1. Population Density √
2. Urbanisation rate √
3. population density in arable land √
B. Standard of Living
4. GDP per capita on social base √
C. Water consumption
5. securing irrigation water √
D. Agriculture
6. pesticides and fertilizers (Agrochemicals) √
E. Industry
7. Quarries density √
8. Olive presses √
F. Energy
9. Wood logging area √
G. Services
10. Number of tourists per 100 inhabitants √
H. Environment

72
 Indicators High Medium Low
11. irrigated land with sewage water √
I. Land/Soil
12. Forest area √
13. Forest fire √
14. Land use changes √
15. Erosion type √
16. Erosion risk √
17. Erosion rate √

Deliverables
D07.1 Draft management plan
D07.2 Define (fine tune) indicators for management plan
D07.3 Management planning activities and implementation
WP 08: Design and enhance participatory approach
Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 29
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
5 8 1 2 3 5 5

Objectives
• Enhance participatory approach contribution to remediation measures
based on the assessment procedures and elaboration of indicators.
• Enhance interaction for elaborating and executing remedial measures
with government authorities and local stakeholders
• Focus on involving rural areas to activate action programs which serve
local population and protect natural resources in these areas.

Tasks
• Assessment of integrated public participation methodologies
• Designing special programs for local population awareness and
increasing institutional capabilities
• Defining public monitoring plan and training requirements.

Deliverables
D08.1 Report – participatory modalities status
D08.2 Assessing integrated public methodologies and training
D08.3 define public monitoring plan and training requirements.

73
WP 09: Design and enhance capacity building, policies & institutions
Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 20
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
3 5 2 3 2 3 2

Objectives
• Build capacity to strengthen institutional setting and policies, based on
institutional, technical and infrastructure background.
• Fulfill gaps in the current legislation addressing the conservation of
natural resources in study area.

Tasks
• Increase institutional capabilities for working in the field of policies &
legislation to insure the sustainability of natural resources
• Assess the needs for capacity building for managing hot spot areas and
conserving bright areas, and establish a local institutional team to increase
public awareness of environmental issues in the study area.

Deliverables
D09.1 Report –institutional capacities modalities status
D09.2 Assessing needs for capacity buildings
D09.3 Strategies and policies for capacity building

WP 10: Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation

Lead Partner: CNRS-RSC, GORS Start month: 1 End month: 30 Total effort: 38
Person-months per partner:
P01 P02 P03 P04 P05 P06 P07
12 19 1 2 1 2 1

Objectives
• Disseminate appropriate knowledge & proper exploitation plans to
ensure public awareness to applicability of data elsewhere and scientific
merit of methodologies

74
• Disseminate relevant information to ensure the proper management and
implementation of results.

Tasks
• Creating project website and printing brochures introducing the project
activities, deliverables, management plans
• Carrying out meetings with decision makers, local authorities and
higher authorities
• Carrying out meetings with local population to illustrate the project
results
• Carrying out workshops at the district levels for decision makers,
NGOs and farmers
• Carrying out workshops at the governorate levels for public
• Involve the national and local media to spread out the objectives and
the results of the project
• Carrying out a final workshop for both countries.

Deliverables
D10.1 Project website
D10.2 Guidelines for public assessment of hot spots
D10.3 institutional strategies to implement monitoring program
D10.4 3rd Workshop
D10.5 Final country reports
D10.6 Final Report

Expected outputs and applications

The project has eight well defined milestones that are foreseen at more or less
regular, six-monthly intervals (Table 1) to coincide with progress in work
packages and administrative progress reports. The Project Steering
Committee (PSC) would meet around each milestone.

Table 1. Project milestones time definition and description

Mileston Project
e Month Milestone Description
Number

75
 M1 PM06 End of initiation phase, 1st workshop
M2 PM12 End of existing data collection plus readying
methodologies, start operations
M3 PM18 Refining/fine-tuning remote sensing & field data
requirements – communication plan
M4 PM24 Implementing work packages, 2nd workshop
M5 PM30 Implementing work packages, mapping & indicators
M6 PM36 Develop management plan
M7 PM42 Public participation, capacity building completed
M8 PM48 Project & reporting completed, dissemination

Of course, these milestones will be parallel to the work packages, which are
detailed in the previous section (Methodology). Several work packages serve
each milestone, and several deliverables or outputs serve each work package,
as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Expected Outputs
N° Outputs
Package N° Work

Title Due

WP01 D01.1 First Workshop PM6

D01.2 Report – analysis of available data PM12
D01.3 Structure of Data Information System PM30
WP02 D02.1 Report – Land degradation status PM18
D02.2 Assessment of applying methodology PM30
D02.3 Report – Applying remote sensing & GIS in land
PM20
degradation
WP03 D03.1 Report – Chemical contamination status PM21
D03.2 Field work assessment PM24
D03.3 Evaluating results of chemical analysis PM30
D03.4 Chemical contamination hot spots PM38
nd
WP04 D04.1 2 Workshop PM24
D04.2 Report – Hotspots/Bright spots status PM27
D04.3 Field work assessment PM33

76
 N° Outputs
Package N° Work

Title Due

D04.4 Establish indicators & monitoring system PM40

D04.5 Prioritize Hotspots/Bright spots action plan PM42
WP05 D05.1 Report – Remedial measures status PM30
D05.2 Contribution to effective approaches in the field PM33
D05.3 Analysis of different scenarios of remediation PM36
WP06 D06.1 Report – Land degradation mapping status PM18
D06.2 Applying field methodologies mapping PM30
D06.3 Applying remote sensing mapping PM36
D06.4 Refining & establishing database PM39
D06.5 Finalizing Data Information System PM45
WP07 D07.1 Draft management plan PM35
D07.2 Define/fine-tune indicators for management plan PM40
D07.3 Management planning activities & implementation PM45
WP08 D08.1 Report – Participatory modalities status PM27
D08.2 Assessing integrated public participation PM30
methodologies & training
N° Outputs
Package N° Work

Title Due

D08.3 Define public monitoring plan & training PM33

requirements
D08.4 Verify & approve remedial measures by public PM40
WP09 D09.1 Report – Institutional capacities modalities status PM33
D09.2 Assessing needs for capacity building & training PM38
D09.3 Strategies & policies for capacity building PM42
WP10 D10.1 Project website PM12

77
 N° Outputs
Package N° Work

Title Due

D10.2 Guidelines for public assessment of hot spots PM30

D10.3 Institutional strategies to implement monitoring PM38
program
D10.4 3rd Workshop PM46
D10.5 Report PM48

For WP01 there are three outputs that include a preliminary structure of data
system, analysis of available data and, for both promotion of the project to
different stakeholders and progress report by the first six months, the first
workshop will be held. By that time, already assessment of the methodology
through field work on land degradation, and through remote sensing would
have started, thus in WP02 and WP03 there are seven outputs covering status
reports, evaluation and mapping. This carries on with WP04 delivering five
outputs, consisting of the second workshop (second year of the project, that
would serve also promotional and dissemination purposes), plus mapping of
hot spots/bright spots and setting the control by monitoring indicators.
Certainly, this will serve several applications, such as prioritization and
saving resources, knowledge of good practices and setting a control-checking
system for feedback.
WP05 concerns itself with remedial measures, and its outputs are both a
status report and an analysis in view of different scenarios. The application
here is that different cases will be encountered in the field, facing each may
have its specific conditions. This opens the way to WP06 focusing on
mapping outputs and refining the database. These will serve different levels
of stakeholders, some at the decision-making level that would help in
planning, some at the research level, and others will serve the community at
large.
The three following work packages 07, 08, and 09 producing ten outputs have
to do with establishing a working management plan, and activities to enhance
public participation and institutional capacities. The participatory approach
will assure good communication confidence between authorities and the

78
stakeholders. The role of the local community should be strengthened through
regulations and policies, notably on rehabilitation. On the other hand,
capacity building is needed to enhance institutional cooperation, to assure
technical upgrading with training notably on application of standards and
regulations, and focus rehabilitation on hot spots or priorities, as well as
produce alternatives of economic incentives. The above will definitely
contribute to assuring the sustainability of the project after its termination. In
addition, this sustainability is shown in WP10 to be supported by five more
outputs, including a website, guidelines, strategies, a third workshop and a
report.

Project requirements
In general, there is a fair distribution of the budget, mostly, about one third,
goes to personnel who would do the actual work, the analysis, field visits, and
travel costs for project meetings, and overheads. In some cases, third party
assistance is foreseen for certain tasks, as well as cost for computing and third
party data acquisition. A small amount is necessary for the operation of the
project web server, and some for regional dissemination purposes.
As Table 3 shows, the two lead partners in Lebanon and Syria, i.e. CNRS-
RSC and GORS, will be in charge of most work packages, but the other
partners both contribute to several packages (Table 4) and share leading
position in others, notably those packages on remedial measures (the Ministry
of Agriculture), on participatory approaches (the other Ministries on
Environment and Municipalities).
Table 3. Work package list
N° Work Lead partner Start End
package Description month month

00 Project coordination & management GORS 1 48

CNRS-RSC
01 Collect, evaluate, screen existing GORS 1 30
data CNRS-RSC
02 Investigate land degradation & start GORS 3 38
methodologies CNRS-RSC
03 Assess chemical contamination GORS 12 38
CNRS-RSC
04 Identify/monitor hot/bright spots & GORS 18 42

79
N° Work Lead partner Start End
package Description month month

indicators CNRS-RSC
05 Identify effective remedial measures Agriculture 24 36
06 Map, establish database & GORS 12 45
information system CNRS-RSC
07 Develop management plan GORS 30 45
CNRS-RSC
08 Design & enhance participatory Environment 24 40
approaches
09 Design & enhance capacity Municipalitie 32 42
building, policies & institutions s
10 Disseminate appropriate knowledge GORS 6 48
& proper exploitation CNRS-RSC

80
 Table 4. Human efforts for the project, man-months –No updates
Partner Lebanon Syria
Min. Min. Min.

Total
Work package CNRS- Min. of MoLA-
of of GORS of
RSC Muni. E
Agric. Envt. Agric.
WP00 project management 16 1 1 1 25 2 2 48
WP01 existing data 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 10
WP02 land degradation methodologies 16 4 1 1 25 2 6 55
WP03 chemical contamination 6 1 2 0 9 3 2 23
WP04 hot/bright spots & indicators 8 2 2 0 13 3 3 31
WP05 remedial measures 5 5 0 0 8 0 8 26
WP06 maps & database 10 0 0 0 16 0 0 26
WP07 management plan 10 1 0 0 16 0 2 29
WP08 participatory approaches 5 1 3 5 8 5 2 29
WP09 capacity building 3 2 2 2 5 3 3 20
WP10 dissemination 12 1 1 1 19 2 2 38
Total 9595 18 12 10 15015 20 30 335
0
The distribution of man-months on the different work packages reflect the
general man-power needs, but the categories needed vary among the different
partners as shown in Table 5, which also shows the man power cost.

Table 5. Categories of personnel to achieve work, their inputs in man-

months (*) and their cost [**] No updates

Partner Scientists
Chief Researcher Engineer Res. Techni
Scientis
scientis s s Assts. .
t
t
LEBANON

CNRS- 1(18) 3(26) 2(14) 1(8) 3(16) 3(13)

RSC [2000] [1500] [1300] [1000] [800] [500]
Min. 1(2) 1(8) 1(5) 3(3)
of
Agric.
Min. 1(6) 1(2) 3(4)
of Env.
Min. 1(4) 1(2) 2(4)
of
Muni.
SYRIA

GORS 1((18)) 5((24)) 3((14)) 3((10)) 4((16)) 5((14))

[[1000]] [[800]] [[550]] [[400]] [[300]] [[200]]
Min. 2((6)) 2((4)) 5((4))
of
Agric.
Min. 2((6)) 2((4)) 5((4))
of
LAE
Lebanon
* shown in parenthesis (8)
** shown in brackets [in $] for each/month
(rates shown for CNRS apply for others)
Syria
* shown in double parenthesis ((8))
** shown in double brackets [[in $]] for each/month
(rates shown for GORS apply for others)

The overall budget broken down into seven items (personnel, travel,
consumables, equipment, other costs, subcontracting, dissemination) plus
overhead is shown in Table 6 (see Budget section).
The two lead partners are well equipped with the basic needs for field work
and remote sensing – information work, but need to upgrade and support
those needs with “equipment” that is allocated for the project, to minimize
conflict with other on-going projects.
For CNRS-RSC, there is a strong need for a field car (4 x 4) as the project
requires a lot of field work for many of its tasks. There is a high need for
upgrading the remote sensing software (EnviSat and Radar) plus securing
relevant licenses, and a dedicated computer.
For GORS there is a strong need for two field cars (4 x 4) as the project
requires a lot of field work as the study area is large . There is a high need for
photocopier machine and four dedicated computers with relevant accessories.

Management and organization plan

1. Project management
The National Council for Scientific Research – Remote Sensing Center
(CNRS-RSC) will act as the coordinator and lead partner in Lebanon,
while the General Organization of Remote Sensing (GORS) in Syria will
be the coordinator and lead partner there. They will take care of the day-to-
day operational management of the project. They both have considerable
experience in managing international funded projects that apply to each
country, as well as cooperation in Regional projects (UN, EC and Arab
League). Both have collaborated before with the other partners in both
countries (Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of
Municipalities, Ministry of Local Administration & Environment), which
assures that contacts and coordinated work will be facilitated with a strong
network of committed partners (Figure 3). A Project Steering Committee
(PSC) from representatives of all partners will guide the project
management.

83
 Project Steering Committee
PSC

GORS CNRS-RSC
Syria Coordinator Lebanon Coordinator
& Lead Partner & Lead Partner

Ministry Partners
of Local Technical Ministry Ministry Ministry
Ministry of of of
Administration Committe
of Agriculture Agriculture Environment Municipalities
& Environment e

Public Stakeholders Public Stakeholders

Figure 3. Interactive management and collaboration structure in Project

not updated
2. Management tasks
The management tasks include:
• Coordinating and synchronization of the different work packages
• Coordinating project meetings
• Documenting project management tracking and quality control
• Monitoring of project progress in view of its schedule, milestones
and deliverables and risk management
3. Project meetings and communication
Overall project management will be based on regular meetings and
communication of the Project Steering Committee (PSC). The PSC
has representatives from each partner. It should assure continuous
contact with stakeholders. It is assumed unanimous agreement is
always sought, otherwise, a two-thirds majority will decide any
contested issues. The PSC will convene up to twice a year, and at
the beginning of the project for the first coordination meeting (the
kick-off). These will be part of the regular project technical
meetings as the project progress requires.
The PSC will also be responsible for all administrative and
organizational matters, plus critical assessment of project progress
as foreseen with milestones and deliverables. For Quality
Assurance, all project deliverables will have to be reviewed and
approved by at least three PSC members, excluding the partner
responsible for the work package in question. Electronic
communication on continuous basis, to assure full interaction, and
to address all technical matters will be an on-going tool. Staff
exchange and additional meetings, field visits at both countries are
envisioned at different times for added benefits and knowledge
permeation.
The Work Packages are assigned responsible leaders, that would take
care of the work package coordination, scheduling, and proper
implementation together with other partners, and communication of
its deliverables, making sure all involved are aware and
knowledgeable of its progress.
The project will maintain an e-mailing list and a website for general
accessible repository of project-related information, i.e. reports,
 documents, data, announcements, media materials, and stakeholders
information.
4. Project risk management
The management system and task monitoring, including careful
monitoring of project progress against its milestones, and regular
project internal progress reports, will assure minimal risks to project
progress and success. Ad hoc meetings of the PSC, if and when
need arises, can be called electronically. For any possible risk
(delays, lacking data, institutional or unforeseen conditions …)
certain contingency plans will be implemented. Any conflict that
might arise between partners, or with stakeholders, will be resolved
amicably, where the local coordinator, and if need be, the PSC, will
make sure unanimity is reached for that purpose. If otherwise, the
country’s arbitration and laws will be enforced.
5. Plan for disseminating knowledge
The project dedicates a full work package (WP 10) to disseminate
results and activities. Involvement and benefit of relevant actors and
stakeholders is crucial, notably administrative and technical bodies
of central and local government, and the farming, rural community,
plus Regional and International agencies. Seminars, workshops and
internet will be variably used for that purpose. Scientific
communications will be delivered in presentations and research
papers to make sure the scientific community also receives the
benefits of the project.
The project foresees some training activities for the methodological
components to be applied in each country, including assessment of
impact of socio-economic status as seen in human interference
inducing land degradation.
The project gives due significance to public participation through the
local stakeholders, including local government (municipalities) and
non-governmental institutions and private sector.

Budget and funding plan

All budget items are well defined, (Table 6) but the following gives
further details: Most “personnel” budget of lead partners will be
covered by the lead partners themselves, so this is their contribution
to the project (about 25 – 30% each). This covers their part-time

86
 salaries. The Lead Partners will have 6 personnel categories, all
shown with their monthly rate in Table 5. The capital expenses,
equipment, makes about 12.5%, which leaves about 60-65% as
operating expenses (Table 6). The “Travel” would cover external
travel outside the country to participate in conferences, workshops,
training, exchange visits that are relevant to the project and its
themes. The item “Consumables” covers such items as stationery,
spare parts, operational daily needs for running office by personnel
working for the project. “Other costs” cover such needs as testing
soil samples (chemical and physical analysis), field work needs and
repairs. “Subcontracting” implies expertise external to the partners
that would be contracted on a part-time, job-specific basis. The item
“Dissemination” relates to expenses for the website, holding
seminars, meetings, workshops that serve all the project, especially
participatory activities and capacity building, writing publications
and reporting.
For search to funding sources, the theme of the project focusing on
Land Degradation draws parallel to other international programs
and interests. It certainly serves the UNEP-MAP aspirations of the
Barcelona Convention for safe-guarding the Mediterranean and its
natural resources. Their CAMP projects aims are quite close to the
purpose of this proposal. The EC program SMAP, also focusing on
assessing environmental degradation of the Mediterranean, has
quite an interest in the proposal as it covers a major portion of the
eastern Mediterranean focusing on its natural resources and public
participation plus capacity building. Certainly, the UNDP-GEF
component on desertification is a major player supporting action-
oriented, plus policies and regulations, projects like this proposal.
Along the same line, one notices the close parallelism with the
UNCCD program facing desertification and capitalizing on such
local initiatives. This proposal is doubly significant as it is
Regional, covering most of Lebanon and western Syria, and its
geographic area spans a multitude of climatic zones, from the
humid to the semi-arid and arid. Regional agencies like the Arab
League’s ACSAD Center and the autonomous ICARDA and the
Mediterranean CIHEAM can be highly interested in the proposed
theme. Currently, the German GTZ is supporting a regional

87
component on this theme, and both the Canadian CIDA and
Swedish SIDA also support projects in this domain. Of course, land
degradation is the prime concern of the LADA program at FAO
where, recently, a gathering of experts was convened at Rome to
compare the different methodologies for assessing land degradation
and mapping affected areas. This opens the door to another
interesting and relevant FAO program focusing on mapping the
Global Land Cover (GLCN) which would be happy to know about
this proposal, especially with the use of the techniques of remote
sensing and geographic information systems. Its mapping outcome
would serve several programs that rely heavily on maps as
documents for planning and environmental assessment.

88
 Table 6. Budget overview ($)
No updates
Budget Salaries Capital
Operating expenses
item Part time Expenses
Travel & Total
Personne Equipmen Consumable Other Subcontractin Disseminatio Overhea
Partner subsistenc
l t s costs g n d
e
CNRS- 120,000 50,000 40,000 15,000 45,000 30,000 60,000 40,000 400,000
RSC
Min. of 25,260 4,210 8,420 4,210 12,630 8,420 12,630 8,420 84,200
Agric.
Min. of 18,960 3,160 6,320 3,160 9,480 6,320 9,480 6,320 63,200
Envt.
Min. of 15,780 2,630 5,260 2,630 7,890 5,260 7,890 5,260 52,600
Muni.
GORS 182,400 114,000 57,000 17,100 62,700 51,300 85,500 0 570,000
MoLA/E 15,000 7,500 5,000 7,500 7,500 0 7,500 0 50,000
Min. of 15,000 7,500 5,000 7,500 7,500 0 7,500 0 50,000
Agric.
Total 392,400 189,000 127,000 57,100 152,70 101,300 190,500 60,000 1,270,000
0
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Appendices

96