1

Combustion Processes
in Hybrid Rocket Propulsion
Politecnico di Milano
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Aerospaziale
Laura Merotto
2
Outline
1. The framework of the work is described, together with a review of the state of
the art and the future perspective of hybrid rocket propulsion
2. The physics of the hybrid propulsion concept is described, focusing on the flame
structure and on the most important features of hybrid combustion processes, in
order to provide the theoretical background for the experimental activity
3. The fuel regression rate is introduced, with a decription of the methods for r
f
increase and some observations on the choice of solid fuel type
4. The conditions for entrainment development are then discussed, underlining the
differences between standard fuels and liquefying fuels combustion processes
5. Impulse loss sources are discussed in detail, describing the main phenomena
leading to performance loss in rocket engines.
6. Some of the SPLab methods for hybrid propulsion investigation are described
and some results are presented
3
Hybrid Propulsion:
State of the Art
and Future Challenges
4
The Framework (1/3)
The work is developed in the framework of
hybrid propulsion technology (HPT)
The main feature of hybrid rocket engines (HRE) is that fuel and oxidizer
are stored in different phases (solid + gaseous)
5
The Framework (2/3)
Late 1930s, California and Germany: first tests with hybrid rockets
1940-1950s: (Koore, Berman et. al.): early analitical and experimental investigation
on hybrid rocket combustion
1960s: NASA sponsored studies on high performance space engines (Fluorine, Beryllium,
rubber tyres waste)
1980s: revived interest for hybrid propulsion due to growing business in commercial
satellites and safety requirements (Shuttle solid motors failure)
2001: at Stanford University first investigation on paraffin as solid fuels (significant
regression rate increase)
2000-2010: revived interest in hybrid propulsion due to increasing emphasis on safety,
cost and versatility, and chance for solving the problem of low regression rates
6
The Framework (3/3)
The propulsion community is looking at HPT as the most promising propulsion technology
for aeronautics and space in the next decades. This is due to:
Safety: minimal explosion or detonation hazards (during fabrication, testing and operations, storage)
Flexibility: stop-start-restart possibilities, controlled thrust on demand
Performance: I
s
higher than solid, I
sv
higher than liquid rockets
Costs: lower than those of liquid and solid rockets
Environmental impact: minimal
Future high performance hybrid rockets need:
Development of high energetic fuels and oxidizers
Improvement in design, reliability, operational flexibility
7
Hybrid Propulsion Today: State of the Art
I
s
vacuum exceeds 360 s (theoretical I
s
, for Lox/HTPB, higher than best SRE I
s
320 s)
I
s
is similar to Lox/RP for LRE (for liquid boosters and core engine)
Using cryogenic liquid and fuels with light metal additives, can deliver I
s
460 s (obtained
using Li
3
AlH
6
)
1
I
s,v
for classical hybrids in the range 300-520 g s/cm
3
(higher than I
s,v
for LRE 100-430 g s/cm
3
)
HRE are ecologically benign as LRE and have less environmental impact than SRE
LRE: CO: 13, CO
2
: 9.5 kg/s per 10
5
N thrust (Lox/RP1 system)
SRE: HCl: 7, Al
2
O
3
: 10 kg/s per 10
5
N thrust
HRE: CO: 14, CO
2
: 10.5 kg/s per 10
5
N thrust
1
R.W. Humble, Fuel Performance Enhancements for Hybrid Rockets, 2000
8
The Challenge of Hybrid Propulsion (1/2)
The future opens to the use of hybrid technology in aeronautical applications,
because of:
throttling capability (with 1 to 10, 1 to 20 ratio)
complete shutdown and re-ignition
I
s
for HRE equivalent to that of LRE systems
low-cost and green systems
A possible solution for the second half of the XXI century:
combined propulsion system aircraft for hypersonic passenger transport:
Airbreathing Hybrid Scramjet
M = 0.85 M = 3 M = 8
9
Today: Suborbital flight and space tourism: Space Ship family
Tomorrow: High-speed atmospheric transportation over long distances: ESA-ASTRIUM Fast 20XX Project
The Challenge of Hybrid Propulsion (2/2)
10
The Physics of
Hybrid Propulsion:
Main Phenomena Involved in the
Combustion Processes
11
The flame structure in a HRE is determined by the gaseous oxidizer flowing on a solid fuel surface
A diffusion flame is placed within the boundary layer
The diffusion flame is a slow process, controlled by fluid-dynamics rather
than by chemical kinetics
Flame Structure
The combustion process is
sustained by fuel mass
pyrolisis and heat feedback,
due to convection and
radiation, from flame to fuel
surface
A blocked, reactive
boundary layer is
established due to fuel
pyrolisis and combustion
12
The Physics of the Hybrid Propulsion (1/3)
The main physical phenomena involved in HP include:
Boundary layer blocking effect due to fuel mass pyrolisis
Radiative heat flux contribution due to 2-phase flow
Coupled convective and conductive heat flux
Thermal exchange due to chemical reactions
Therefore, the
physics is very
complex, as
sketched in figure,
and not perfectly
know to date
13
In order to fully understand the complexity of the hybrid combustion processes, several features
must be taken into account:
Flame structure
The Physics of the Hybrid Propulsion (2/3)
1. Intrinsic slowness of the diffusion flame
2. Low combustion efficiency
3. Better performance can be achieved by enhancing thermal exchange between flame
zone and fuel surface (radiation, turbulence)
14
4. Strong influence on the overall performance due to fuel and oxidizer type (Gox vs Lox)
Plot from Kim et.al., AIAA 2009
1
Small motor (D=50mm)
Large motor (D=96mm)
5. A scale factor is likely to
be responsible for
different performance
when testing the same
fuel in different test rigs
The Physics of the Hybrid Propulsion (3/3)
6. If the fuel contains metal
particles, part of the heat
transferred to the solid fuel
is absorbed by the metal
15
Filled Fuels Combustion
r
f
enhancement due to:
higher energy release in combustion reactions
higher radiative heat transfer on the fuel surface
Fuels filled with metal or metal hydride powders: high energy release and thus
regression rate enhancement
Al:
r
H
0
= 1676 kJ/mol MgH
2
:
r
H
0
= 1260 kJ/mol
Mg:
r
H
0
= 602 kJ/mol
When using metal hydrides, the dehydrogenation process enhances the heat release
and the rate of heat release
Drawbacks: chemical compatibility (hydrides), agglomeration phenomena
16
Metal Powders Combustion (1/2)
If the fuel contains metal particles, part of the heat transferred to the solid fuel is absorbed
by the metal
If the particles reach the temperature T
s
, the effective vaporization enthalpy and the
effective fuel density are given by:
The metal powders combustion can take place at the particle surface through
heterogeneous reaction or in the surrounding gas through homogeneous reactions
The time scale typical of mass and energy tranfer processes can be compared with the
time scale typical of chemical kinetics, in order to define the combustion regime (diffusion
controlled or kinetics controlled)
( ) ( )
i s met p binder f eff f
T T zC h z h + =
, , ,
1
1
1

|
|

\
|

+ =
binder met
f
z z

17
18
Combustion Processes in Hybrid Propulsion: Thermal
Exchange
Energy balance at the regression surface:
gs
g s
f f f s
q
dy
dT
k T h h r q
& &
= = = =
,

( )
s f p
f
e e
gs
T T c h
C
h v
q
St
=
=

=
3 / 2
Pr
2
1

&
f f
e e
f
f f
gs
f
h
h v
C
h
q
r

= =
3 / 2
Pr
2
1
&
Approximate solutions of boundary layer on plate surface: assume turbulent transfer
mechanisms for momentum and enthalpy are similar (Reynolds analogy)
In this case, the analogy can be expressed as a relationship between the thermal
exchange coefficient on the surface (St) and the surface friction coefficient C
f
(thermal flux in the boundary layer
on gas side surface)
(entalpia di vaporizzazione)
M. J. Chiaverini, K. K. Kuo, A. Peretz, and G. C. Harting, Regression-Rate and Heat-Transfer Correlations for Hybrid Rocket
Combustion, AIAA Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2001.
M. A. Karabeyoglu, D. Altman, and B. J. Cantwell, Combustion of Liquefying Hybrid Propellants: part 1, General Theory,
Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol.18, No 3, 2002.
19
Combustion Processes in Hybrid Propulsion:
Blocking Effect
f
e e
x f
v
B r

23 . 0 2 . 0
Re

The mass injection due to the fuel gasification (blocked boundary layer) induces a
blocking effect (surface friction coefficient reduction and thermal transfer coefficient
reduction)
Therefore, the coefficients needs to be corrected in order to take into account the
blocking factor B :
) (x m
f
&
For turbulent boundary layer, with Reynolds numbers based on the x of the order of
magnitude 10
6
, in purely conductive/convective regime, for the regression rate the following
relationship is found:
: fuel mass flow injected upstream
the longitudinal position x
L.T. De Luca, Problemi energetici in propulsione aerospaziale, Politecnico di Milano, Prima Edizione, 1997.
( )
) (
2
1
x m m
m
C
x B
f ox
f
f
& &
&
+
=
20
Combustion Processes in Hybrid Propulsion:
Radiation Effect
Radiation is independent on the blocking effect, while a r
f
increase would be detrimental for
the convective thermal flux
In case of convection-radiation coupling, r
f
can be obtained adding the radiation
contribution to the surface energy balance:
rad
con
rad
con f f f s
q
q
q
q h r q &
&
&
& & +
|
|

\
|
= = exp
[ ] ( ) [ ]
4 4 4 4
1
s f
Nz
s s f g s rad
T T e T T q = =

&
=
=
=
=
=
=
z
N
g
s

Stefan-Boltzmann constant
solid grain emissivity
gas containing solid particles emissivity
mitigation of the cloud of n particles contained in the hot gas
(m
2
/n)
particles concentration (n/m
2
)
optical path length
higher efficiency of radiative
thermal contribution than
convective contribution in
enhancing r
f
radiant flux from flame
absorbed at the surface:
R.W. Humble, G.N. Henry, and W.J. Larson, Space Propulsion Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
G.A. Marxman, C.E. Wooldridge, and R.J Muzzy, Fundamentals of Hybrid Boundary Layer Combustion, 1963. AIAA 63-505.
21
Combustion Processes in Hybrid Propulsion:
Pressure Effect
L.D. Smoot, C.F. Price, and C.M. Mihlfeith, The Pressure Dependence of Hybrid Fuels Regression Rates, 1966. AIAA 66-113.
B. Evans, et. al., Hybrid Rocket Investigations at Penn State Universitys High Pressure Combustion Laboratory: Overview and
Recent Results, 2009. AIAA 2009-5349.
Linear log-log relationship if there is
only convective heat tranfer
At low mass fluxes (<140 kg/m
2
s)
pressure induces r
f
enhancement
due to the higher overall thermal flux
to the surface
Radiation tends to reduce the slope
of the r
f
/Gox curve at low mass
fluxes; r
f
/Gox exponent is lower if
there is radiation, due to the reduced
importance of convection (Gox)
22
The Physics of
Hybrid Propulsion:
Regression Rate and
Choice of Fuel
23
Therefore, a higher fuel density and a larger burning area
lead to a higher fuel mass flow rate
The fuel mass flow rate in a hybrid engine is linked to the regression rate, to the
combustion area and to the fuel density:
Nevertheless, it must be taken into account that a larger
burning area leads to the need for a larger engine and more
complex grain geometry
f b f f
r A m =
&
In order to obtain the same thrust level, a larger
area is needed if r
f
is low
As a consequence, several investigations were performed with
the aim to set up methods for r
f
enhancing through an improved
combustion process
Fuel Mass Flow Rate
24
chemical approach:
fluid-dynamics approach:
physical approach:
Energetic additives
Heat exchange increase with
turbulence generators
Liquefying fuels (fuel droplets
entrainment)
Several investigations have been performed worldwide in order to develop methods able to
ensure a regression rate enhancement, through an upgrade of the combustion process
Methods for r
f
Enhancement (1/2)
25
Entrainment: typical of fuels forming at the grain surface a melted layer having low viscosity
and low surface tension (liquefying fuels, such as paraffins)
The oxidizer flow leads to instabilized liquid layer, and the
dropletes detached from the surface are entrained in the flow
(faster combustion)
Droplets absorb melting heat (lower
than vaporization heat)
The blocking factor is decreased
(less blockage of the convective
heat transfer)
Methods for r
f
Enhancement (2/2)
26
Paraffin Fuel vs. Pure HTPB
Stanford University:
paraffin fuel vs pure HTPB
Three times enhancement
in regression rate
Firing test for the hybrid
engine set up at Stanford
University for small launchers
applications
27
Standard solid fuels for hybrid propulsion are polymer-based
A polymer is a macromolecule made of hundreds of thousands bricks called
repetition units
Es) High Density Poly-Ethilene (HDPE):
[-CH
2
-CH
2
-]
n
n5*10
6
The general formula for polymers is:
C
n
H
m
+ (2n+m)/2 O
2
nCO
2
+mH
2
O + Q
Ingredients for Solid Fuels (1/3)
Hybrid propulsion requires elastic and stiff fuel
materials
Some polymers, after a curing process, ensure both
good mechanical properties and ballistic properties
Curing allows the connection among adjoining parts of
the macromolecule, avoiding relative flowing
28
The polymer obtained for poly-addition is:
HO-CH
2
-CH=CH-CH
2
-(CH
2
-CH=CH-CH
2
)
n
-CH
2
-CH=CH-CH
2
-OH
The subscript n indicates the chain length: HTPB-R45 means that every chain is made by
45 butadiene monomers
The starting monomer for HTPB formation is Butadiene: CH
2
=CHCH=CH
2
The number of monomers in the HTPB chain can strongly
influence the fuel ballistic and mechanical properties
Ingredients for Solid Fuels (2/3)
29
T
m
( C) T
boiling
( C)
C
11
H
24
-26 195
C
12
H
26
-10 216
C
13
H
28
-5 234
C
20
H
42
37 343
C
25
H
52
54 402
C
27
H
56
59 -
C
28
H
58
61 432
C
29
H
60
64 441
Paraffin waxes are alcanes
The general formula for the alcanes is C
n
H
2n+2
Paraffin waxes are liquefying fuels, with low
melting and boiling temperatures
Ingredients for Solid Fuels (3/3)
30
345
350
355
360
365
370
375
380
A
l
A
l
H
3
L
i
A
l
H
4
L
i

L
i
H
L
i
B
H
4 B
B
1
0
H
1
4
M
g
H
2
B
A
S
E
L
I
N
E
I
s
p
,
v

m
a
x
LOX GOX
Theoretical maximum I
s
in vacuum for HTPB-based fuels, with liquid or gaseous
oxygen as oxidizer
Using liquid or
gaseous oxygen a
notable difference
in the estimated
performance is
obtained
Importance of Ingredients
31
Liquefying fuels allow obtaining higher regression rates, through the entrainment
phenomenon
On the other hand, liquefying fuels have poor mechanical properties, thus a low
tolerance to pressure oscillations, accelerations and other stresses typical of
engine operating conditions
Need to find a good compromise between:
Traditional fuels (HTPB-based): low r
f
, good mechanical properties
Liquefying fuels (paraffin-based): high r
f
, poor mechanical properties
Choice of Solid Fuel Type
32
The knowledge of the regression processes is the base for dimensioning and
controlling hybrid engines processes
In practical applications, the following simple equation is used (a, m, n
experimentally measured):
Regression Rate Approximate Relationships (1/2)
( )
n
f ox
m
f
x G G ax x r ) ( ) ( + =
In general, r
f
changes along the port, resulting in non-uniform processes in axial
direction (enhanced G
f
contribution)
On the other hand, the boundary layer thickness enhancement (x
m
) tend to
contrast this effect, thus leading to an almost uniform axial regression
33
The main problem for the r
f
estimation is that G
f
is needed in the r
f
relationships,
but G
f
in turn depends on r
f
(implicit problem)
Some simplified equations have been proposed in order to avoid this problem, for
example:
Regression Rate Approximate Relationships (2/2)
( )
l
c
n
ox f
P G a r
0
=
( )
n
ox f
G a r
0
=
n = 0.4 0.8
l = 0 0.25
Typical values for n and l have been found to be in the following ranges:
34
Time-Resolved Regression Rate (1/3)
( )
n
n
ox
n
ox f
f
h C
hW
m
a G a r
dt
dh
r

=
|

\
|
= =
=
1
2
2
&
n
h C
dt
dh

=
1
2
dh h dt C
h
h
n
t

=
0
0
1
( )
1
1
) 1 (
0
2
1 ) (
+
+
(
(

+
|

\
|
+ =
n
n
n
ox
h t
W
m
a n t h
&
( )
( )
[ ]
1
1
0 1 1
1 2 2
+

+
+ + = =
n
n
n
f
h t C n C
dt
dh
r
h
h
0
s
Regression rate is not constant during combustion
Time-resolved regression rate for a double slab
fuel configuration can be derived as follows
( ) [ ]
1
2 1 1
1 2
+

+ + =
n
n
f
C t C n C r
35
The regression rate vs. time was obtained analitically for a simple case
Assuming reasonable values for the constants in the equation, regression rate can be
plotted vs. time
NB: the oxygen mass flux is assumed to be constant
Time-Resolved Regression Rate (2/3)
Assuming:
n = 0.5
W = 0.013 m
a = 0.30
m
ox
= 0.003 kg/s
( ) [ ]
1
2 1 1
1 2
+

+ + =
n
n
f
C t C n C r
36
The regression rate strongly depends on the oxygen mass flow
Time-Resolved Regression Rate (3/3)
Increasing oxygen mass flow
Single slab
Increasing oxygen mass flow
(3 9 15 g/s)
Double slab
Increasing oxygen mass flow
37
The Physics of
Hybrid Propulsion:
Entrainment Development
38
The hybrid combustion for a
standard fuel (polymer-based
fuels) involves fuel pyrolysis with a
typical diffusion flame
For liquefying fuels, the
entrainment phenomenon can take
place, leading to a completely
different combustion process
Combustion Processes
39
Stanford University investigations allowed to:
determine the conditions required for a melted layer formation on the fuel surface
determine the melted layer thickness for entrainment development
investigate the melted layer instability under hybrid engine operating conditions
determine in which conditions the droplet entrainment can dominate over the
gasification phenomenon
Conditions for Entrainment Development
r
f
vs mass flux: entrainment and
gasification contribution
40
The melted layer thickess depends on the heat
transfer correlations in solid phase and in liquid phase
Melted Layer Thickness (1/3)
Assumptions:
Constant velocity at liquid-gas interface and at
solid-liquid interface (constant thickness)
Uniform thermophysical properties of the material
both in liquid and solid phase
Negligible convection in the liquid layer
Radiant flux is generated from hot combustion products emission in the gas phase
(T = 1500-2000 K in hybrids)
Higher radiation in gas phase due to solid particles emitting in the gas flow (presence of
metal additives, soot)
41
Limit case 1)
High radiation absorption in the liquid phase
All the radiative heat is absorbed at liquid-gas interface (es. carbon black filled fuels)
|
|

\
|
+ =
m
l
l
h
T C
h
1
1 ln
Melted Layer Thickness (2/3)
h = liquid layer thickness (mm)
= thermal thickness (mm)
r
f
= regression rate (mm/s)
= density (kg/m
3
)
C
l
= specific heat (kJ/(kg s))
T = Tgasification Tfusion (K)
h
m
= total heat of melting (kJ/kg)
h
v
= total heat of gasification (kJ/kg)
k
l
= thermal diffusivity (m
2
/s)
s f
l l
l
r
k

=
42
Limit case 2)
Low radiation absorption in the liquid phase (all the radiative flux is absorbed in the solid)
Melted layer thickness depends on the ratio radiant heat flux/convective heat flux
( )
|
|

\
|

+ =
w r v m
l
l
Q Q h h
T C
h
& &
/
1 ln
1

Melted Layer Thickness (3/3)

h = liquid layer thickness (mm)
= thermal thickness (mm)
r
f
= regression rate (mm/s)
= density (kg/m
3
)
C
l
= specific heat (kJ/(kg s))
T = Tgasification Tfusion (K)
h
m
, h
e
, h
v
= total heat of melting, entrainment and gasification
(kJ/kg)
L
m
, L
v
= latent heat of melting and vaporization
= convective and radiant heat transfer at the surface
f s v f s e r c w
r L r h Q Q Q + = + =
& & &
r c
Q Q
& &
,
43
Liquid layer thickness vs. r
f
at different temperature
At a given r
f
, the
maximum liquid layer
thickness correponds
to T
ambient
= T
fusion
Melted Layer Thickness vs. Temperature
The entrainment velocity
was measured for different
liquids, at high gas flow
values
The most important result is
that the mass transfer due
to the entrainment for
surface unit is proportional
to the mass flux rate for
width unit
l ent
m m
& &

44
Using the force balance at the liquid-gas interface, the mass flux of the liquid in the
melted layer for width unit can be correlated to the considered gas flow and liquid layer
properties:
l
l f d
l
h c p
m

2
2
= &
h
u
c p
l l
f d

=
p
d
= dynamic pressure in the port
c
f
= friction coefficient

l
= viscosity of the liquid layer
u
l
= velocity of the liquid interface
h = liquid layer thickness
Entrainment Mass Transfer
The entrained mass flow can be written as a function of the gas flow dynamic pressure and
surface tension, and of a temperature ratio that takes into account the gas density variation
l
v
g
d
ent
m
T
T
p
e m & &
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
25 . 0
5 . 0
0
3 . 13

e
X
T
g
= average temperature of the gas phase
T
v
= vaporization temperature
entrainment parameter
) (
2 / 1
N
If the entrainment parameter is
lower than a critical value, there
is no mass transfer due to
entrainment from the liquid layer
45
The combustion processes in a hybrid rocket engine are strictly related
to the type of solid fuel
Liquefying fuels allow obtaining higher performance in terms of r
f
with
respect to traditional fuels (HTPB-based), but have poor mechanical
properties
Combustion processes complexity results in an incomplete
understanding of the physical-chemical phenomena involved in hybrid
combustion and thus in a difficult prediction of the engine overall
performance
A good understanding of the hybrid combustion physics is therefore of
major importance for hybrid rocket engines improvement
Concluding Remarks
46
Impulse Losses
in Rocket Engines
47
The regression rate is not the only key parameter for a
rocket engine performance evaluation: also the specific
impulse (I
s
) and the system combustion efficiency
must be taken into account
Impulse Losses
( )
0 0
e e a e
s
mu p p A
S
I
mg mg
+
= =
&
& &
The overall engine performance in terms of I
s
can be negatively affected by fuel additives
useful for r
f
enhancement: it is therefore important to investigate the phenomena that can lead
to an impulse loss
The difference between the theoretical I
s
and the delivered I
s
is called specific impulse loss
The impulse losses depend on several phenomena, and can be linked to the motor geometry,
to the combustion processes, to fluid-dynamics.
Recognizing and quantifying the impulse losses affecting a rocket engine is therefore of major
importance for performance improvement and for the choice of fuel maximizing the engine
performance
48
The theoretical specific impulse can be computed with ad hoc codes
(NASA-CEA, SPP)
The computation is performed assuming some simplifying conditions, while
the real phenomena occurring in the engine are more complex: this leads to a
lower delivered specific impulse with respect to the theoretical one
When studying specific impulse losses, it must be taken into account that:
The different sources of loss are not independent
It is not easy to take into account the mutual dependences
Investigations on impulse losses are currently in progress
Impulse Loss Sources
49
2D loss
Code assumption: 1D gasdynamic expansion
Real engine: gasdynamic expansion always at least 2D
Trasversal velocity components lead to relevant I
s
losses (expecially for high expansion ratio)
Ae
= Ae/At
At
Impulse Losses (1/3)
2P loss
Code assumption: one-phase flow
Real engine: condesed particles in the combustion products
Particles display thermal lag and velocity lag with respect to the gas phase, leading to a
relevant I
s
loss. This loss depends on several factors, such as type, amount, morphology
and size of condensed phase, statistical particle distribution, nozzle expansion ratio
COMB:
Code assumption: combustion efficiency = 1
Real engine: thermochemical enthalpy delivered is lower than the theoretical one
Conditions in combustion chamber for COMB loss limiting: high temperature, high pressure,
high residence time
50
KIN:
Code assumption: chemical reactions occurring with infinite rate
Real engine: in every moment, the products of the reactions are different from the computed ones
Impulse Losses (2/3)
BL:
Code assumption: no boundary layer is considered
Real engine: in a real flux, the velocity at wall is zero (boundary layer)
ER/PIM:
Code assumption: no nozzle erosion is considered
Real engine: particles impact on nozzle, leading to a change in velocity, not considered in
the computation
SUB:
Code assumption: no nozzle submerged is considered
Real engine: for inert mass reduction, the nozzle can
be partially submerged in the combustion chamber.
This can lead to flow disturbance, slug deposition
SLUG:
Code assumption: no slug deposition is considered
Real engine: non-ideal combustion can lead to slug deposition, resulting in a surface and
velocity modification
51
Some losses are typical of hybrid rocket engine:
O/F: variation of the mixture ratio (O/F) during combustion
(higher loss in larger engines)
The mass balance can be written as:
[ ]
) 2 1 (
1
) (
n
p
n
ox
t R L
m
F
O

&
Even with constant oxidizer mass flux, the O/F ratio changes, because the fuel
regression is not uniform
Impulse Losses (3/3)
SFC: solid fuel configuration
AIM: augmented inert mass (linked to the pre- and post-combustion chamber)
52
Impulse losses sources have been investigated mainly for solid propulsion, and no
database is available for hybrid engines
A certain phenomenon can have different relative importance in different engines
Therefore, a quantitative estimation of the impulse losses in hybrid engines is currently
difficult to obtain
Taking into account the hybrid engines peculiarities, it can be inferred that the most
important impulse losses are expected to be 2D, 2P, COMB and KIN
Impulse Loss Estimation
I
s,th
is computed using ad hoc codes based on thermochemical conditions; an experimental
evaluation of the delivered thrust would allow obtaining I
s,delivered
, and then the impulse losses
could be measured as the different between theoretical and delivered specific impulse
Nevertheless, this method displays two major drawbacks:
A real engine, operating in real conditions, is needed (high cost)
The different loss sources cannot be distinguished
Semi-empirical methods were then developed for the estimation of the different loss sources
53
( ) ( )
b
t c m P
D p fr a Isp ,
2
=
For example, different methods for 2P loss estimation were proposed for solid rocket motors:
( )
|
|

\
|

=
6
5
4
08 . 0 15 . 0
3 2 C
t c
C
p
C
P
D p
D
C Isp

(D
p
requires experimental evaluation)
(not enough accurate)
fr
m
= metal mass fraction
p
c
= combustion chamber pressure
D
t
= throat diameter
= molar fraction of produced condensed particles
D
p
= average condensed particles diameter
In general, it is better to look for fuel formulations ensuring (at the same I
s
):
low molar fraction of produced condensed particles
small average condensed particle size
2P Loss Estimation for Solid Rocket Motors
The relations shown were found for existing motors, using standard HTPB-based propellants
The same relations can not be applied to different engines and/or different propellants
or fuels!!!!
54
Stanford University: paraffin vs HTPB
I
s
slightly better
Stanford University: paraffin vs HTPB
experimental r
f
notably better
Performance Estimation: Liquefying Fuels
Liquefying fuels have a different combustion process when compared to standard fuels
In impulse losses estimation, it must be taken into account that I
s,th
is computed considering
only the thermochemistry, while the effective combustion mechanism is neglected
55
Several open problems still affect the development of hybrid propulsion technology.
Among these, the most important issues are:
The understanding of the physical-chemical phenomena involved in the
combustion processes
The effect of these phenomena on the overall system performance
A better understanding of the combustion processes would allow finding the best
solutions in terms of:
choice of the couple fuel/oxidizer
engine design
engine operating parameters
Open Problems in Hybrid Propulsion
Combustion processes are the heart of hybrid propulsion future
development; in particular, transient combustion investigation is of major
importance for future development of hybrid technology
56
Combustion Processes
in Hybrid Rocket Propulsion
Politecnico di Milano
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Aerospaziale
Laura Merotto