TEMA CONSTRUCCIONES MINERAS

2.3.4.2.4 Elongation Characteristics

Diameter reduction is governed by the elongation characteristics of the tendon.
Figure 16 details the stress-strain behaviour of a steel tendon under axial load. In
the elastic zone, the reduction is not considered sufficient to diminish the
confinement generated by the deformation profile.
However, after yielding has occurred, the full length of the tendon experiences
diametric reduction at an increased rate. This acts to reduce the confinement
offered by the deformation profile. Once ultimate strength has been reached,
localised necking of the tendon occurs, which releases all confinement around that
point.

Figure 16: Elongation and profile characteristics during loading (Fabjanczyk et al, 1998)
2.3.4.2.5 Surface Finish
The surface finish of the tendon can affect the strength of bonding between grout
and tendon, and therefore the load transfer characteristics of the support system.
Rusting and pitting alter this finish, as does the presence of contaminants such as
grease, oil and dust.
Figure 17 compares load-displacement characteristics of smooth and rusted
tendons (Fabjanczyk et al, 1998).

Figure 17: Effect of surface finish on load transfer performance (Fabjanczyk et al, 1998)
Figure 18 compares initial load transfer performance between a rusted rockbolt, a
clean rockbolt and a clean rockbolt previously rusted. The increase in loading for
the rusted rockbolts was attributed to an increase in adhesion between resin and
surface pitting.
Thus, a rusted surface performs better than a clean surface during initial loading.
However, once sufficient load is applied, this advantage is lost.


Figure 18: Effect of Rusted Tendon Surface on Initial Load Transfer Performance (SCT, 1996)
2.3.4.2.6 Quality Control
Commercial tendons are not always produced precisely to specifications, resulting
in variation from the designed support system. It is also possible to alter the
performance of the tendon through incorrect mine site handling and storage.
Installing warped rockbolts will result in poor resin mixing and varying annulus
thickness, giving reduced anchorage strength.
Poor storage may allow the tendon to come into contact with lubricants, chemicals
and water, and result in altered surface characteristics, corrosion and rusting.
Hence, strength characteristics are reduced.
2.3.4.3 Resin Properties
The performance of the resin with the borehole surface or tendon is critical to the
system performance. Properties that may influence this performance include
physical properties, confinement properties and the annulus thickness.
2.3.4.3.1 Resin Performance
Maximising load transfer of a support system requires the following resin properties
(Eaton, 1993):
Resin strength greater than strata, allowing transfer of stresses to tendon
durings strata dilation, rather than failure
High compressive modulus, allowing stress transfer from resin to tendon
before significant strata movement occurs.
Minimal creep properties over time.
Low viscosity during installation, to maximise contact with irregular surfaces.
Eaton (1993) compared the load-transfer characteristics of low and high
performance resin, keeping other elements of the support system identical. It was
found, as shown in Figure 19, that the high performance Celtite AT resin was
effective in resisting strata deformation, by keeping total deformation to 10mm,
while the low performance resin experienced 50mm total deformation.

Figure 19: Effect of Resin Performance on Strata Control (Eaton, 1993)
2.3.4.3.2 Confined Properties of the Resin
Laboratory push tests carried out (Fabjanczyk et al, 1992) found that system
performance generally increased in response to increased resin stiffness. In
addition, it was found that the confined behaviour of the resin significantly affected
the load transfer of the support system.
Confinement is generated within the resin in response to the relative displacement
of the tendon. Radial forces, which act against the borehole surface, are
generated. The generation of these forces is related to the deformation profile of
the tendon, as well as the resin characteristics.
Fabjanczyk et al found that physical properties do not govern the performance of
confined resin. Instead, the application of confining forces results in increased
contact between resin particles, thus allowing more efficient load transfer due to
the increased surface contacts.
2.3.4.3.3 Resin Annulus
The size of the resin annulus is driven by economic and operational factors, such
as drill cycle times and volumes of resin used, as well as geotechnical factors.
Eaton (1993) advised that resin annulus should be minimised as the closer the
tendon to the borehole the more immediate the stress transfer within the system.
Gale (1990) found that for optimum performance, the annulus thickness should be
minimised to aid mixing during installation, and to improve load transfer between
tendon and rock through proximity. However, smaller annuli often contain air
pockets, formed on the tendon during the installation process.
Increased annuli resulting from larger boreholes display reduced shear stress
capacity (Fabjanczyk and Tarrant, 1992). Laboratory push tests found a 30% drop
in the load transfer capacity of a 22mm diameter tendon when the annulus was
increased from 2.5mm to 3.5mm thickness. This downward trend is shown in
Figure 20.

Figure 20: Effect of Hole Diameter on Load Transfer (Fabjanczyk and Tarrant, 1992)
Gerdeen et al (1977) suggested that larger boreholes would provide improved
anchorage due to a greater surface area to distribute shear forces. However, use
of a small diameter rockbolt in this borehole would result in a large annulus
thickness, thus lowering anchorage capacity. Therefore, in large boreholes, larger
diameter rockbolts must be used to ensure performance is optimal.
Optimum resin annulus can be defined as the minimum thickness that can be
applied, given operational constraints, viscosity requirements and the need for
adequate mixing of mastic and catalyst. Thus, optimum annulus can only be
identified through consideration of the FERB support system.
Peng and Tang (1983) found that the optimum annulus was 3.2mm, or 6.4mm
difference between tendon and borehole diameter. This optimum was true for that
experimental series, and may not be universal.