CHAPTER 4 STRUCTURES OF SOLIDS

4.1 Introduction1
4.2 Model Cryt!l Structure.. 2
4.2.1 Bonding in Solids2
4.2.2 Atomic Packing...3
4.2.3 The Unit Cell.. 4
4.2.4 Typology of Cystal St!ct!es.. "
4." T#e Ionic Model. #
4.3.1 The $adi!s $atio Paamete... #
4.3.2 %lectonegati&ity and Cystal St!ct!e.
1'
4.3.3 (attice %negy... 11
4.4 Cryt!l Structure1"
4.4.1 )etallic %lements and Alloys... 1"
4.4.2 )etal Salts1*
4.4.3 )etal +,ides. 22
4.4.4 )etal -ydo,o and -ydated Compo!nds... 24
4.4." )etal Silicates...31
4.4.. )etal S!lfides... 32
4.$ Molecul!r Or%it!l T#eory !nd t#e &!nd Model o' Solid... 33
4.".1 )olec!la +/itals and %negy Bands.. 33
4.".2 )etals0 1ns!latos0 and Semicond!ctos... 34
4.".3 1ntinsic and %,tinsic Semicond!ctos... .3"
4.".4 The 2emi (e&el in a Solid... 3.
4.( Electronic Structure o' Solid... 3*
4...1 )olec!la +/ital3%negy Band )odels.. 3*
4...2 %lectonic St!ct!es of )etal +,ides.. 34
4...3 %lectonic St!ct!es of )etal S!lfides41
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.1 Introduction
1n a6!eo!s pocessing0 o! pimay concen is 7ith sol!tion8/ased eactions0 and
the key eagents ae applied mostly in the fom of dissol&ed a6!eo!s species. 1t is
impotant to emem/e0 ho7e&e0 that in many of the eactions of inteest0 7e enco!nte
1
eactants and3o pod!cts in the solid phase. 1n this connection0 it is 7othy of note that
the ma9oity of the elements :; #'<= e,ist as solids at odinay tempeat!es. 1n se&eal
of the chaptes that follo7 this one0 7e 7ill /e peocc!pied 7ith intefacial pocesses0
e.g.0 dissol!tion0 cystal go7th0 adsoption0 and ion8e,change. >e shall see that the
s!face popeties and eacti&ities of solids ae intimately connected 7ith the /!lk cystal
and electonic st!ct!es.
>e /egin this chapte /y consideing the types of /onding that e,ist in solids. >e
then t!n o! attention to the geometical aangements of the /onded atoms in space.
2om a consideation of the !les that go&en the packing of e6!al8si?ed sphees0 7e
identify the /asic !nits that constit!te the /!ilding /locks fo cystal st!ct!es. >ith the
aid of these /!ilding /locks0 7e e&ie7 the cystal st!ct!es of epesentati&e solids.
2inally0 7e disc!ss electonic st!ct!es of solids0 !sing molec!la o/ital theoy as o!
stating point.
2
4.2 Model Cryt!l Structure
4.2.1 &ondin) in Solid
>e sa7 in Chaptes 2 and 3 that0 accoding to molec!la o/ital theoy0 a co&alent
molec!le o a metal8ligand comple, foms its molec!la o/itals /y com/ining the atomic
o/itals of the constit!ent atoms. Similaly0 7e can teat a solid paticle as a giant
molecule consisting of an e,temely lage n!m/e of molec!la o/itals. >e ecall
f!the fom Chaptes 2 and 3 that 7e can teat molec!la o/itals of a polyatomic
molec!le fom t7o e,teme points of &ie70 i.e.0 the locali?ed and delocali?ed /ond
models. Both models ae !sef!l in the disc!ssion of solid st!ct!es. >ith the locali?ed
/ond appoach0 7e can imagine a sit!ation 7hee one of the /onded atoms da7s the
shaed electons completely to itself. This 7ill es!lt in a completely ionic /ond0 and the
es!lting giant molec!le 7ill /e in eality an ionic solid0 7hee the thee8dimensional
st!ct!e is /ased on the electostatic inteaction :/onding= /et7een the constit!ent ions.
+n the othe hand0 if the /ond is completely co&alent0 7e get a thee8dimensional
co&alent solid s!ch as diamond0 7hee the st!ct!e consists of C8C /onds. At the othe
e,teme0 7e can conside the giant molec!le fom the &ie7point of the delocali?ed /ond
model. 1n this m!lti8centeed molec!la o/ital appoach0 the atomic n!clei of the solid
ae &ie7ed as em/edded in a sea of electons. This sit!ation is chaacteistic of the solids
of the metallic elements0 and this type of delocali?ed /onding has ac6!ied the name
metallic bonding. 1n some cases0 in addition to the ionic0 co&alent and metallic /onds0
othe intemolec!ala inteactions0 s!ch as &an de >aals foces and hydogen /onding
:see Section 2.4.4=0 conti/!te to the de&elopment of the thee8dimensional st!ct!e.
4.2.2 Ato*ic P!c+in)
1n the pe&io!s section 7e s!ggested that a solid can /e !sef!lly consideed as a
giant molec!le. As egads the shape of this molec!le0 ho7e&e0 7e 7ee silent. 1n this
section 7e 7ish to t!n to this 6!estion@ -o7 ae the constit!ent atoms of a solid
ogani?ed spatially in the solid phaseA To /egin0 7e conside the n!m/e of 7ays sphees
can /e densely packed into space. Then 7e ela, the constaint on dense packingB this
ena/les !s to teat the cystal st!ct!es of ionic solids. 1t is helpf!l to ogani?e o!
thinking ao!nd t7o8dimensional layes of sphees in contact. Then 7e /!ild thee
dimensional st!ct!es /y depositing these layes one on top the othe0 as ill!stated in
2ig!e 4.1. >e can /egin the laye /y laye stacking /y allo7ing the sphees of the
second laye to fall in the ca&ities in the fist laye. >e then ha&e t7o 7ays to add a thid
3
laye. 1n one scenaio0 7e can !se an ABAB poced!e0 7hee the thid laye sphees ae
&etically colinea 7ith fist laye sphees. 1n the othe scenaio0 7hich is /ased on an
ABCABC patten0 the thid laye sphees ae &etically colinea 7ith the holes in the fist
laye. These t7o st!ct!es of ABAB and ABCABC ae called polytypes 8 they ae
identical in t7o dimensions 7hile they ae mismatched in the thid. 2o each of these
polytypes0 the coodination n!m/e is 12.
Fi)ure 4.1 L!yer %y l!yer %uild,u- o' t#ree,di*enion!l tructure .S#ri/er0 -.1112.
4.2." T#e Unit Cell
>hen disc!ssing the st!ct!e of a cystalline solid0 it is helpf!l to identify the
smallest thee8dimensional !nit0 i.e.0 the unit cell0 that epesents the epeat !nit fo the
t7o close8packed st!ct!es disc!ssed a/o&e. To help in &is!ali?ing the !nit cell0 it is
con&enient to epesent each atom position as a point. The es!lting system of points is
temed the lattice0 and /y connecting the lattice points 7ith staight lines0 7e can
const!ct the unit cell. >e see fom 2ig!e 4.2a that the ABAB aangement es!lts in a
he,agonal !nit cellB the atoms ae desci/ed as hexagonally close-packed (hcp). +n the
othe hand0 the ABCABC aangement gi&es a face8centeed c!/ic !nit cell0 the atoms
/eing called face-centered cubic (fcc).
4
:a= :/=
Fi)ure 4.2 Cloe,-!c+ed cryt!l tructure3 .!2 He4!)on!l cloe,-!c+ed .#c-20 .%2
'!ce,centered cu%ic .'cc2.
Fi)ure 4." Le cloe,-!c+ed cryt!l tructure3 .!2 %ody,centered cu%ic .%cc20 .%2
-ri*iti/e cu%ic .cu%ic,P2.

>hile the !nit cells /elo7 in&ol&e close8packed e6!al8si?ed sphees0 7e can
imagine othe sphee packings 7hich ae not close8packed. A !nit cell in&ol&ing a
coodination n!m/e of eight is sho7n in 2ig!e 4.3a :Shi&e0 p.112=. This epesents a
"
:a= :/=
:/=
:a=
:a=
:/=
body-centered cubic (bcc) st!ct!e and it is chaactei?ed /y a system of c!/e8cente
pl!s c!/e8cone lattice points. Anothe non8close8packed st!ct!e0 the primitive cubic
(cubic-P) is sho7n in 2ig!e 4.3/. This st!ct!e is dei&ed fom the /cc st!ct!e /y
emo&ing the c!/e8cente lattice point.

E5AMPLE 4.1 Si6e contr!int on t#e occu-!tion o' intertiti!l #ole
Conside a close8packed system of sphees of adi!s . :a= Sho7 that the lagest atom that can
occ!py an octahedal hole 7ill ha&e a adi!s of '.414. :/= $epeat :a= fo a tetahedal hole0 and sho7 that
in this case the e6!ied adi!s is '.22".
Solution
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.2.4 Ty-olo)y o' Cryt!l Structure
>hen 7e s!&ey the myiad of solids a&aila/le0 7hethe the &aio!s mateials ae
classified as metallic elements0 ionic solids0 o co&alent solids0 7e find that the &aio!s
cystal st!ct!es can /e consideed in tems of a small set of model cystal st!ct!es. 1n
these st!ct!es the coodination n!m/e anges fom t7el&e to t7o. )etals ae
geneally associated 7ith lage coodination n!m/es :4 8 12=0 7hile molec!la solids
!s!ally ha&e lo7 coodination n!m/es :e.g.0 4=. 2o ionic solids0 a coodination of . is
typically enco!nteed. 2o! of the model st!ct!es ha&e aleady /een disc!ssed a/o&e0
i.e.0 the face centeed c!/ic :fcc=0 the he,agonal close8packed :hcp=0 the /ody centeed
c!/ic :/cc=0 and simple o pimiti&e c!/ic :c!/ic8P=.
)odel cystal st!ct!es fo compo!nds 7ith 1@1 stoichiomety :i.e.0 chemical
fom!la )C= ae pesented in 2ig!e 4.4. 1n the rock-salt :DaCl= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4.4a=0
chloide anions ae aanged in an fcc patten0 and the sodi!m cations eside in the
octahedal holes. The es!lting coodination is desci/ed as :.0.= since each ion has si,
co!nteions as neaest neigh/os. The cesium chloride :CsCl= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4.4/=0
7hich is c!/ic0 is dei&ati&e of the ideal /cc st!ct!e0 7ith chloide anions at the cones
and Cs cations at the c!/e cente. The coodination is :404=. The sphalerite or
zincblende :EnS= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4.4c= may /e &ie7ed in tems of an fcc aay of s!lfide
anions 7ith ?inc cations in one set of the tetahedal holes. The coodination is :404=. 1n
the case of the wurtzite :EnS= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4.4d=0 the s!lf! anions ae aanged in an
hcp patten and the ?inc cations eside in one set of the tetahedal holes. The nickel
.
arsenide :DiAs= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4.4e= is fo!nded on an hcp patten of As atoms0 7ith
nickel atoms filling the octahedal holes. The Di atoms ae aanged into a tigonal
pism0 7ithin 7hich the As atom esides.
:a= $ock salt :DaCl= :/= Cesi!m chloide :CsCl=
:c= Sphaleite o ?inc/lende :EnS= :d= >!t?ite :EnS=
:e= Dickel asenide :DiAs=
Fi)ure 4.4 Model cryt!l tructure 'or M5 .1312 co*-ound.
2ig!e 4." pesents model st!ct!es fo compo!nds 7ith 1@2 :o 2@1=
stoichiomety0 i.e.0 compo!nds of the type )C2 :o )2C=. The rutile :titani!m dio,ide0
Ti+2= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4."a= is /ased on an hcp lattice of anions in 7hich only "'< of
*
the octahedal holes ae occc!pied /y the cations. The coodination n!m/e of Ti is si,0
7hile that of o,ygen is thee. 1n the fluorite :Ca22= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4."/=0 the Ca2F
ions ae aanged as an fcc aayB the fl!oide ions occ!py /oth sets of tetahedal holes0
gi&ing :404= coodination. 2o compo!nds 7ith the fom!la )2C0 the cation and anion
positions ae e&esed0 and the es!lting st!ct!e is called antifluorite. 1n -cristobalite
:Si+2=0 each Si atom is s!o!nded /y fo! + atoms0 7hile each + atom lies /et7een t7o
Si atoms :2ig!e 4."c=. This st!ct!e may /e dei&ed fom the sphaleite st!ct!e /y
eplacing each ?inc and s!lf! atom 7ith a silicon atom and inseting o,ygen atoms
/et7een the silicon atoms. 1n the cadmium iodide :Cd12= st!ct!e :2ig!e 4."d=0 a laye
of Cd atoms is sand7iched in /et7een t7o layes of iodine atoms. Ad9acent sand7iches
ae linked only &ia &an de >aals foces.
:a= $!tile :titani!m dio,ide0 Ti+2= :/= 2l!oite :Ca22=
:c= 8Cisto/alite :Si+2= :d= Cadmi!m iodide :Cd12=
Fi)ure 4.$ Model cryt!l tructure 'or M52 .M252 co*-ound.
4
:a= $e+3 :/= Peo&skite :CaTi+3=
Fi)ure 4.( Model cryt!l tructure 'or A&5" co*-ound3 .!2 ReO"0 .%2 Pero/+ite
.C!TiO"2.
The model st!ct!e fo many ABC3 compo!nds is the perovskite :CaTi+3=
st!ct!e. This st!ct!e0 in t!n0 may /e dei&ed fom the $e+3 st!ct!e. As can /e
seen fom 2ig!e 4..a0 the $e+3 st!ct!e is c!/icB $e atoms occ!py c!/e8cones0 7hile
+ atoms ae located at the edges of the !nit c!/e. >hen the st!ct!e is e,tended /eyond
the !nit cell0 it can /e seen that it is chaactei?ed /y octaheda 7hich ae linked at the
c!/e8cones. An impotant feat!e of the $e+3 st!ct!e is the pesence of a lage
t7el&e8coodinate cental hole. By inseting a lage anion A into this hole0 one o/tains
the peo&skite st!ct!e :2ig!e 4../=. 1n the peo&skite fom!la of ABC30 C is typically
+
28
o 2
8
. 1n ode to maintain electone!tality0 the total chage caied /y the A and B
atoms m!st add !p to si,.
)any metal compo!nds of geneal fom!la AB2+40 ha&e cystal st!ct!es that ae
modeled afte that of spinel :)gAl2+4=. 1n this st!ct!e0 +
28
ions ae ogani?ed into an
fcc patten0 and 134 of the tetahedal holes ae occ!pied /y A ions0 7hile 132 of the
octahedal holes contain B ions. The identity of the octahedal ions may /e highlighted
/y !sing s6!ae /ackets0 as in AGB2H+4. 1n some cases0 an inverse spinel AGA0BH+4 may
fom.
4." T#e Ionic Model
4.".1 T#e R!diu R!tio P!r!*eter
>e sa7 in Section 4.2.1 that0 fom the &ie7point of the locali?ed /ond model0 the
/onding electons in an ionic solid0 )C0 ae assigned entiely to the moe electonegati&e
atom :C=0 7hich then /ecomes the anion. The less electonegati&e atom :)= /ecomes the
cation. Th!s !nde s!ch cic!mstances0 the cystal st!ct!e can /e &ie7ed as a system of
chaged sphees held togethe /y attacti&e electostatic inteactions. Clealy0 not all
solids ae completely ionic. -o7e&e0 it is helpf!l to ass!me a thoo!ghgoing
electostatic &ie7 of solids. Then0 de&iations fom this ideal model po&ide an indication
of the elati&e impotance of co&alent and electostatic conti/!tions.
1n co&alent /onding0 coodination n!m/es ae ationali?ed in tems of electonic
st!ct!e0 e.g.0 the symmety of atomic o/itals. 1n the case of ionic st!ct!es0 si?e
compati/ility /ecomes the g!iding pinciple. Also0 it 7as noted a/o&e that the cystal
st!ct!e of solids ae dei&ed fom close packed aays of one kind of atom and the holes
ae filled completely o patially /y anothe kind of atom. Th!s0 7e can conside0 in the
e,teme0 that thee 7ill /e si?e constaints on the si?e of the atom that fills the holes.
Altenati&ely0 fo a gi&en atom0 7e e,pect si?e constaints on the n!m/e of lage atoms
that can s!o!nd it. A !sef!l paamete that ena/les one to 6!antify the si?e constaint is
the adi!s atio0 F38. By consideing the coss8sections associated 7ith the &aio!s lattice
st!ct!es0 it can /e sho7n that the possi/le coodination n!m/es change as s!mmai?ed
in Ta/le 4.1.
T!%le 4.1 R!diu r!tio,coordin!tion nu*%er correl!tion
Coordin!tion nu*%er R!diu r!tio R!n)e
3 '.1"" I F38 I '.23
4 '.23 I F38 I '.414
. '.414 I F38 I '.*32
4 '.*32 I F38 I 1.''

E5AMPLE 4.2 Coordin!tion nu*%er o' *et!l !lt
Calc!late the ele&ant adi!s atios and pedict the coodination n!m/es of the ions in the
follo7ing solids@ :a= DaCl :/= Cs2 :c= CsCl :d= EnS.
Solution
:a= $efeing to Ta/le 2.40 the adi!s of Da
F
is 113 pm fo CD J 4 and 11. pm fo CD J .. Based on these
adii0 F38 J 11331.* o 11.31.* J '..#"B in eithe case0 the pedicted coodination n!m/e is .0
accoding to Ta/le 4.1.
:/= 2o a compo!nd s!ch as cesi!m fl!oide0 7hee the anion is smalle than the cation0 the adi!s atio is
detemined as 83F. Taking the ele&ant data fom Ta/le 2.40 83F J 11#3141 J '.."4. Th!s0 efeing to
Ta/le 4.10 7e e,pect a coodination n!m/e of ..
:c= 2o CsCl0 7e ha&e 83F J 1.*3141 J '.#23. Accodingly0 the pedicted coodination n!m/e is 4.
:d=
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
Fi)ure 4.7 A tructure correl!tion *!- 'or M5 co*-ound .S#ri/er0 -.1222.
4.".2 Electrone)!ti/ity !nd Cryt!l Structure
>e ha&e seen that the /onding in a compo!nd AB is likely to /e ionic 7hen the
elctonegati&ity diffeence0 0 is lage. At the same time0 7e find that ionic compo!nds
tend to ha&e lage coodination n!m/es0 7hile co&alency es!lts in small coodination
n!m/es. Th!s0 it is not s!pising that thee sho!ld /e a coelation /et7een and and
the type of cystal st!ct!e. 2ig!e 4.* pesents a structure map 7hich ill!states the
manne in 7hich the magnit!de of the electonegati&ity diffeence is elated to the
coesponding st!ct!e. 1t can /e seen that 7hen is lage0 the tendency is to fom
compo!nds 7ith elati&ely high coodination n!m/es :e.g.0 the ock salt and !tile
st!ct!es=. +n the othe hand0 7ith small &al!es0 the es!lting st!ct!es tend to ha&e
smalle coodination n!m/es. :See also0 %. )ose and >. B. Peason0 Acta Cyst.0 120
1'1" :1#"#==.
4."." L!ttice Ener)y .Ent#!l-y2
A !sef!l paamete in assessing the sta/ility of a gi&en cystal st!ct!e is the
lattice enegy0 defined as the change in enegy associated 7ith the decomposition of a
solid into its gaseo!s ions@
)C :s= )
F
:g= F C
8
:g= -( :4.1=
%negy is e6!ied in ode to degade the lattice0 and theefoe0 the lattice enegy is a
positi&e 6!antity. Th!s0 the highe the lattice enegy0 the geate the sta/ility of the
coesponding cystal st!ct!e. The lattice enegy also po&ides a means fo assessing
the degee of co&alency associated 7ith the chemical /onds in the solid. 1f an ionic
model is ass!med0 then a theoetical lattice enegy may /e calc!lated and this can /e
compaed 7ith the e,peimentally detemined &al!e.
The lattice enegy can /e consideed as consisting of t7o main conti/!tions@ :1=
The electostatic co!lom/ic inteactions /et7een the ions :Kc=0 and :2= the electron
overlap repulsions :Ko=.
K( J Kc F Ko :4.2=
2o t7o ions A and B0 7hose centes ae sepaated /y a distance 0 the co!lom/ic
potential enegy is gi&en /y@
KAB J :?Ae= :?Be=3:4oAB= :4.3=
7hee ?A and ?B especti&ely epesent the chages on the ions0 and o is the &ac!!m
pemitti&ity :4.4" , 1'812 C
2
L
81
m
81
=.
To o/tain the total co!lom/ic potential enegy fo the cystal0 the s!mmation of
all the pai potentials is detemined. The es!lting e,pession has the fom@
Kc J DAGe
2
34oHG?A?B3dHA :4.4=
1n this e,pession0 DA is the Avogadro number0 the second tem go!ps a n!m/e of
f!ndamental constants0 the thid tem contains paametes chaacteistic of the specific
ions and dimensions of the lattice :the paamete d epesents the neaest8neigh/o
distance=0 and the fo!th tem A is called the adelung constant and is chaacteistic of
the patic!la cystal st!ct!e. Ta/le 4.2 pesents a selection of )adel!ng constants fo
some model cystal st!ct!es. 1n geneal0 the highe the coodination n!m/e0 the highe
the )adel!ng constant.
T!%le 4.2 M!delun) cont!nt
Structure Ty-e A
Cesi!m chloide 1.*.3
2l!oite 2."1#
$ock8salt 1.*44
$!tile 2.4'4
Sphaeleite 1..34
>!t?ite 1..41
>hen t7o ions 7ith closed8shell electonic st!ct!es appoach each othe0 they
7ill e,peience m!t!al ep!lsion fom the o&elap of thei electon clo!ds. The potential
enegy aising fom this ep!lsi&e inteaction can /e e,pessed as@
Ko J Kc F DACM e
8d3dN
:4."=
7hee CM and dN ae constantsB it is a !sef!l appo,imation to set dN J '.34" O.
1n &ie7 of %6!ations 4.20 4.40 and 4."0 7e can 7ite@
K J DAGe
2
34oHG?A?B3dHA F DACM e
8d3dN
:4..=
Using the fact that the total potential enegy is a minim!m 7hen dK3dd J '0 it can /e
sho7n that@
K J :DA?A?Be
2
34od=:1 8 dN3d=A :4.*=
%6!ation 4.* is temed the !orn-ayer e"uation.
The lattice enthalpy can also /e detemined 7ith the #apustinskii e"uation0 7hich
is /ased on the empiical o/se&ation that the act!al st!ct!e of an ionic solid can /e
epesented /y an enegetically8e6!i&alent ock8salt st!ct!e. The Pap!stinskii e6!ation
can /e e,pessed as@
-( J 8:n?8?F3d= :1 8 dN3d=# :4.4=
7hee d J :F F 8=0 # J 1.21 )L O mol
81
0 and n is the n!m/e of ions pesent in a fom!la
!nit of the solid. >ith the aid of the Pap!stinskii e6!ation0 it is possi/le to o/tain cystal
adii0 temed thermochemical radii0 fo comple, ions. Ta/le 4.3 pesents a selection of
themochemical adii :also see A. 2. Pap!stinskii0 Q. $e&. Chem. Soc.0 2'0 2'3 :1#".==.
T!%le 4." T#er*oc#e*ic!l r!dii .Hu#eey0 -.1182.
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
E5AMPLE 4." S-#!lerite /eru 9urt6ite 'or*!tion
+n the /asis of lattice enegy consideations0 detemine the chage and scale paamete constaints
that lead to the pefeential fomation of one o the othe polytypes of EnS.
Solution
Using the s!/scipts s and 7 to signify sphaleite and 7!t?ite especti&ely0 7e can 7ite that
sphaleite is pefeed o&e 7!t?ite po&ided that Kms R Km70 i.e.0
:?A?B=s :d=7 R A7 J 1..41
:d=s :?A?B=7 As 1..34
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.4 Cryt!l Structure
4.4.1 Met!llic Ele*ent !nd Alloy
1t 7as noted a/o&e :Section 4.2.1= that /onding in solids of the metallic elements
is /est desci/ed in tems of delocali?ed /onds. As a es!lt of the non8diectional nat!e
of this kind of /onding0 the atoms of metals in the solid state can ac6!ie the ma,im!m
coodination n!m/es allo7ed /y adi!s atio consideations. Theefoe0 the st!ct!es of
the metallic elements tend to /e close8packed. This close packing acco!nts fo the
typically high densities of metals. >hat factos detemine 7hethe a gi&en metal pefes
the fcc o hcp st!ct!eA A !sef!l !le of th!m/ is that a he,agonal st!ct!e is pefeed
if the n!m/e of &alence electons3&alence o/itals is lo70 7hile c!/ic st!ct!es ae
pefeed 7hen the n!m/e is high. :>hyA=
Besides hcp and fcc0 othe st!ct!es ae also kno7n. Th!s0 7ith incease in
tempeat!e0 it is not !ncommon fo metals to !ndego a tansition fom close8packed to
less close8packed st!ct!es. The onset of st!ct!al tansition can /e ationali?ed /y
ecogni?ing that geate atomic mo&ements ae moe compati/le 7ith a moe loose
cystal st!ct!e. At elati&ely lo7 tempeat!es0 the tendency of a gi&en metal to fom a
close8packed st!ct!e may /e elated to electonic st!ct!e. 1f a metal is &ie7ed in
tems of positi&e chages immesed in an ocean of electons0 then the highe the electon
density in this sea0 the highe the atomic packing. Accodingly0 the alkali metals 7hich
ha&e elati&ely lo7 &alence electons 7ill ha&e a geate tendency to adopt the /cc
st!ct!e. The tempeat!e making the tansition fom close8packed to non close8packed
st!ct!es may /e a/o&e oom tempeat!e :e.g.0 Ca0 Ti0 )n=0 o it may /e /elo7 oom
tempeat!e :e.g.0 (i0 Da=.
>hen t7o o moe metals ae mi,ed in the molten state0 the es!lting solid
pod!ct is temed an alloy. At one e,teme0 an alloy may epesent a solid solution0
7hee the constit!ent atoms ae andomly intemi,ed. At the othe e,teme0 the atoms in
the mi,t!e com/ine to gi&e compo!nds 7ith specific compositions and st!ct!e. The
simplest alloy is a /inay mi,t!e 7hee the ma9oity atoms epesent the sol&ent and the
minoity atoms the sol!te. 1n substitutional solid sol!tions0 the sol!te atoms ae located
at sites nomally occ!pied /y the sol&ent atoms. 1n the case of intestitial solid sol!tions0
the sol!te atoms inset themsel&es in the spaces /et7een the sol&ent atoms. The
follo7ing set of conditions m!st /e met in ode fo a s!/stit!tional solid sol!tion to
fom@ :a= the sol!te atom m!st ha&e a si?e compaa/le 7ith that of the sol&ent atom :
1"<=0 :/= the diffeent metals sho!ld ha&e simila cystal st!ct!es0 and :c= the metals
m!st ha&e compaa/le electonegati&ities so that the possi/le fomation of a compo!nd is
minimi?ed. 1n the case of intestitial solid sol!tions0 the sol!te atoms m!st ha&e si?es
compati/le 7ith the intestitial sites in the sol&ent lattice. %,amples of intemetallic
compo!nds@ 8/ass :C!En=0 )gEn20 C!3A!0 and Da"En21.
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
E5AMPLE 4.4. Ato*ic -ro-ertie !nd !lloy 'or*!tion
$ationali?e the follo7ing o/se&ations@
:a= Both Da and P adopt the /cc st!ct!e and many of thei chemical popeties ae simila0 and yet0 they
ae m!t!ally insol!/le.
:/= +f the thee neigh/oing elements0 Di0 C!0 and En0 C! and Di e,hi/it complete m!t!al sol!/ility0
7heeas C! and En ae only patially misci/le.
Solution
:a= The adi!s of the Da atom is 1.4. O 7hile that of the P atom is 2.2. O. Th!s0 G:2.2. 8 1.4.=32.2.H J
'.140 and theefoe the diffeence in the atomic adii e,ceeds the e6!ied limit of 1"<. -ence the t7o
metals ae e,pected to /e immisci/le.
:/= The metals C! and Di ae simila 7ith espect to electonegati&ities0 cystal st!ct!es :fcc=0 and
metallic adii :Di 1.2" O0 C! 1.24 O0 2.3< diffeent=. Th!s0 7e 7o!ld e,pect solid sol!tions to fom.
+n the othe hand0 e&en tho!gh C! and En ha&e simila electonegati&ities and metallic adii :C! 1.24
O0 En 1.3* O0 * pecent lage=0 the cystal st!ct!es ae incompati/le fo solid sol!tion fomation :En
is hcp0 7heeas C! is fcc=.

E5AMPLE 4.$. Intertiti!l olid olution
2o an intestitial atom to fit sn!gly into an octahedal hole of a close8packed metal st!ct!e0 its
adi!s m!st not e,ceed the hole adi!s of '.4140 7hee is the adi!s of the metal atom.
:a= Si&en the a/o&e consideation0 detemine the smallest adii of metal atoms that 7ill /e compati/le
7ith -0 B0 C0 o D as intestitial atoms.
:/= The late d8/lock mem/es of the fist o7 ha&e adii 7hich do not e,ceed 1..' O0 yet these metals ae
kno7n to fom intestitial solid8sol!tions 7ith -0 B0 C0 and D. -o7 can these o/se&ations /e
ationali?edA
Solution
:a= >e need to satisfy the condition D) I '.4140 the s!/scipt D) efes to nonmetal. Th!s0 fo - J 0 B
J 0 C J 0 and D J 0 ) R D)3'.414.
:/= Si&en the condition D) I '.4140 B0 C0 and D atoms e6!ie metal atoms 7ith adii of 1.#"0 1.440 and
1.4' O especti&ely. These adii e,ceed the 1..' O limit of the ele&ant tansition metals. Th!s it m!st
/e concl!ded that definite compo!nds fom0 athe than intestitial solid sol!tions.
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.4.2 Met!l S!lt
1n Chapte 3 7e enco!nteed the (e7is acid8/ase concept. $elated to this0 is the
!ronsted acid8/ase concept0 disc!ssed in geate detail in Chapte ". Biefly0 in the
Bonsted lang!age0 an acid is defined as a species :-A= that can donate a poton
:%6!ation 4.#= and a /ase as a species :C+-= that ecei&es a poton :%6!ation 4.1'=. A
salt then is a compo!nd 7hich foms 7hen a Bonsted acid is ne!tali?ed /y a Bonsted
/ase@
-A J -
F
F A
8
:4.#=
C+- F -
F
J C
F
F -2+ :4.1'=
C+- F -A J CA :s= F -2+ :4.11=
1n this Section 7e conside t7o types of salts@ :a= simple binary salts0 ),Ay0 pimaily
metal halides0 and :/= complex metal salts0 pimaily salts of o,yanions. -ydo,ysalts
:i.e.0 salts 7hich contain +-
8
go!ps= and hydated salts :i.e.0 salts 7hich contain 7ate
molec!les= ae disc!ssed in Section 4.4.4.
etal halides. T7o key geneali?ations can /e made egading the cystal
st!ct!es of metal halides@ :a= 2o a gi&en metal0 the st!ct!e of the fl!oide tends to /e
diffeent fom that of the othe halides. Th!s fl!oides tend to cystalli?e into thee8
dimensional st!ct!es0 7heeas the chloides0 /omides and iodides pefe mostly laye
and occasionally chain st!ct!es. :/= 2l!oides and o,ides 7ith simila chemical
fom!las tend to ha&e the same cystal st!ct!es. +n the othe hand0 Cl0 B0 and 1 salts
tend to /e isost!ct!al 7ith s!lfides0 selenides0 and tell!ides. Ta/le 4.4 pesents the
cystal st!ct!es fo selected metal halides.
T!%le 4.4 T#e cryt!l tructure o' *et!l #!lide .:ell0 -.41;2

Ty-e o' tructure For*ul! Ty-e M C<3O C< <!*e o' tructure E4!*-le
1nfinite )C4 4@ E24 E24
38dimensional )C3 .@2 $e+3
comple,es )C3 4 F 1@ T23 T23
)C2 4@A 2l!oite Ca22
)C2 .@A $!tile )220 ) J
)g0 K0
C0 )n0 2e0 Co0
Di0 C!0 En
)C2 4@2 Silica Se+2
)C 4@A CsCl CsCl0 CsB0 Cs1
)C .@. Sodi!m chloide ) J (i0 Da0 P0
$/0 Cs20
Ag20
AgCl0 AgB
)C 4@4 Sphaleite C!Cl0 C!B0
C!1
)C 4@4 >!t?ite Ag1
(aye st!ct!es )C2 .@A CdCl2 )Cl20 ) J )g0
)n0 2e0 Co0 Di
(aye st!ct!es )C2 .@A Cd12 )120 )B
)J )g0 Ti0 K0 C0
)n0 2e0 Co0 TiCl20
KCl20 C!Cl20
DiB20
C!B2
Chain st!ct!es )C2 4@ PdCl2 PdCl2
)C 2@ A!1 A!1
)olec!la
st!ct!es )C2 2@ -gCl2 -gCl2

$omplex Salts. +n the /asis of the electonegati&ities of the atoms A and B0
compo!nds of the type A,By+? may /e classified into t7o main go!ps0 i.e.0 complex
oxides0 and oxysalts. >hen A and B ha&e simila electopositi&e chaacte0 the solid may
/e &ie7ed as a system of A0 B0 and + ions0 and the compo!nd is called a complex oxide.
+n the othe hand0 if the cystal st!ct!e compises a metal ion A and a comple, anion
B+m0 then the compo!nd is called an oxysalt. 1n this case0 A is electopositi&e0 7hile B
is electonegati&e0 and the compo!nd is called a salt /eca!se it may /e synthesi?ed /y
eacting to a /asic o,ide :A8containing compo!nd= 7ith an acidic o,ide :B8containing
compo!nd=. 1n an o,ysalt0 B is typically a nonmetal0 ho7e&e0 in some cases it can /e a
highly chaged tansition metal cation. 1t m!st /e noted that this di&ision of comple, o,y
compo!nds into o,ysalts and comple, o,ides may /e am/ig!o!s in some cases.
Comple, o,ides ae disc!ssed in Section 4.".3. Ta/le 4." pesents a selection of
o,yanions 7ith thei coesponding shapes.
T!%le 4.$ O4y!nion !nd t#eir #!-e .:ell0 -.$122

Don8linea D+2
8
Cl+2
8
Plana B+3
38
C+3
28
D+3
8
Pyamidal S+3
28
Cl+3
8
B+3
8
1+3
8
Tetahedal Si+4
48
P+4
38
S+4
28
Cl+4
8
As+4
38
1+4
8
K+4
38
)n+4
8
Tetagonal pyamidal 1+"
38
$e+"
38
+ctahedal Te+.
.8
1+.
"8

>hen an o,yanion inteacts 7ith a metal ion0 the /onding atom is the o,ygen. 1t
is fo!nd that the cation3o,ide atio can /e !sed as a pedicto of the cystal st!ct!es of
o,ysalts. This is ill!stated in Ta/le 4.. fo a go!p of !ni&alent nitates0 di&alent
ca/onates0 and teta&alent /oates. :Pa!ling0 p."4*=. 1t can /e seen that the adi!s atio
of '..* epesents a tansition /et7een the calcite :C.D. J .= and aagonite :C.D. J #=
st!ct!es of calci!m ca/onate.
T!%le 4.( R!diu r!tio,tructure correl!tion 'or elected o4y!lt .!'ter P!ulin)0 -.$472

Calcite st!ct!e (iD+3 '.34 )gC+3 '.4* ScB+3 '..'
DaD+3 '."4 EnC+3 '."' 1nB+3 '."#
CdC+3 '.." TB+3 '..4
CaC+3 '..*
Aagonite st!ct!e PD+3 '.*. CaC+3 '..* (aB+3 '.*#
SC+3 '.*"
BaC+3 '.4*
$/D+3 st!ct!e $/D+3 '.44
CsD+3 '.#.
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
A !sef!l concept in e,amining the sta/ilities of comple, ionic cystals is the
electrostatic bond strength :%BS=. Conside a cation of chage F?e and coodination
n!m/e n :i.e.0 the cental metal ion is engaged in n )8+ /onds=. Then 7e o/tain the
electostatic /ond stength /y disti/!ting the total cation chage among the n )8+
/onds0 i.e.0
%BS J ?3n :4.12=
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
E5AMPLE 4.( T#e electrot!tic %ond tren)t# o' M,O %ond in MOn -oly#edr!.
Uetemine the %BS fo the )8+ /onds in the follo7ing polyheda@ :a= Si+40 :/= Al+.0 :c= )g+..
Solution
:a= 2o Si+40 ? J 40 n J 40 and theefoe0 !sing %6!ation 4.1"0 %BS J ?3n J 131 J 1.
:/= 2o Al+.0 ? J 30 n J .0 and th!s0 %BS J ?3n J 33. J 132.
:c= 2o )g+.0 ? J 20 n J .. Th!s0 %BS J ?3n J 23. J 133.
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
Conside an anion C+m
?8
B 7e ass!me that the total anionic chage :?8= is shaed
among the m o,ygen atoms. Accodingly0 the patial chage on each o,ygen atom is :8
?3m=. (et !s f!the conside a metal ion0 )
?F
0 7hich foms a salt )C+m. >e e6!ie
that the patial chage caied /y each metal8ligand /ond :i.e.0 the electostatic /ond
stength0 %BS= /e /alanced locally /y an e6!al /!t opposite chage on the /onded o,ygen
atomB this is the pinciple of local charge balancing. Th!s0 if a gi&en o,ide anion +
28
:/elonging to the o,yanion C+m
?8
= paticipates in 9 coodination polyheda0 then 7e
e,pect that the %BS of the coesponding 9 )8+ /onds sho!ld add !p to the patial chage
on the specific o,ide ion. That is0
:?3m= J %BSi J :?3n=i J 9:?3n= :4.13=
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
E5AMPLE 4.7 T#e electrot!tic /!lence rule.
:a= 2o each of these comple, anions0 detemine the patial chage on each o,ygen atom@ Si+4
48
0 P+4
38
0
S+4
28
0 Cl+4
8
.
:/= The follo7ing compo!nds adopt the calcite st!ct!e@ DaD+30 CaC+30 1nB+3. Uetemine the n!m/e
of )+n polyheda associated 7ith each o,ygen of the especti&e anions.
Solution
:a= :i= Si+4
28
@ 2o C+m
?8
0 mJ4 and ?J2. Theefoe0 patial chage J :8?3m= J 8234 J 8132.
:ii= P+4
38
@ mJ40 ?J3B :8?3m= J 8334.
:iii= S+4
28
@ mJ40 ?J2B :8?3m= J 8234 J 8132.
:i&= Cl+4
8
@ mJ40 ?J1B :8?3m= J 8134.
:/= The calcite st!ct!e in&ol&es octahedal coodination0 i.e.0 )+.. Th!s0 fo the gi&en metal cations0 the
coesponding %BS ae ?3n J F13. :Da8+=0 F23. J F133 :Ca8+=0 F33. J F132 :1n8+=. The patial
chages on the anionic o,ygens ae@ :8133= :D+3
8
=0 :8233= :C+3
28
=0 :8333 J 81= :B+3
38
=. Th!s0 efeing to
%6!ation 4.130 fo chage ne!tali?ation0 7e e6!ie@
:8133= :D+3
8
= F 9G13. :Da8+=H J 'B i.e.0 9 J2.
:8233= :C+3
28
= F 9G133 :Ca8+=H J 'B i.e.0 9 J 2.
:81= :B+3
38
= F 9G132 :1n8+=H J 'B i.e.0 9 J 2.
The coesponding st!ct!es ae as ill!stated /elo7.
:Also see >ells0 p.32*=
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.4." Met!l O4ide
The eathMs c!st consists of ; #'< o,ygen0 and inoganic mateials a/o!nd 7ith
o,ygen8containing compo!nds. 1n this section0 7e conside :a= binary metal oxides0 i.e.0
compo!nds that compise o,ygen and a metallic element0 and :/= complex metal oxides0
i.e.0 compo!nds that contain t7o o moe metals in com/ination 7ith o,ygen. The elated
hydo,o compo!nds0 hydo,ides0 ):+-=n0 and o,yhydo,ides0 )+:+-=0 ae disc!ssed
in Section 4.4.4.
!inary etal %xides& Ta/le 4.* pesents a ta/le of the st!ct!es of selected
/inay metal o,ides. A s!&ey of the /inay metal o,ides leads to a n!m/e of
geneali?ations@
:a= 1n most metal o,ides the /onding is ionic.
:/= The metal atom typically has a high coodination n!m/e0 . o 4.
:c= The cystal st!ct!es adopted /y metal o,ides tend to /e the same as those
fo the coesponding fl!oides.
:d= The ionic adi!s of +
28
is typically lage than that of the coesponding
metal ionB $/
F
0 Cs
F
0 and Tl
F
ae the e,ceptions.
:e= The cystal st!ct!e !s!ally consists of a close8packed aay of +
28
ions0
7ith metal ions typically in the octahedal holes.
Da
F
Da
F
D +
+
+
Ca
2F
Ca
2F
C +
+
+
1n
3F
1n
3F
B +
+
+
133 13.
8233 81
132
132 133
8133
13.
:f= 1n some o,ides0 the metal may /e pesent in moe than one o,idation state0
e.g.0 ):11=0 ):11=0 and ):1K= in )3+4.
:g= )any tansition metals e,hi/it de&iations fom stoichiomety0 and this es!lts
in semicond!cti&ity :see Sections 4." and 4..=.
T!%le 4.7 T#e cryt!l tructure o' %in!ry *et!l o4ide .:ell0 -.$"42

Ty-e o' tructure For*ul! Ty-e M C<3O C< <!*e o' tructure E4!*-le
1nfinite )+3 .@2 $e+3 >+3
38dimensional
comple,es )+2 4@4 2l!oite E+20 -f+20
Ce+20
Th+20 U+2
)+2 .@3 $!tile Ti+20 )o+20
)n+20
$!+20Pt+2
)2+3 .@4 Co!nd!m Al2+30 2e2+30
$h2+30 Sa2+3
)2+3 .@4 A80 B80 C8)2+3 )n2+30 Sc2+30
T2+30 1n2+3
)+ .@. Sodi!m chloide )g+0 )n+0
2e+0
Co+0 Di+
)+ 4@4 >!t?ite Be+0 En+
)+2 4@2 Silica Se+2
)2+ 2@4 C!pite C!2+0 Ag2+
)2+ 4@4 Antifl!oite (i2+0 Da2
P2+0
$/2+
(aye st!ct!es )o+30 As2+30
P/+0 Sn+0 $e2+*
Chain st!ct!es -g+0 Se+
C+30
S/2+3
)olec!la st!ct!es $!+40 +s+4
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
$omplex %xides. 1n tems of stoichiometic fom!la0 7e can identify se&eal
diffeent types of comple, o,ides0 e.g.0 0 AB+20 AB+30 AB+4 0 AB2+4. $epesentati&e
st!ct!es ae pesented in Ta/le 4.4.
T!%le 4.8 Structure o' elected co*-le4 o4ide

Ty-e C<0 A3& Structure E4!*-le
AB+3 .@. Co!nd!m A
3F
B
3F
+3@ )K+3 :) J 2e0 Ti=0 )n2e+3
)C+3 :) J 2e0 K0 Di=
1lmenite A
2F
B
4F
+3@ )Ti+3 :) J 2e0 Co0 Di=
))n+3 :) J Co0 Di0 )g=
)K+3 :) J Co0 Di0 )g=
12@. Peo&skite A
F
B
"F
+3@ PD/+3
A
2F
B
4F
+3@ )Ti+3 :) J Ca0 S0 Ba0 P/=
A
3F
B
3F
+3@ (a)n+30 (aC+3
AB+4 4@4 Scheelite A
2F
B
.F
+4@ )>+4 :) J Ca0 S0 Ba0 P/=
))o+4 :) J Ca0 S0 Ba0 P/=
.@. >olfamite A
2F
B
.F
+4@ )>+4 :) J )g0 2e0 Co0 Di0 )n0 En=
AB2+4 4@. Spinel A
2F
:B
3F
=2+4@ )Al2+4 :) J )g0 2e0 Co0 Di0 )n0 En=
555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
4.4.4 Met!l Hydro4o !nd Hydr!ted Co*-ound
1n this section 7e conside the follo7ing types of compo!nds@ :a= metal
hydroxides0 ):+-=n0 :/= metal oxyhydroxides0 )+:+-=0 :c= basic salts0 and :d=
hydrated salts. A metal o,yhydo,ide may /e &ie7ed as a compo!nd intemediate
/et7een the coesponding o,ide and hydo,ide0 7heeas a /asic salt lies in /et7een the
salt and the hydo,ide. >e ae concened hee 7ith hydroxy halides and hydroxy-
oxysalts.
etal 'ydroxides and %xyhydroxides. A ma9o facto that detemines the
st!ct!es of metal hydo,ides and o,yhydo,ides is the manne in 7hich the +-
8
ion
/eha&es in the &icinity of the constit!ent cations. Thee main types of /eha&io may /e
identified0 7ith the +-8 ion /eha&ing as@ :a= a spheically symmetic anion0 :/= a
cylindically symmetic :i.e.0 dipola= species0 and :c= a 6!ad!pola species. As the
cation deceases in si?e and inceases in chage0 c8type /eha&io /ecomes moe fa&oa/le
in compaison 7ith /8type /eha&io. 1n its 6!ad!pola fom0 the +-
8
ion can !ndego
hydogen /ondingB the negati&e and positi&e egions of diffeent +-
8
ions inteact. As a
es!lt of the a/o&e consideations0 7e may di&ide metal hydo,ides into t7o main
go!ps0 i.e.0 those 7hich ha&e no hydogen /onds :a8 and /8type /eha&ios=0 and those
7ith hydogen /onds :c8type /eha&io=. Ta/le 4.# pesents st!ct!al infomation fo
selected metal hydo,ides and o,yhydo,ides.
T!%le 4.; T#e cryt!l tructure o' *et!l #ydro4ide !nd o4y#ydro4ide
.in'o 'ro* :ell0 -.(2( ''2


Ty-e o' tructure For*ul! Ty-e M C<3O C< <!*e o' tructure E4!*-le
1nfinite )+- .@. Sodi!m chloide P+-0 $/+-
comple,es
):+-=3 #@3 UCl3 :>ells0 p.422= ) J (a0 T0 P0
Dd0 Sm0 Sd0 T/0
Uy0 %0 T/0 Am
):+-=3 .@4A Al:+-=3 8Al:+-=3 :/ayeite=0
8Al:+-=3 :gi//site=
)+.+- *@4@3N T+.+- ) J T0 4f metal
)+.+- A 1n+.+- 8C+.+-0
82e+.+-
)+.+- A 8)+.+- 8Al+.+- :diaspoe=
82e+.+- :goethite=0
8)n+.+-0 8Sc+.+-0
8Sa+.+-0 8K+.+-
)+.+- A 8)+.+- 8Al+.+- :/oehmite=
82e+.+- :lepidococite=0
8)n+.+- manganite=0
8Sc+.+-
)+.+- A 8C+.+- 8C+.+-0 8Co+.+-
(aye st!ct!es )+- (i+-0 Da+-
):+-=2 Cadmi!m iodide ) J )g0 Ca0 )n0 2e0
Co0 Di0 Cd

T!%le 4.11 OH3M r!tio in #ydro4y,o4y!lt

OH 3 M S!lt OH 3 M S!lt
13" Ca":+-=:P+4=3 .3" En":+-=.:C+3=2
132 C!2:+-=P+4 332 C!2:+-=3D+3
131 C!:+-=1+3 231 Th:+-=2S+4
=======================================================================
'ydroxysalts. The metals 7hich tend to fom /asic salts incl!de Be0 )g0 Al0
se&eal of the A s!/go!p tansition metals :e.g.0 Ti0 E=0 3d metals :e.g.0 2e0 Co0 Di=0 4f
and "f metals :e.g.0 Ce0 Th0 U=0 a ma9oity of the B s!/go!p elements :e.g.0 1n0 Sn0 P/0
Bi=. 1n nat!e0 some impotant oe mineals occ! as /asic salts0 e.g.0 /ochantite0
C!4:+-=.S+40 and atacamite0 C!2:+-=3Cl. Coosion pod!cts may also occ! as /asic
salts0 e.g.0 hydo?incite0 En":+-=.:C+3=20 foms 7hen metallic ?inc is e,posed to moist
ai. +the e,amples of /asic salts incl!de 7hite lead0 P/3:+-=2:C+3=20 !sed as a pigment0
and )g2:+-=3Cl4 -2+0 a eaction pod!ct in the hydation of Soels cement. Thee is a
7ide &aiation in the +-@) atios enco!nteed in hydo,ysalts0 as ill!stated in Ta/le
4.1' fo a seies of hydo,y8o,ysalts.
:a= :/=
Fi)ure 4.8 Structure o' #ydro4y#!lide3 Cloed,-!c+ed -#ere o' .!2 5.OH20 .%2 5.OH2".
'ydroxyhalides. The st!ct!es of hydo,yfl!oides tend to follo7 those of
o,yhdo,ides o o,ides. Th!s0 fo e,ample0 En2:+-= has the diaspoe st!ct!e0
Cd2:+-=0 the CaCl2 st!ct!e0 -g2:+-=0 a !tile8type st!ct!e0 and 1n22:+-=0 a $e+38
type st!ct!e. The most common hydo,ychloides and hydo,y/omides ae those of
the types0 )C+- and )2C:+-=30 7hee ) J )g0 )n0 2e0 Co0 Di0 C!:11=. 1n the )C+-
st!ct!es0 C and +- ions fom a close8packed laye0 as sho7n in 2ig!e 4.4a :>ells0
p.1.'=. The metal atoms eside in 2"< of the octahedal sites. 1n the case of the
)2C:+-=3 st!ct!es0 C and +- ions fom a close8packed laye0 as sho7n in 2ig!e 4.4/
:>ells0 p.1.'=. The metal atoms eside in "'< of the octahedal sites.
Fi)ure 4.; Structure %!ed on 'inite M,OH co*-le4e3 .!2 >Al2.OH22.H2O28?
4@
0
.%2 >Ar4.OH28.H2O21(?
8@
'ydroxy-oxysalts. 1t is helpf!l to think of the st!ct!es of hydo,y8o,ysalts in
tems of the nat!e of the )8+- comple,. Th!s the )8+- comple, o s!/!nit may /e
:a= finite0 :/= infinite one8dimensional :chain=0 :c= infinite t7o8dimensional :sheet=0 and
:d= infinite thee8dimensional. 1n the case of the fist thee sit!ations0 the o,yanions play
the impotant ole of 9oining the s!/!nits into thee8dimensional st!ct!es. An e,ample
of a st!ct!e /ased on a finite )8+- s!/!nit is the /asic al!min!m s!lfate 7ith the
empiical fom!la Al2+3.2S+3.11-2+. The st!ct!al fom!la can /e e,pessed as
GAl2:+-=2:-2+=4H:S+4=2.2-2+. As can /e seen fom 2ig!e 4.#a0 thee ae t7o +-
/idges linking t7o Al
3F
centes0 i.e.0 a dimeic comple,. The finite )8+- s!/!nit can
also /e in the fom of a ing0 as e,emplified /y the st!ct!e of GE4:+-=4:-2+=1.H
4F
:see
2ig!e 4.#/=.
St!ct!es /ased on )8+- chains ae chaacteistic of many /asic salts of
stoichiomety +-@) J 1. The )8+- chains ae linked &ia o,yanions to gi&e thee8
dimensional st!ct!es. 2ig!e 4.1' ill!states the C!:+-=1+3 st!ct!e. :>ells0 2ig
-
2
+ +-
Al
-
2
+
-
2
+
-
2
+
-
2
+
-
2
+ +-
Al
-
2
+
-
2
+
4F
l
+-
:-
2
+=
4
E
+-
:-
2
+=
4
E
+-
E:-
2
+=
4
+-
E:-
2
+=
4
+-
+-
+-
+-
4F
l
14.1.a0 p..4*=. A n!m/e of st!ct!es /ased on t7o8dimensional )8+- s!/!nits can /e
&ie7ed as dei&ati&es of the Cd12 st!ct!e. 2ist0 7e take the Cd12 st!ct!e and eplace
Cd /y ) and 12 /y :+-=2. Then 7e eplace 2"< of the +- go!ps 7ith o,ygen atoms of
o,yanions0 s!ch that the plane of the C+n
?8
go!p is pependic!la to that of the laye.
.!2 .%2
o Cu I O OH
Fi)ure 4.11 Structure o' #ydro4y,o4y !lt %!ed on t9o,di*enion!l M,OH
u%unit. Cu.OH2IO"3 .!2 Pl!nB .%2 Ele/!tion0 9it# t#e oct!#edr!l c#!in
-er-endicul!r to t#e -l!ne o' t#e -!-er. .:ell0 -.(472.
Fi)ure 4.11 Inter!ction o' 9!ter *olecule in cryt!l. T#e l!r)er #!ded circle
re-reent M
@
0 OH
,
0 F
,
0 or o4y)en o' o4y,ion .:ell0 -.((82.
'ydrated Salts. -ee 7e shall /e concened 7ith hydates of halides( oxysalts0
and hydroxides. >e leaned in Chapte 2 that the o,ygen atom in a 7ate molec!le
a / c
d e
)
F
)
F
1 2 2 1
2 1
o
o o
)
2F
)
2F
possesses t7o lone pais of electons. These es!lt in t7o egions of negati&e chage on
one end of the molec!le. At the same time0 d!e to the polai?ation of the 7ate molec!le0
the t7o hydogen atoms ae elati&ely positi&e0 compaed 7ith the o,ygen atom. Th!s
the t7o hydogen atoms epesent t7o egions of positi&e chage. As a es!lt0 the 7ate
molec!le may /e &ie7ed as a "uadrupolar species0 7ith a tetahedal aangement of the
t7o positi&e and t7o negati&e egions. The manne in 7hich a 7ate molec!le is linked
in a hydate may /e ationali?ed in tems of the inteactions of anions0 metal ions0 o
othe 7ate molec!les 7ith these chaged egions0 as ill!stated in 2ig!e 4.11 :>ells0
p...4=.
A con&enient classification0 /ased on the coodination of the cation0 is ill!stated
in Ta/le 4.11 fo a hydated salt ),Ay.7-2+0 7hee A sym/oli?es an anion s!ch as Cl
8
0
S+4
28
0 and n is the coodination n!m/e of the metal ion. 1n class A10 ) is f!lly hydated0
and thee is e,cess 7ate ::73,n= R 1=. This is a elati&ely small go!p. A epesentati&e
compo!nd is )gCl2.12-2+. -ee the cation and anion ae each octahedally s!o!nded
/y si, 7ate molec!les.
T!%le 4.11 Cl!i'ic!tion o' #ydr!ted !lt .!'ter :ell0 -.(712
M Fully Hydr!ted M Inco*-letely Hydr!ted
9C4n E4ce H2O .I2 <o E4ce H2O .II2 E4ce H2O .III2 E4ce H2O .ID2
A 2 )gCl212-2+
#3. 2eB2#-2+
*3. DiS+4*-2+
1 Sm:B+3=3#-2+ CoCl2.-2+
1 AlCl3.-2+ DiCl2.-2+
1 BeS+44-2+ 2eCl3.-2+
B "3. Da2S+41'-2+ Da2C+31'-2+ C!S+4"-2+
334 CaC+3.-2+
132 (iCl+43-2+ 2e233-2+ C!S+43-2+
C 133 CoCl22-2+
DiCl22-2+
134 CaS+42-2+
13. C!S+4-2+
4.4.$ Met!l Silic!te
Silicon and o,ygen make !p a/o!t *"< of the eathMs c!st0 7hee they e,ist
pimaily as silicate mineals. The /asic /!ilding /lock in silicates is the Si+4
tetahedon0 and as ill!stated in 2ig!e 4.12a0 it is con&enient to epesent this as a
tiangle0 7hich sym/oli?es a top8do7n &ie7 of the tetahedon. The comple, st!ct!es
of silicates can /e esol&ed in tems of the manne in 7hich the Si+4 tetaheda ae
linked. %,amples of the possi/le linkages ae ill!stated in 2ig!es 4.12/8f especti&ely
fo the disilicate anion :Si2+*
.8
=0 a ing :Si+3
28
=0 an infinite single chain :Si+3=n
2n8
0 an
infinite do!/le chain o /and0 :Si4+11=n
.n8
0 and a sheet o laye0 :Si2+"=n
2n8
. The chage
/alance in the linked st!ct!es can /e o/tained /y asci/ing !nit negati&e chage :81= to a
teminal + atom and ?eo chage to a shaed + atom. Taditional nomenclat!e@ the la/el
ortho is !sed to signify that a species is completely hydated0 7hile the la/el meta
indicates the elimination of a mole of 7ate fom the otho species. Ta/le 4.12 pesents a
selection of silicate compo!nds0 7ith coesponding Si+4 tetahedal linkages.
:a= Si+4 tetahedon
:c= Si+3
28
ing
:/= Uisilicate anion :Si2+*
.8
=
:d= 1nfinite single chain ::Si+3=n
2n8
=
+ J o,ygen J silicon
:e= 1nfinite do!/le chain ::Si4+11=n
.n8
= :f= Sheet ::Si2+"=n
2n8
=
Fi)ure 4.12 SiO4 tetr!#edr!l lin+!)e.
T!%le 4.12 Silic!te co*-ound
&uildin) &loc+ Co*-ound
Uiscete othosilicate :Si+4
48
= anions )g2Si+40 :)g0 2e=2Si+4 :oli&ine=
Da4Si+40 P4Si+40 Be2Si+4 :phenacite=
En2Si+4 :7illemite=0 ESi+4 :?icon=
):11=3):111=2:Si+4=30 ):11= J Ca
2F
0
)g
2F
0 2e
2F
0 ):111= J Al
3F
0 C
3F
0 2e
3F
:ganets=
Uiscete disilicate :Si2+*
.8
= anions Sc2Si2+* :thot&eitite=
Tisilicate ings :Si3+#
.8
= BaTiSi3+# :/enitoite=0
Da2ESi3+#-2+ :catapleite=
-e,asilicate ings :Si.+14
128
= C!.Si.+14.-2+ :dioptase=0
Be3Al2Si.+14.-2+ :/eyl=
Single Chains :Pyo,enesB :Si+3=n
2n8
= )gSi+3 :enstatite=0
Ca)g:Si+3=2 :diopside=0
(iAl:Si+3=2 :spod!mene=
Uo!/le Chains :Amphi/olesB :Si4+11=n
.n8
= Da22e":+-=2:Si4+11=2 :cocidolite0 /l!e as/estos=
:)g02e=*:+-=2:Si4+11=2 :amosite=
Sheets ::Si2+"=n
2n8
= Al2:+-=4Si2+":kaolinite=
Al2:+-=2Si4+1' :pyophyllite=
)g3:+-=4Si2+" :sepentine=
)g3:+-=2Si4+1' :talc=
Al8s!/stit!ted sheets ::AlSi3+1'=
"8
= PAl2:+-=2Si3Al+1'

:m!sco&ite0 7hite mica=
P)g3:+-=2Si3Al+1' :phlogopite0 )g8mica=
P:)g02e=3:+-=2Si3Al+1' :/iotite0 /lack mica=
2ame7ok Si+2 :6!at?B tidymite0 cisto/alite0 coesite0 stisho&ite=
)Al28,Si2F,+4 :feldspas=
),3n
nF
GAl,Siy+2,F2yH
,8
?-2+ :?eolites=
1t sho!ld /e noted that silicate st!ct!es can also /e consideed in tems of a
close8packed aay of +
28
ions0 7hee tetahedal holes ae occ!pied /y Si
4F
ions0 and
octahedal and tetahedal holes /y metal ions.
4.4.( Met!l Sul'ide
The electonegati&ity of s!lf! is less than that of o,ygen. As a es!lt0 )8S /onds
tend to /e less pola than )8+ /onds. Th!s0 7heeas the cystal st!ct!es of metal
o,ides tend to /e simila to those of the coesponding fl!oides0 metal s!lfides pefe the
st!ct!es of the moe co&alent chloides0 /omides0 and iodides. 2o e,ample0 laye
st!ct!es ae !n!s!al among o,ides and fl!oides0 /!t ae fe6!ently o/se&ed among
s!lfides and the hea&ie halides. )any of the s!lfides of inteest in a6!eo!s pocessing
ha&e st!ct!es 7hich ae moe comple, than those listed in Ta/le 4.13. -o7e&e0 the
st!ct!es of these moe comple, s!lfides :Ta/le 4.14= can often /e &ie7ed as dei&ati&es
of the simple st!ct!es.
T!%le 4.1" Cryt!l tructure o' *et!l ul'ide .!'ter :ell0 -.74;2
Ty-e o' tructure M C<3S C< <!*e o' tructure E4!*-le
1nfinite
38dimensional
comple,es
.@.
.@.
.@.
4@4
4@4
4@4
Sodi!m chloide
Dickel asenide
Pyite
Sphaleite
>!t?ite
Coopeite
CaS0 )nS0 P/S0 (aS
2eS0 CoS0 DiS0 KS0 TiS
2eS20 CoS20 DiS20 )nS20 +sS20 $!S2
BeS0 EnS0 CdS0 -gS
EnS0 CdS0 )nS
PtS
(aye st!ct!es .@3 Cadmi!m iodide TiS20 ES20 SnS20 PtS20 TaS20 -fS2
.@3 Cadmi!m chloide TaS2
.@3 )oly/den!m s!lfide )oS20 >S2
Chain st!ct!es S/2S30 Bi2S30 -gS
T!%le 4.14 Met!l ul'ide
Coppe S!lfides C!S :co&ellite=0 digenite :C!1.4S=0 d9!leite :C!1.#.S=0
C!2S :chalcocite=0 C!1F,S :/la!/leinde co&ellite=0
C!3AsS4 :enagite=0C!"2eS4 :/onite=0 C!2eS2 :chalcopyite=0
C!2e2S3 :c!/anite=0 C!32eS4 :idaite=
1on S!lfides 2e#S1' :1m pyhotite :"C==0 2e11S12 :1m pyhotite :.C==0
2e1'S11 :1m pyhotite :11C==0 2eS2 :pyite=0 2eS2 :macasite=0
2e1F,S :mackina7ite=0 2e#S1' 2e11S12 :Don8integal pyhotite :nC==0
2eS :toilite=0 2e*S4 :monoclinic pyhotite :4C==0 2e3S4 :geigite=0
2eAsS :asenopyite=0 2eDi2S4 :&iolaite=0 :2e0 Di=#S11 :smythite=
Dickel S!lfides DiS2 :&aesite=0 DiS :milleite=0 Di3S2 :hea?le7oodite=0 8Di*S.0
8Di*S. :godle&skite=0 Di3S4 :polydymite=0 :Di02e=#S4 :pentlandite=
Co/alt S!lfides CoS :9aip!ite A=0 Co3S4 :linnaeite=0 CoS2 :cattieite=0
Co#S4 :co/alt pentlandite=0 :Co02e=AsS :co/altite=
Sil&e S!lfides 8Ag2S :agentite=0 8Ag2S :acanthite=
Asenic S!lfides 8AsS :ealga=0 8AsS :8asenic s!lfide=0 As2S3 :opiment=
Einc S!lfides 8EnS :sphaleite=0 8EnS :7!t?ite=
4.$ Molecul!r Or%it!l T#eory !nd t#e &!nd Model o' Solid
4.$.1 Molecul!r Or%it!l !nd Ener)y &!nd
Conside the /!ild8!p of a cystal0 one atom at a time. As t7o atoms appoach
each othe0 a stage is eached 7hee the highe enegy o/itals :7hich e,tend f!thest
a7ay fom the n!cle!s= /egin to inteact. >hen the distance of appoach is s!fficiently
close0 the t7o o!temost o/itals 7ill com/ine to gi&e t7o molec!la o/itals. Addition
of a thid atom yields a thid molec!la o/ital0 and e&ent!ally n atoms gi&e n molec!la
o/itals. Typically inoganic solid mateials contain on the ode of " , 1'
22
atoms pe
cm
3
. Th!s fo a patic!la atomic o/ital0 the es!lting molec!la o/itals geneated fom
the inteaction of ; 1'
22
atoms 7ill /e n!meo!s and 7ill /e confined in s!ch a limited
space that they 7ill essentially appea as a band of closely8spaced molec!la o/itals.
4.$.2 Met!l0 Inul!tor0 !nd Se*iconductor
1f a /and is dei&ed fom s o/itals0 then the es!lting /and is called an s /and.
Similaly0 p and d /ands may /e const!cted fom p and d o/itals especti&ely. L!st as s(
p( and d o/itals lie at diffeent enegy le&els0 so ae s( p( and d /ands typically sepaated
/y enegy gaps. The /ands ae filled 7ith electons0 stating fom the lo7est enegy
/and. The occ!pied /onding o/itals constit!te the valence band0 and the empty o/itals
epesent the cond!ction /and. The enegy of the lo7est molec!la o/ital of the
cond!ction /and is denoted as %c 7hile the !ppe8most enegy le&el of the &alence /and
is denoted as %&.
1n geneal0 the &alence and cond!ction /ands do not o&elap0 /!t ae sepaated /y
a band gap0 %g. The &al!e of %g detemines 7hethe a mateial is a metal0 an insulator0
o a semiconductor0 as ill!stated in 2ig!e 4.13. )etals ae chaactei?ed /y the
pesence of enegy /ands that ae patially filled0 o /y occ!pied enegy le&els that
o&elap 7ith !nfilled o patially occ!pied /ands. +n the othe hand ins!latos and
semicond!ctos ae chaactei?ed /y the pesence of enegy gapsB %g R 2eK fo an
ins!lato0 and %g I 2eK fo a semicond!cto. Ta/le 4.1" pesents &al!es of the /and gaps
fo selected mateials.
Fi)ure 4.1" &!nd *odel o' olid3 .!2 Met!lB .%2 Se*iconductorB .c2 Inul!tor
T!%le 4.1$ &!nd)!- o' Selected M!teri!lE
Se*iconductor Ty-e o'
Conducti/ity
&!nd)!-
.eD2
Se*iconductor Ty-e o'
Conducti/ity
&!nd)!-
.eD2
Se n0 p '... Ag2S n ; 1.4
Si n 1.1 Bi2S3 n 1.2
Bi2+3 n0 p 2.4 CdS n 2.4
Cd+ n 2.2 C!2S p ;1
C!2+ p 2.2 C!S p ;1
C!+ p 1.* 2e18,S p A
2e3+4 n0 p '.1 2eS2 n0 p '.#
2e2+3 n 2.2 )oS2 n0 p '.3 8 1
)n+2
:Pyol!site=
n '.2" P/S n0 p '.3*
Sn+2 n 3.* S/2S3 1.*
Ti+2 n 3.' EnS n 3.. V 3.#
K2+" m 2.23 C!2eS2 n '..
>+3 n 2.* C!"2eS2 p ;1
En+ n 3.2 2eAsS n0 p ;'.2
E+2 n ".' SaAs n0 p 1.3" V 1.43
P/+ n 2.4 CdTe n0 p 1."
D/2+" n 3.4 CaP n0 p 2.24
Ta2+" n 4.' 1nP p 1.3
BaTi+3 n 3.3 CdSe n 1.*4
2eTi+3 n 2.4 EnTe p 2.3
PTi+3 n 3." SiC p 3.'
STi+3 n 3.4
NBased on $.T. Sh!ey0 Semicond!cting +e )ineals0 %lse&ie0 1#*"B A. L. Do?ik0
WPhotoelectochemisty@ Applications to Sola %negy Con&esionX0 Ann. $e&. Phys. Chem.0
2#0 14#8222 :1#*4=B P. $a9esh7a0 P. Singh0 and L. U!/o70 W%negy Con&esion in
Photoelectochemical Systems V A $e&ie7X0 %lectochim. Acta0 230 111*81144 :1#*4=.
:a= :/= :c=
%D%$ST SAP
C+DUUCT1+D
BADU
KA(ADC%
BADU
C+DUUCT1+D
BADU
C+DUUCT1+D
BADU
KA(ADC%
BADU
KA(ADC%
BADU
%D%$ST SAP
%
4.$." Intrinic !nd E4trinic Se*iconductor
>hen the magnit!de of %g is s!fficiently lo70 it is possi/le fo themal agitation to
pomote an electon fom the &alence /and into the cond!ction /and of a p!e mateial0
thee/y pod!cing an electron hole in the &alence /and. This mateial is then temed an
intrinsic semiconductor. A mateial can also ac6!ie cond!ction /and electons and
&alence /and holes /y ecei&ing imp!ities. Conside the addition of phospho!s0 7hich
has fi&e &alence electons0 to gemani!m0 7hich has fo! &alence electons. 1n ode fo
P to fit into the Se st!ct!e0 only fo! &alence electons ae e6!ied. The e,ta electon
fom P emains !nde the infl!ence of the F" chaged P n!cle!s and stays in an enegy
le&el 7hich is 7ithin the Se /and gap. 1f the electon is e,cited o!t of this locali?ed /and
into the Se cond!ction /and0 then the P /ecomes positi&ely chaged. At the same time
the Se lattice /ecomes negati&ely chaged and is theefoe called an n-type
semicond!cto. Phospho!s is temed a donor imp!ity since it donates electons to the
Se cond!ction /and.
+n the othe hand0 7hen a /oon atom0 7ith thee &alence electons0 is intod!ced
in the gemani!m cystal st!ct!e0 it is necessay to find a fo!th &alence electon in
ode to fit this imp!ity into the Se st!ct!e. The needed electon is taken fom the Se
&alence /and0 thee/y ceating a hole 7ith an effecti&e positi&e chage. The B8doped
mateial is called a p-type semicond!cto since B has donated a positi&e chage to the Se
enegy8/and st!ct!e.
4.$.4 T#e Fer*i Le/el in ! Solid
Conside a solid const!cted /y appopiating an s electon fom each of D atoms.
At a/sol!te tempeat!e :T J '= one8half of the lo7e8lying o/itals 7ill /e occ!pied.
The topmost occ!pied o/ital is designated the )ermi level and it is located mid7ay
/et7een the /and. At highe tempeat!es0 the po/a/ility :f= that an enegy le&el 7ith
enegy %0 is occ!pied /y an electon is gi&en /y the 2emi disti/!tion f!nction@
f J 13G1 F e,p:%8%2=3kTH :4.14=
7hee %2 is temed the )ermi energy0 and k is the Bolt?mann constant. The 2emi enegy
is tempeat!e dependentB at T J ' it is simply the enegy associated 7ith the 2emi le&el.
>hen % J %20 f J 132. That is0 the po/a/ility of occ!pancy is one8half 7hen a le&el is at
the 2emi enegy.
The position of the 2emi le&el is dependent on the nat!e of the mateial. 2o a
metal0 the enegies of /oth the occ!pied and &acant states ae located nea %2. At oom
tempeat!e0 the 2emi le&el of an intinsic semicond!cto lies in the cente of the /and
gap. +n the othe hand fo e,tinsic semicond!ctos0 %2 occ!s 9!st /eneath the
cond!ction /and in n8type mateials0 and 9!st a/o&e the &alence /and in p8type mateials.
>hen the enegy le&el %c lies significantly a/o&e the 2emi le&el :i.e.0 :%c 8 %2= R
2kT=0 then the po/a/ility that it is occ!pied is gi&en /y %6!ation 4.14 as@
f J e,p8:%c 8 %2=3kT :4.1"=
Th!s0 if the cond!ction /and is chaactei?ed /y a density of enegy le&els :i.e.0 n!m/e
of enegy le&els pe !nit &ol!me= of Dc0 then the electon density :n= in the cond!ction
/and is gi&en /y
n J Dce,pG8:%c 8 %2=3kTH :4.1.=
Similaly if :%2 8 %&= R 2kT0 then the density of holes :p= in the &alence /and is gi&en /y@
p J D&e,pG8:%2 8 %&=3kTH :4.1*=
7hee D& is the density of enegy le&els in the &alence /and. 1t follo7s fom %6!ations
4.1. and 4.1* that@
np J DcD&e,pG8:%c8%&=3kTH J Dc D& e,p:8%g3kT= :4.14=
4.( Electronic Structure o' Solid
4.(.1 Molecul!r Or%it!lCEner)y &!nd Model
1n light of the cystal st!ct!al chaacteistics e&ie7ed a/o&e0 the /asic /!ilding
/locks of o,ides s!ch as Si+20 Ti+20 and Di+ can /e taken as the Si+40 Ti+.0 and Di+.
polyheda especti&ely. Similaly0 in the case of s!lfides0 epesentati&e /!ilding /locks
ae EnS4 :fo EnS=0 C!S40 and 2eS4 :fo C!2eS2=0 and 2eS. fo 2eS2. The fomation of
these cl!stes can /e &is!ali?ed in tems of the inteaction /et7een the o!te atomic
o/itals associated 7ith the metal and o,ygen o s!lf! atoms. )olec!la o/ital enegy
le&el diagams fo the cl!stes can /e dei&ed fom 6!ant!m chemical calc!lations.
2ig!e 4.14 sho7s the es!lts fo :EnS4=
.8
and :C!S4=
.8
B the enegy scale is taken elati&e
to the non8/onding S 3p type o/itals :i.e.0 1t1 fo the tetahedal cl!stes=. 1n solid
mateials0 the molec!la o/itals of the n!meo!s cl!stes o&elap to gi&e /ands0 and this
is ill!stated /y the coesponding /and diagam fo sphaleite. 1n tems of the /and
model0 the highest occ!pied molec!la o/ital :-+)+= epesents the topmost laye of
the &alence /and0 7heeas the lo7est !nocc!pied molec!la o/ital :(U)+= epesents
the lo7est enegy le&el in the cond!ction /and.
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
O
r
b
i
t
a
l

E
n
e
r
g
y

(
e
V
)
3a
1
4t
2
3t
2
1t
1
2e
2a
1
1e
2t
2
Antibonding M-S Conduction and
Cry!tal-"ield-#y$e %e&el!
'onbonding Sul(ur and
onding M-S and
S$)alerite
ZnS4
-6
(Zn )
2+
1
CuS4
-6
4t2
2e
lt1
3t2
1e
,
2t2
2a
1
Fi)ure 4.14 Ener)y le/el di!)r!* #o9in) t#e electronic tructure o' t#e .AnS42
(,
!nd .CuS42
(,
cluter0 !nd t#e %!nd *odel o' -#!lerite .!'ter D!u)#!n !nd Toell2.
4.(.2 Electronic Structure o' Met!l O4ide
+n the /asis of the oigin of thei enegy gaps0 tansition metal o,ides may /e
classified into empty d8shell :d
'
0 non8d8/andA= o,ides0 closed d8shell :d8/andA= o,ides0
and open d8shell :d8/andA= o,ides0 as indicated in Ta/les 4.1.0 4.1*0 and 4.14 fo selected
compo!nds. The metal o,ides that fall !nde the d
'
categoy come fom the ealie
tansition elements@ !p to )n0 $!0 and +s especti&ely fo the 3d0 4d0 and "d seies.
Among the tansition metal o,ides0 these mateials e,hi/it the simplest electonic
st!ct!es. To ill!state the geneal chaacteistics of the electonic st!ct!e of d
'
metal
o,ides0 7e t!n to !tile Ti+2. >e kno7 fom the cystal st!ct!e that Ti
4F
is
octahedally coodinated to +
28
. )olec!la o/ital calc!lations /ased on the Ti+.
48
cl!ste
gi&e the enegy le&els sho7n in 2ig!e 4.1". >e can identify fi&e go!ps of molec!la
o/itals@ :1= the + 2s non/onding o/itals :"a1g0 4t1!0 1eg=0 :2= the /onding o/itals :"t1!0
.a1g0 1t2g0 2eg=0 :3= the + 2p non/onding o/itals :1t2!0 .t1!0 1t1g=0 :4= the cystal8field
o/itals :2t2g0 3eg= and :"= the anti8/onding cond!ction /and o/itals :*a1g0 *t1!=. The main
feat!e 7e 7ant to note hee is the nat!e of the highest filled o/ital and the lo7est
!nfilled o/ital0 since these epesent %& and %c especti&ely. The filled o/ital 7ith the
highest enegy is the 1t1g0 and this epesents the top of the &alence /and. +n the othe
hand0 the 2t2g is the lo7est8lying !nocc!pied molec!la o/ital.
T!%le 4.1( &!nd )!- 'or elected d
1
*et!l o4ide .A'ter Co40 1;;22
&in!ry Co*-ound Tern!ry Co*-ound
Co*-ound E) .eD2 Co*-ound E) .eD2
3d
'
Ti+2 :!tile= 3.' )gTi+3 3.*
Ti+2 :anatase= 3.2 STi+3 3.4
BaTi+3 3.2
(a2Ti2+* 4.'
K2+" 2.2
C+3 2
4d
'
SE+3 ".4
D/2+" 3.# (iD/+3 3.4
PD/+3 3.3
)o+3 3.'
"d
'
Ta2+" 4.2 (iTa+3 3.4
DaTi+3 3.4
>+3 2..
T!%le 4.17 Electronic -ro-ertie o' elected cloed,#ell d
n
*et!l o4ide .A'ter Co40 1;;22
Co*-ound Ionic For*ul! Elec. Con'i). Met!l Coordin!tion E) .eD2
C!2+ :C!
F
=2+
28
3d
1'
2 :(inea= 2.1.
Ag+ Ag
F
Ag
3F
:+
28
=2 4d
1'
0 4d
4
2 :(inea=0 4 :S6.
plan.=
Pd+ Pd
2F
+
28
4d
4
4 :S6!ae plana= 1
(aCo+3 (a
3F
Co
3F
:+
28
=3 3d
.
. :+ctahedal= '.1
(a$h+3 (a
3F
$h
3F
:+
28
=3 4d
.
. :+ctahedal= 1..
T!%le 4.18 Electronic -ro-ertie o' elected o-en,#ell d
n
*et!l o4ide .A'ter Co40
1;;22
&in!ry Co*-ound Tern!ry Co*-ound
Co*-ound S-in E) .eD2 Co*-ound S-in E) .eD2
3d
'
(aK+3 1
C2+3 332 3.3 (aC+3 332
)n+ "32 3.. (a)n+3 2
)n+2 332
2e+ 2 2.4 (a2e+3 "32
82e2+3
"32 1.# T32e"+12 "32 3
Co+ 332 2..
Di+ 1 3.4
C!+ 132 1.4
$losed d-shell metal oxides. The chaacteistic feat!e of this categoy of metal
o,ides is the pesence of a closed shell of d8electons and the fact that the !ppemost
o/ital of the &alence /and has d8chaacte. 1n the case of the d
1'
compo!nd0 C!2+0 the
closed shell aises /eca!se all the fi&e d o/itals ae f!lly occ!pied0 7ith an electon8pai
in each o/ital. The /and gap is /o!nded /y the lo7e8lying filled C! 3d le&els0 and the
highe8lying /!t empty C! 4s le&el. The chemical fom!la0 Ag+0 easily gi&es the
impession that this compo!nd contains sil&e in the pl!s t7o o,idation state :Ag:11==. 1n
fact0 this is a mi,ed &alency compo!nd0 7hose ionic fom!la in&ol&es Ag:1=0 d
1'
0 and
Ag:11=0 d
4
. As fo!nd in the case of C!:1= a/o&e0 in the Ag:1= o,idation state0 the sil&e
atom is coodinated to t7o o,ygen atoms. Also0 as 7ith C!
F
0 Ag
F
is closed8shelled since
all a&aila/le d o/itals ae filled. The Ag:11= ion is tetahedally coodinated to fo!
o,ygens. The /and gap po/a/ly lies /et7een the filled Ag
F
4d o/itals and the empty
Ag
3F
4d o/itals.
Fi)ure 4.1$ Molecul!r or%it!l di!)r!* 'or t#e TiO(
8,
cluter .Toell !nd D!u)#!n0
-.1882.
%pen-shell d
n
metal oxides. The o,ides that fall !nde this categoy contain
!npaied electons and theefoe they ha&e magnetic popeties.
4.(." Electronic Structure o' Met!l Sul'ide
)olec!la o/ital enegy le&el diagams fo the tetahedal cl!stes of En
2F
0 C!
F
0
C!
2F
0 2e
2F
0 and 2e
3F
0 and the octahedal cl!ste of 2e
2F
0 ha&e /een dei&ed fom 6!ant!m
chemical calc!lations /y Ka!ghan and Tossell. The es!lts ae pesented in 2ig!e 4.1..
1n compaing the diffeent cl!stes0 the follo7ing o/se&ations can /e made@
2e
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
O
r
b
i
t
a
l

E
n
e
rg
y

(
e
V
)
3a
1
4t
2
3t
2
1t
1
2e
2a
1
1e
2t
2
Antibonding M-S Conduction and
Cry!tal-"ield-#y$e %e&el!
'onbonding Sul(er and
onding M-S and
S$)alerite "erroan S$)alerite C)alco$yrite
ZnS
4
-6
(Zn )
2+
FeS4
-6
(Fe )
2+
1
t2
e
3t
2
1t
1
2a
1
1e
2t
2
e
4t
2
t
2
t
2
e
t
2
e
4t
2
e
3a
1
FeS4
-5
(Fe )
+3
CuS4
-7
(Cu )
+
Fi)ure 4.1( Ener)y le/el di!)r!* #o9in) t#e electronic tructure o' *et!l ul'ide
cluter .!'ter D!u)#!n !nd Toell2.
:1= The highest occ!pied molec!la o/ital :-+)+= of the EnS4 cl!ste :the 4t2
o/ital= is of pedominantly non/onding s!lf! 3p chaacte. 1n contast0 the
-+)+s of the othe cl!stes ae epesented /y anti/onding metal 3d8type
o/itals. The -+)+s of :C!S4=
*8
and :C!S4=
.8
ae filled and patially filled
4t2 o/itals especti&ely. 1n the case of :2eS4=
.8
0 the fo! !npaied 3d
electons in this st!ct!e ca!se the enegy le&els to di&ide into spin8!p and
spin8do7n go!psB the empty 1't2 and patially occ!pied 3e molec!la
o/itals lie at the top of the &alence /and. The 2t2g o/ital se&es as the
-+)+ and &alence /and fo :2eS.=
1'8
.
:2= 2o /oth :EnS4=
.8
and :C!S4=
*8
0 the (U)+ is the anti/onding 3a1 o/ital.
-o7e&e0 since the 4t2 o/ital of the :C!S4=
.8
cl!ste is incompletely filled0 it
epesents the (U)+. 1n the case of :2eS4=
.8
0 the empty anti/onding #a1
:mostly 2e 4s= and 11t2 :mostly S 3p= o/itals epesent the cond!ction /and0
7hile the empty 3eg o/itals se&e as the (U)+ fo the cl!ste0 and
theefoe0 fo 2eS2.
:3= 1n the :EnS4=
.8
electonic st!ct!e0 the metal 3d8type o/itals ae /!ied fa
/elo7 the /onding )8S o/itals. This is in contast to the othe cl!stes0
7hee the opposite odeing is o/se&ed.
Antibonding M-S
Conduction Band
Crystal-Field-
Type Levels
Nonbonding
Sulfur Band
Bonding
M-S Band
Chalcopyrite
e
t
2
t
2
e

!
"
2
#
$
-#
-2
-"
-!
-
%
r
b
i
t
a
l

&
n
e
r
g
y

'
e
(
)
"t
2
#t
#
2a
#
#e
2t
2
!t
2
e
"a
#
2e
!t
2
FeS
4
5-
(Fe )
3+
CuS
4
7-
(Cu )
+
Fi)ure 4.17 T#e electronic tructure o' c#!lco-yrite CuFeS2 .!'ter D!u)#!n !nd
Toell2.

Fi)ure 4.18 Co*-!rion o' t#e electronic tructure o' -yrite .FeS22 !nd -#!lerite
.AnS2 .!'ter D!u)#!n !nd Toell2
Furt#er Re!din)
1. A. 2. >ells0 Structural *norganic $hemistry0 "th ed.0 +,fod0 De7 Tok0 1#44.
2. P. A. Co,0 +ransition etal %xides0 +,fod0 De7 Tok0 1##2.
3. P. A. Co,0 +he ,lectronic Structure and $hemistry of Solids0 +,fod0 De7 Tok0
1#4*.
4. U. L. Ka!ghan and L. $. Caig0 ineral $hemistry of etal Sulfides0 Cam/idge0
De7 Tok0 1#*4.
". L. A. Tossell and U. L. Ka!ghan0 +heoretical -eochemistry. Application of /uantum
echanics in the ,arth and ineral Sciences0 +,fod0 De7 Tok0 1##2.
.. (. Pa!ling0 +he 0ature of the $hemical !ond0 3d. ed.0 Conell Uni&esity Pess0
1thaca0 De7 Tok0 1#.'.
*. L. %. -!heey0 %.A. Peite0 and $. (. Peite0 *norganic $hemistry& Principles of
Structure and 1eactivity0 4th ed.0 -ape Colins0 1##3.
4. A. S. Shape0 *norganic $hemistry0 3d. ed.0 (ongman0 (ondon0 1##2.
#. U. %. Shi&e0 P. >. Atkins0 and C. -. (angfod0 *norganic $hemistry0 2eeman0
De7 Tok0 1##'.
1'. B. >e/ste0 $hemical !onding +heory0 Black7ell0 +,fod0 1##'.
11. 2. A. Cotton and S. >ilkinson0 Advanced *norganic $hemistry0 "th ed.0 >iley0 De7
Tok0 1#44.
12. (. %. +gel0 An *ntroduction to +ransition - etal $hemistry. 2igand-)ield +heory(
2nd ed.0 >iley0 De7 Tok0 1#...
13. 2. (ie/a!0 Structural $hemistry of Silicates0 Spinge8Kelag0 De7 Tok0 1#4".