MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf




CHAPTER
2
Stress and Strain
Axial Loading
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Contents
Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Normal Strain
Stress-Strain Test
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
Fatigue
Deformations Under Axial Loading
Example 2.01
Sample Problem 2.1
Static Indeterminacy
Example 2.04
Thermal Stresses
Poissons Ratio

Generalized Hookes Law
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
Shearing Strain
Example 2.10
Relation Among E, v, and G
Sample Problem 2.5
Composite Materials
Saint-Venants Principle
Stress Concentration: Hole
Stress Concentration: Fillet
Example 2.12
Elastoplastic Materials
Plastic Deformations
Residual Stresses
Example 2.14, 2.15, 2.16

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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the
deformations caused by the loads applied to a structure. Clearly, it is
important to avoid deformations so large that they may prevent the structure
from fulfilling the purpose for which it was intended. But the analysis of
deformations may also help us in the determination of stresses.

Indeed, it is not always possible to determine the forces in the members of a
structure by applying only the principles of statics. This is because statics is
based on the assumption of undeformable, rigid structures. By considering
engineering structures as deformable and analyzing the deformations in their
various members, it will be possible for us to compute forces that are
statically indeterminate,
Chapter 2 is concerned with deformation of a structural member under axial
loading. Later chapters will deal with torsional and pure bending loads.
In Chap. 1 we analyzed the stresses created in various members and
connections by the loads applied to a structure or machine. We also learned to
design simple members and connections so that they would not fail under
specified loading conditions.
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Normal Strain
L
A
P
A
P
o
c
o
=
= =
2
2
L L
A
P
o o
c
o
= =
=
2
2
We define the normal strain in a rod under axial loading as the
deformation per unit length of that rod.
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Stress-Strain Test
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Ductile materials, which comprise structural steel, as well as many alloys of other
metals, are characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperatures. As the
specimen is subjected to an increasing load, its length first increases linearly with the
load and at a very slow rate. Thus, the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram is a
straight line with a steep slope. However, after a critical value of the stress has been
reached i.e. the yield stress, the specimen undergoes a large deformation with a
relatively small increase in the applied load.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Brittle materials, which comprise cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by the
fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of elongation.
Thus, for brittle materials, there is no difference between the ultimate strength and the
breaking strength. Also, the strain at the time of rupture is much smaller for brittle than
for ductile materials.
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Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
Below the yield stress, This relation is
known as Hookes law
Elasticity of Modulus
or Modulus Youngs =
=
E
Ec o
Strength is affected by alloying,
heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus of
Elasticity) is not.
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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
When the strain does not return
to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
behave plastically.
The largest stress for which this
occurs is called the elastic limit.
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Fatigue
Fatigue properties are shown on
S-N diagrams.
When the stress is reduced below the endurance limit, fatigue failures do
not occur for any number of cycles. The endurance limit is the stress for
which failure does not occur, even for an indefinitely large number of
loading cycles. For a low-carbon steel, such as structural steel, the
endurance limit is about one-half of the ultimate strength of the steel.
A member may fail due to fatigue
at stress levels significantly below
the ultimate strength if subjected
to many loading cycles.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading
AE
P
E
E = = =
o
c c o
From Hookes Law:
From the definition of strain:
L
o
c =
Equating and solving for the deformation,
AE
PL
= o
With variations in loading, cross-section or
Material properties, we express the deformation of
the entire rod as:

=
i i i
i i
E A
L P
o


This equation may be used only if the rod is
Homogeneous (constant E), has a uniform cross
section of area A, and is loaded at its ends.
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Example 2.01
Determine the deformation of
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.
in. 618 . 0 in. 07 . 1
psi 10 29
6
= =
=
d D
E
SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into components at
the load application points.
Apply a free-body analysis on each
component to determine the
internal force
Evaluate the total of the component
deflections.
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SOLUTION:
Divide the rod into three
components:
2
2 1
2 1
in 9 . 0
in. 12
= =
= =
A A
L L
2
3
3
in 3 . 0
in. 16
=
=
A
L
Apply free-body analysis to each
component to determine internal forces,
lb 10 30
lb 10 15
lb 10 60
3
3
3
2
3
1
=
=
=
P
P
P
Evaluate total deflection,
( ) ( ) ( )
in. 10 9 . 75
3 . 0
16 10 30
9 . 0
12 10 15
9 . 0
12 10 60
10 29
1
1
3
3 3 3
6
3
3 3
2
2 2
1
1 1

=
(
(

+

+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =

=
A
L P
A
L P
A
L P
E E A
L P
i i i
i i
o
in. 10 9 . 75
3
= o
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Sample Problem 2.1
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two
links AB and CD.
Link AB is made of aluminum (E = 70
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of 500
mm
2
. Link CD is made of steel (E = 200
GPa) and has a cross-sectional area of (600
mm
2
).
For the 30-kN force shown, determine the
deflection a) of B, b) of D, and c) of E.
SOLUTION:
Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links AB
and DC or the displacements of B
and D.
Work out the geometry to find the
deflection at E given the deflections
at B and D.
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Displacement of B:
( )( )
( )( )
m 10 514
Pa 10 70 m 10 500
m 3 . 0 N 10 60
6
9 2 6 -
3

=


=
=
AE
PL
B
o
| = mm 514 . 0
B
o
Displacement of D:
( )( )
( )( )
m 10 300
Pa 10 200 m 10 600
m 4 . 0 N 10 90
6
9 2 6 -
3

=


=
=
AE
PL
D
o
+ = mm 300 . 0
D
o
Free body: Bar BDE
( )
( )
n compressio F
F
tension F
F
M
AB
AB
CD
CD
B
kN 60
m 2 . 0 m 4 . 0 kN 30 0
0 M
kN 90
m 2 . 0 m 6 . 0 kN 30 0
0
D
=
=
=
+ =
+ =
=

SOLUTION:
Sample Problem 2.1
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Displacement of D:
( )
mm 7 . 73
mm 200
mm 0.300
mm 514 . 0
=

=
=
'
'
x
x
x
HD
BH
D D
B B
+ = mm 928 . 1
E
o
( )
mm 928 . 1
mm 7 . 73
mm 7 . 73 400
mm 300 . 0
=
+
=
=
'
'
E
E
HD
HE
D D
E E
o
o
Sample Problem 2.1
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Sample Problem 2.2
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Sample Problem 2.2
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Static Indeterminacy
Structures for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically
indeterminate.
Redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads which along with the other
loads must produce compatible
deformations.
A structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than
are required to maintain its equilibrium.
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Static Indeterminacy
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Static Indeterminacy
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Static Indeterminacy
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Static Indeterminacy
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Static Indeterminacy
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Thermal Stresses
A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
( )
coef. expansion thermal =
= A =
o
o o o
AE
PL
L T
P T
Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
( ) 0
0
= + A
= + =
AE
PL
L T
P T
o
o o o
The thermal deformation and the deformation from
the redundant support must be compatible.
( )
( ) T E
A
P
T AE P
P T
A = =
A =
= + =
o o
o
o o o 0
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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
0 = = =
z y
x
x
E
o o
o
c
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
0 = =
z y
c c
Poissons ratio is defined as
x
z
x
y
c
c
c
c
v = = =
strain axial
strain lateral
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Poissons Ratio
For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
0 = = =
z y
x
x
E
o o
o
c
The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions.
Poissons ratio is defined as
x
z
x
y
c
c
c
c
v = = =
strain axial
strain lateral
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Shearing Strain
A cubic element subjected to a shear stress will
deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding shear
strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides,
( )
xy xy
f t =
A plot of shear stress vs. shear strain is similar the
previous plots of normal stress vs. normal strain
except that the strength values are approximately
half. For small strains,
zx zx yz yz xy xy
G G G t t t = = =
where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Shearing Strain
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Shearing Strain
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer Johnston DeWolf
Shearing Strain
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Example 2.10
A rectangular block of material with
modulus of rigidity G = 90 ksi is
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 0.04 in. under the action
of the force, determine a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and b)
the force P exerted on the plate.
SOLUTION:
Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
Use the definition of shearing stress to
find the force P.
Apply Hookes law for shearing stress
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
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Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
rad 020 . 0
in. 2
in. 04 . 0
tan = = ~
xy xy xy

Apply Hookes law for shearing stress and
strain to find the corresponding shearing
stress.
( )( ) psi 1800 rad 020 . 0 psi 10 90
3
= = =
xy xy
G t
Use the definition of shearing stress to find
the force P.
( )( )( ) lb 10 36 in. 5 . 2 in. 8 psi 1800
3
= = = A P
xy
t
kips 0 . 36 = P