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COII\ITENTS
:
I
CONCEPT
&
EUNCTIONS OF
:.. l
.\IANAGBMENT...
2.
tir\YOLS
14 PRINCIPLES
,.:
]. }VHAT
DOES
MANAGEMENT
EXPECTS
FITOI\ZI
:
ii,:
OFFICB'MANAGER.
,
4.
PLANNING
5. DECISJON
MAKING
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(t.
COMMUNICATION
'
II.
LEADERSHII'
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CONFLICT
MANAGEMENT
&
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NEGOTIATION.
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IO.
'I-IME
MANAGEMENT
I I.
'I'IIAINING
AND DEVELOPMENT
Of course, a Manager also makes. a personal contribution
to the work of his
department or units.
-He
may be a Administrator, an Accountant or an
pngineer
by
training and witl continue to use his vocational knowledge and experience during his
managerial career.
HoweVer, it is generally true that as Managers
progress up that promotiond ladder the
vocation- contint of their
jobs
decreases
-as
the managerial
'content iricrease.
Unfortunately, it is atso generally true that most Managers' management training and
education is-given less importance to the training they received for their original
vocation.
ite notion of Managemlnt ii 'getiing things done thrciugh other peoplg' requires of
Managers the abilityio identify the right things to be done and zubsequently,lheability
to g"t them done. The management by objcctivei approach prwides a simple and-
syslematic way of generating the irnportant things to be done together with a means of
pianning and contiotting the action rlquired.
i
corporate, unit, department and individual level we
aim to identi$ the important and vital areas of work and within thcse areas we must
CONCEPT
AND FUNCTIONS OF
MANAGEMENT
Although
there are numerous definitions of management,
there is some measure of
agreem-ent that Management
is concerned with getting things done through other
:
derirmine thi resutts we are aiming to achieve. ,iff.$liil'*:*:Hi""ji?i:
:
dlne must be olearly retated to the results which provide the purpose fol the activity in
; ,
the first place. .
I
Purposes and objectives are es:sential to every organized effort. They are the basic from
which all else proceeds.What purposes ire we trying to serve? \\tat arc our
objectives? Wheie are we going? Dcveloping
goals includes obtaining informations to
such questions as how *" uelrying achieve them; when and in what priority, how
well, ind how much by way of resouries, human as well as material. lVe are prepared
to commit to the trndertaking. It is an area iri which all administrative leaders are
r . ..
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a
=====:
::;ts!ih iiiill
turn oui intentions into accomplishments.
Most writers on the subject are in broad
agreementthat the basic process of mana$ement comprises ftve steps:
Planning
Organizing
Motivating
Co-ordinating
Controlling.
f
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l.Plamning:
Planring involves the intelligent use of resources, the "working out in broad outline the
things that need to be done and the methods for doing them" in Dr. Gullick's words.
Here forecasting, the function of assessing the future, has a highly important
role of
perform. O4ce the forecast has been made, it is up to management to prepare the
plans, both long and short range, and to undertaken the programming that will make
short range, and to undertaken the programming that will make optimum uses of
avail;:ble resources. It includes i
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Forecasting
Objectives
Policies
Procedures
Programm i ng/schedu ling
.f
2. Organizing:
The function of developing and ananging the formal relationships between persons in
varicus parts of the organisation, orgdnisi.ng takes into account.
a
I
1
a
Purposes, plans aad resources as well as recognition of the nature of the product, its
clier'.:ele, the special and geographic considerations that apply, and the characteristics
of those persons who make up the organizations.
The organizing functions includes the development of methods and procedures by
which the work of the organization will be carried on :
3. Ilotivating:
:
A rnanager must motivate to highest productivity the people who work for him. To
inspire and impel his people to highist endeavor the manager provides for
comnrunication and participation on matters that effect them and that they participate
himself and with those whom they will work.
a) Understanding people
b) Communication
c) lnvolvement
.
d) Participation
e) Cornmitment.
a
b
c
d
e'
:
''
To co-ordinate
is to harmonize
all the activities.
of a
-colcern
so as to facititate
its
working
and its success'
Among
,hr ;";;;;ortant
of rhe
managemenr.functions
is
that of co:ordination,
the task
"r1.l"rir'e";.
*i*
of one i"dil;;;;?;;
that
of anorher, without
it, there
can be ,o groirt-;F;;:
ii.^ orguniration,
no matrer
how
weil
::ffil'.11;H,lffi'J'n't,i'.rrv'uvl,.'o,.'"rffi
r.#;"ol"J;;""0;;;;
4 Batancing
b)
Harmony
c)
Timing
d)
Unity
e)
Integrity.
5. Controlling:
The
controt
procedure
is objective
in
G sense
that we aim to corirpare
resurts
?chieved
with the resutts
umeo
f-k *i irr-ir.r*^;";;;;rward
rooking
since
rt concentrates
on what must be aonr inir,, rrr*"il'irpr*r'r.*rr.
I Tho
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The process
of control
involves
the estabiishrnelt
of standards,
the measurement
of
act-ual
or anticiPated
p.ta,rt*""s.io;i
,t"r,
*naa,aq
airt[e,tanhg
ofardta;
. tctlon
to make performance
confoni
to pf*,
and goats.
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a)
Establish
standard
b)
Compare*itr,Ltr.r
-{
vvM.ysr9
}yrur
actual
,
c)
Find
out deviation
d)
Causes
ofdeviation
e)
Corrective..rion.
-Y
I.
Di'ision
of u'o'k
: This
is the speciarization
rvrrich
econo,rists
coriside*ecessa'y.to
efficie,cy
irr trre use of rabor.
Fayor
appries
the
p'i,ciple
to ail kirrds
of wor1i,
nranagerial
as well
as technical.
Author.it.t,
and. responsibilit.y.
Here Fayol
finds
authority
and
responsibility
to be rerated,
witir
the latter the corortary
of the forner
and
arisi,g
fi'om it. He sees autrror-ity
as a co,rbirration
of officiar, .
fi'or,
the nranager's
position,
,na p.,-ro,iui,-';to,npouncred
of
intelligence,
experi.nr.,
rroral worth, purt
rr,riar,
etc.,,,
factors.
Discipline,
Seeing discip.rine
as
;.respbct
fbr agreenrerts
which
are
directed
at achievils
gueolence,-appricatio,,.,r.ffi
and the
outward
.
nrarks
of respect,"
Fayol
declaies
Urut Oir.ipt,:nl
,.q;;;;;;
,,
silperiors
at all levels.
PERCEPTIVE
: FNTOL'S
PRIN
IPL
o t(;-'t'r
rr$.-Thi s meansrh
a t e,rpr oyees
sh o r..rd i,ecc i ve oit i
fi'Onr
Orre trpati.,.
Ortly.S
t tvrrrPruysss
sn0ul0
recelve
OrderS
1
't
, l
)'
unit-v
ol' direction.
According
to tlris principle,
each grcup
of
'
activities
with.the
sanre objectivf
nrusr L;;;;;;
head and
one ptan.
.
As distinguished
fronr tj.,. fourrh pri,r.ipri,
il-;=;;;;J'rorln.
, .::, ,
''
organization
of the "body
corpomte,"
r*her
tirrrito
personnel.
(Fayol
:
did not in any serlse ,',ir,, tliat all decisions
should
be nrade
at ilre
:
'
6'
subordination
of individual
to general
interest.
This
is self-
:
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l'eCOnCile
them.
"s'rs5vrr'rvtrt
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[:i;::,;:{:#,,,,tl]lxx;iflli;,;:x$Jl:.:Ht;:;Jiil,::llJ:;:::
and employer.
.
8'
centralizatiolr.
without
usirtg the ternr "centralization
of authority,,,
.
Fayor
refers
to trre exte,r
to rvrrich
,rrr.,oii,y-L
.0,.,..,.,tmted
or
9.
t0.
\T1:
clispersed.
Individual circutlstances
will detet'nrine the degree that
s'ill
"give
tlte best over-all yield.
Sealar chain. Fayol thinks of this as a
"chaitl of superiors" fi'ot:t llte
higlrest to the lowest rattl<s, which wlrile ttot to be departed fi'or:r
needlessly, slrould be short-circuited
u'lten to follow it scrupulorrsly
'uvould
be detrin:ental.
Order. Breaking this into
'jntaterial" and
"social"
order, Fayol
follows the sintple adage of
"a place for et'erything
[everyone],
and
everything
[everyone]
in its
[this
or lrer] place." Tlris is essentially a
priniipte of organization in the arrangeitent of things artd people.
Equit1,. Loyalty and devotion should be elicitecl fi'onr personnel by a
combination of kindliness and
jtrstice
oll the part of rnanagers rvhen
deal ing with subordinates.
Initiative. Initiative is conceived of as the tlrir:king out and execution
of a plan. Since ii is one of the "keqnest satisfactions {br att
intelligent man to experience." Fayol. exhorts nlanagers to "sacrifltce
personal vanity" in otder to permit subordinates to exercise it.
il.
t3.
-1ry17
I\,TANAGER
?
I. \4ANACEMENT
EXPECTS
THE OFFICE MANAGER TO BE AN
ORCANIZER
WIJO
CAN BUILD AND DIRECT A SMOOTHLY
ITUNCTIONINC
ORGANIZATION
THAT WILL PERFORM
THE
]. MANACEMENT
EXPECTS
THE OFFICE MANAGER
TO BE A
DYNAI\4IC
LEADER.
J. MANAGEMENT
EXPECTS THE OFFICE MANAGER
TO SHOW
HIS
DYNAMIC
LEADERSHIP
BY KEETING
A HEALTHY
sSAT}SF^C-TIoNwITHTHEPAsTANDPRESENTMETHoDsoF.-
DOING
THE
OFFICE WORK, AND THUS TO@
4. MANAGEMENT
EXPECTS THE OFFICE MANACER
TO BE WILLING
ND
ABLE TO D
SUBORDINATES.
WILLINGNESS
TO DELEGATE AUTHOIRTY
BY FUNDING
AND
TRAININC
KEY PERSONNEL AND ASSISTANTS
TO SUPERVISE
TI{E WORK
UNDER I-IIS BROAD SUPERVISION.
5. MANACEMENT
EXPECTS THE OFFICE MANACER@
VISUALIZE.
A
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PROBLEMS.
RROW'S
OFFICE
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(I.
MANACEMENT EXPECTS THE OFFICE MANAGER TO IJAVE AND
TO CONTINUE Tb INAPNOVE AND DEVELOP THOSE PERSONALIT\'
-.
TRAITS THAT CHARACTERIZE A SUCCESSFUL EXECUTIVE. SUCH
* ,NCLUDE THE FOLLOWING :
JUDGEMENT, TACT, FAIRNESS, MATLIRITY, A SENSE OF
HUMOR, AND A PLEASANT AND COURTEOUS DISPOSITON.
PLANNING
; NATURE
AND PURPOSE
Planning
is "fundamentaily
choosing",
and
,,
a pranning probrem
arises onry
when
an alternative
course
of altion is discovered". I; this sense, it is essentially
decision
making, although,
as_ will be s""n, it is also much more.
planning
is deciding in
advance
what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who is to do it.
NATURE
OF PLANNING:
The essential
nature
of ptanning
can be highlighted
by the four major aspects of
planning:
contribution
to purpose
and ibjectiv.r,lri,iury
#pi"nning,
p6rvasiveness
of
planning,
and efficiency ofpLns.
TIrc purpos.
of ,r.ry
itun
ana dr derivative
prans is
to facilitate
the accompfislrment
of enterpris. prrporc
anJ
-objectives.
Manageriar
planning
seeks to achieve a consistent,
cooidinated
siructure
of operations
focused
on
desiied
ends. since manageriar
opr*ion, io org"niring,-
st"ffing,
reading,
and
controlling
are designed to support the a-ccomplislment"or
enterprise
objectives,
planning
logically precedes
the executio,
:.f
all oihemi""g*i"r
firnctions.
ilanning
and control are esoeciailyinseparabre
- the siamese twins orria;;;#;;.
il;#lJ"
function.ofall
managerg.rtr,orgtiie
ciiracter.and
breath of pranning
wil vary with
*::::1":lrlilylt 11.,*ty1.
ofpolicies
ana
prans
or;i#iy
their superiors.
rhe
efticiency
of a gitan ismequry!
!y
the rnggnq i1
"gnqrq,Iro,"
p,irr#;",Jffi:::,,i::
:
operate
it. A plan can contribute
to the atta,:rd
of objectives,
bri
"ir""'iigt,,,
:llff:T:i Y"1'"*:^:: .II ::'g :l'*:d'i
i'd#;.
n orm ar rat i o o r i npu t ro
output,
but goes
bevond theusuarunderstandins
or inprt" ;;
";;;;;ri1;'."#,i'a*::=_:
--
[HH"l,:::s,
or units orproduction
to inuuJ"ril
rd;i,
inoiriau.r
and group
TYPES
OF PLANS:
The failure of some managers to-recognize
rhe variety
ofplans has often caused
::*9'?Ji::I5jgi:y :T:;*:. l1niic
in m'aii.t.
iiun.n,o,passes any
course
of future we can see
,
as shown in Figure.
Y":'t-
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THE HIEMRCHY
OF PLANS _---.-.-----_--_
Purpose or'Missions:
It can hardly be doubted that a clear definiti-gL of purpose
or mission is necessary
in
order to formutate meaningful objectives. while'every
u*i"Lrr
should know the
answer to the question. What is our business and what should it be? The .orr.ai
apgroach requires, first, that a business define who its customers
are.and rryfut their
attitudes and expectations are.
Objectives:
objectives, or goals, are the'ends toward. which activity is aimed. It is enough
o
emphasize here that objectives, or goats, are plans
and ihat they involve
the lame.
tlyt
process as any other type of planning,
iven though they are also end point"oi
Pranntng. .
a .'
i
Strateeies
While the term "strategies"
still usually has a competitive implication, it has been
increasingly
used to reflect broad overall .on..pi, of an enterprise operation.
"Strategies,"
therefore, most often denote
"
g.n.rul programme ol.action and an
implied deployment of emphasis
and resources to attain com-preh"nsive objectives.
The
purpose
of strategies, then, is to determine and communiiate, through a sy.stem
of
major objectives and policies,
a picture of what kind of enterprise is enuisionej.
Policies:
Policies, also, are plans in that they are general statements or understandings
which
guide
or channel thinking and action in deiision making. Poticies delimit .n .rfi *i,t in
which a decision is to be made and assure that the decision will be consistent with an
contributive
to objective.
Procedure:
Procedures are ptans in thatithey establish a customary'inethod
of handting
future
activities. They are truly guides to action, iather than to thinking, and they UIt"iJ ii.
exac:t manner in which a certain activity must be accomplished. Their pervisiveness
in
the organisation is readily apparenr.
Rules:
i-
Rules are plans in that they are required actions which, like other ptans,
are chosen
from among alternatives. They are usuafly the simplest type of plan. .Rutes
ui.
frequently
confused with policies or procedures. A rule requires that a specifrc ana
definite
action be taken or not taken with respect to a situation: As a matter of f""qt.
procedure could be looked upon as a sequence of rules. A rule, however, *.y or rly
not be part ofa procedure.
Prograrnmes:
Programrnes
are a complex of goals, policies, procedures,
rules, task assignments,
steps to be taken, resources to be employed, and other elements
to
e ordlnanty supported by necessary capital
and
operating budgets. A primary programme may call for many derivative progr.rn*es.
Some of the programmes, particularly those involving hiring and training of
[ersonnel
can be.accomplished
too soon as well as too latg since needlcss expensi resutts frbm
employees
being availabte and trained before their services are required. Thus one
seldom finds that a programme of any importance in enterprise ptaning stands by itself.
-Eir.,.,'
Budsets:
Budget as a ptan is a statement of expected results expressed in numerical terms. It
may be referred to as a "Numberized" programme. As a matter of fact, the financial
operating budget is often. called a "profit plan". However, making a budget is ctearty
pla;rning. It is the fundamental planning instrument in many companies.
,!
.,.
..,.[MPORTANCE OF PLANNING:
The planning function has four important goals : to offset uncertainty and change, to
focus attention on objectives, to gain economical operation and to facilitate control.
To offset Uncertainty and Chansej
Future uncertainty and change make planning a necessiiy. The future is seldom very
certain, and the further in the future the results of a decision must be considered, the
less the certainty. Even when the future is highly certaiq some pianning
is usuatly
necessary. Even when trends indicating change are easily discerniblg difHcult planning
problems arise.
To focus Attention on Obiectives:
Because all ptanning is directed toward achieving enterprise objectives, the very act of
planning focuses attention on these objectives. Well-considered overall plans unity
f
nle$gryryentat activiti
To Gain Economical Operation:
-
Ptanning minimizes costs because of the emphasis on efficient
.operation
and
consistency. No one who has watched the assembly of automobiles in one of the larger
factories can fail to be impressed with the way that the parts and zubassernblies come
together. Although every manager sees the imperative economy of planning
at the
production level, planning of equal or sometimes greater importance in other areas is
occasionally left to chance and too great individual discretion.
To Facilitate Control:
Managers cannot check on their subordinates accomillishments without having goa[s
and programmes against which to measure. There is no way to conrol without plans
to use as standards
' "
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t.a,,,,
...0n',.Y
STEPS
IN PLANNING:
Beine aware of opporhrnity:
Although preceding what is usually considered to be actuat ptanning, the awareness of
an oPportunity is the real starting point for planning. It inclldes a
lretiminary
look at
possible
future opportunities and the ability to r.r them clearly'and completety, a
knowledge
of where we stand in the light of our strengths and we.knlssrs,'"n
understanding
of why we wish to solve uncertainties, and a vision of what we expect
to gain.
Planning requires realistic diagnosis of the opportunity, situation.
. l. Establishing objectives:
i
l
The
first step in planning itself is to estabtish objectives for the entire enterprise and
then for each subordinate unit. Objectives speciSing the results bxpected indicate the
:
end points of what is to be dong where the primary emphasis is to be placed,
and what
,
is to be accomplished by the network of strategies, poliiies, procedurei,
rutes, budgets,
,
&d programmes.
i
.r, Enterprise
objectives should give
direction to the nature of all major plans, which by
department
objectives in
lurn
control the objectives of subordinate departments,
and so
on down the line. The objectives of lesser departments will be better framed, however, l
:
if subdivision managers understand the overatl enterprise objectives and tir" implied
;tti;;,#;;"1;;;
if they are given an opportunity to contribute their ideas tci thcm
'
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,
and to the setting of their own goals.
.:
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2.
Premising:
''
4
second logical step is planning is to establish, obtain agreement to utilize, and
'
disseminate critical planning premises. Premises are planning assumptions - in other
I words, the expected environment of plans in operation. The more individuats charged
;
with planning understand and agree to utilize consistent planning premises,
the m-ore'
l
,. coordinated
enterprise
plannine
will be. Some
F'emises
frt'acast
policies net yet made.
Forecasting is important in planning.: What kind of marketi will there be? What
quantity
of sales? What price? What products? What technical developments?
Wlrat
cost? What wage rates? What political or social environment?
What view plants?
How
expansion will be financed.
A difticulty of estabtishing complete premises and keeping them upto date is that every
major plan, and many minor ones, becomes a premise for the future. Premises .r., ., .
practical matter, limited to those which are critical, or strategic, to a plan, that is, those
which most influence operation.
Y.'
Since agreement to utilize a given ser of premises is important to coordinated planing it
becomes a major responsibility of rhanagers, starting with those at the top, to make
sure that subordinate managers understand the premises upon which they.are expected
to plan. A single standard for the future is necessary for good planning, even though
this standard includes severalsets of premises, with the instruction that different sets of
plins be developed on each.
3. Determiriingaltemativecourses:
The third step in planning is to search for and examine alternativ.e courses of action,
especially those not immediately apparent. It is usually necessary for the planner to
rrdr.. by preliminary examination the number of alternatives t6 those promising most
fruitful possibilities or by mathematically eliminating, through the process of
approximation, the least promising ones.
4. Evaluziting alternative courses:
Having sought out alternative courses and examined their strong and weak points, the
fourth step is to evaluate them by weighing the various factors in the light of premises
and goals. One course may appear to be the most profitable but require a large cash
outlay and a slow play back; another may be less'profitable but involve less risk; still
another may bettbr suit the companyls long'range objectives.
Because the number of alternative courses in most situations is legion and the
numerous variables and limitations are'involved, evaluation can be also exceedingly
complex.
The fifth planning step, selicting the cOurse of action, is the point at which a plan is
adopted - the real point of decision making. Occasionally an analysis and evaluation of
atteinative courses witl disclose that two or more are advisable, and the manager may
decide to follow several couries rather than a single course.
6. Formulating derivative
Plans:
at the point where decision is made, ptanning is seldom complete, dnd a sixth step is
plan.
7.
Numbering
plans
by budgeting:
'A'fter
decisions
are made and prans
are set, the finar step to give the meaning,
is to
numberise
them by converting them to budgets. The overa[ b-udgets
"i""-"ri"rprir"
represent
the sum total of income and expenses, with resuttant piofi.t
or ,rrpirr,'.ra
budgets
of major balance
sheet items
rurrt ur cash and capital expenditures,
Each
department
or programme
of a business
or other enterprise can have its own budgets,
usually
of expenses
and capitat expenditures,
which tie in to the overal! budget.
,l|f
well, budget
becomes a means
of additing together the various plans
and atso
tmportant
standard against which pranning progreis
can be measured.
taar,-" '
THE PLAI\iNING
PROCESS
: RATIONAL APPROACH
As seen-jn
the planning
steps outtined above, planning
is simply a rationat
approach
to
accomplishing
an objective.
Decision
making *t-b, ;;'.is.rt
oil
;i;r;;;;;,
although
it involves techniques
of evaluationlnd
approach and considerable
skill . in
applying
these. The rear difficurties arise primarily
from sharpening.na
giyril;;il;
to objectives (preferabty,.verifiabre),
siefling tut and giril
meanrng
to criticar.
premises,
seeing the nature and ielatlonshi-p
of tt. sir.ffis
and weakness
of
alternatives,
and communicaring goars
and premises
to those th;";;h;
,i,. ..*rriL
who must plan.
j._
i
. .' THE PLAMING
PERIOD
: LONG
RAI.IGE PLAIIINING
.r
'.-
.,,
Small plans
be for a short period
or a long one? How shall short range plans
be
::' coordinated
with long-range ptans? These questions
suggest-a
multiple-
horizon.of,.-
*-
r-
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--.-
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planning
- that, in some caies,'planning
a weik in advanc-e-may
be ample
and that, in
.;
otherqthedesirabtqperiodmaybeanrimberory.*.e,.;*i.r,i"thesarnefirmatthe
j'
I same fime, various planning periods may exists for various
m.,i.rr.
;1.
_
:
,. -.-eie
.v. I s..vsJ ttr4al
I
.'
THE COMMITMENT
PRINCIPLE
,'
I"=1lLoyt
..r,
to. the right planning period
seems to lie in the
,,Commitment
,:.
i,
principle".
Logical planning .o.o*p r.i i period
of time ii the future ;;;il
;,
, foresee,
as well as possibte,
the fuifillment
of commi,*iii,
il*lr.r.n,
in a.rirl
I -rde today,
:
i
what
the commitment.principte
implies
is that long-range
planning
is not rialv
'
i.
planning
for future decisions but rather planning
r"i iir n ti,r, irp'ari
;iil;;:l '
I
decisions.
In other words, a decision is a commit;*r;;.g;Iy
of funds, direction
of
action,
reputation. There is no uniform. or arbitrary
lengttr of time for which
a
company
should plan or forwhich a giveri progrurri
or iny of this p.rt,toriJ'U"
planned.
-
--l
'-Yl
c o MPIB$I
G-Af,TEBNIIJ
V E S
SOUGHT
Which
alternative
wiil give
us the best chance
of ineet-
ing our goals
at the lowebt
cosl and highist profil?
"&
SETTING
OBJECTIVES
OR
GOALS
lVhore
we want
to be and
"Ill
ryo
want
to accomplish
and when
CONSTDEBING
PLANNING
PREMISES
ln what
enyironment
-rnternal
or exlernat_wifl
our plans
oporats?
.
IOENTFYING
ALTEHNATIVES
lVhal
are the
niosl
promising
altemafivos
lo
accomplishing
our
ooleclives?
CHOSSING
AN
ALTERNATIVE
Selecting the course
of
aclion we wilipursue
FORMULATING
.
SUPPO)RTING
PLANS
Such eis pldns
to:
Buy equipmenl
Buy materiats
Hire and lrain workers
Devolop
a nely produtt
ll.rlllBEBtztNc
PLANS
-
BY MAKING
BUDGETS
Ogyqlop
such budgets
as:
votume
and price
of Sales
uperating
expenses
necessary
lor plans
expenditures
lor capitat
oqurpmenl
STEPS
IN PLANNING.
\ ...
,t-,y,
,/
DECISION
MAKING
Decision
Defined:
Decision
is the serection from among
severar atternative
courses.
defi nition of decision i nvorves fottowing'ctraraar.rtri.ri'-"'
v vvsr
i.
Decision
making is a process
of selection
and the aim is
alternative.
2'
Decision
is aimed at ichieving
the objectives
of the organizStion
if it is made in
organizational
context.
3'
'
It also involves the evaluation
of available
alternatives
because
only through
this evaluation
one can know the Urrt ulto*tir..'-":*
'
..
4'
Decision
making. is a. mental process
because the final selection
is made
after
thoughtfu
I consideration.
5'
Decision
involves rationality
because
through decision
one tries to better
one,s
happiness.
6.
Decision
riraking invorves a certain commitment.
This commitment
may be for
.
short run or long run depending
upon the typ. ,f a..irion.'
Tlpes
of Decisions:
There
are vairous ways of ctassifying decision
in an organization.
These bases give
five
sets of decisions.
l
'
organizational
and personal decisions.
rn an organization
when an individuat
iakes
decisions as an executive for the orgariiz.,io;:-;rr"
.are
known
as
organizational
decisions.
: .i
'of
action.
The
to select
best
An executive can take decisions about himserf which
u* p.rron.r
decisions.
I*:: *:':":::'::ly *:t
personar
rife of the dd#_;;*,
though
at
many items they may affect
organization
arso, sucrr a;,-l;;;;;'
"i1k
organization
by an individual.
2'
Routine
or strategic de-cisions.
Routine decisions ,r. ,.Urr in the context
of
day-to-day
operation of the organization-
rtaostry, ,ht;;;
of repetitive
natuie
and related with the general functioning.
They do no, i.quir.
much anatysis
and
evaluation and. can be made quickly.
T
3.
.
strategic decisions are those which are taken during the current time period,
bu_t whose primary
efitect
js
felt during sorne future
feriod.
Strategic aeiisioni
affect organizational
structure,
objective, facititiis, and finances. These
decisions are mostly non-repetitive
in nature. Since they have fundament effects
on the organization,
they are taken after careful analysis and evatuation
of
various alternatives.
These decisions are taken
"o*p.r.iir.ly
at higher level of
nianagelnen
Policy and operative D.ecisions.
poricy
decisions are taken by iop management
in the organization which determines the basic policies. fle poticy
delcisions
are very important and have long-term impact. These decisions prorid.
h.lp in
establishing the business such as deciding location of plant,
volume of
production,
sale and purchase
decisions, policy decisions
regarding.the
employees, etc. Policy decisions are sometimes published
"s
poiiry mlnual
which become the basis for other operative decisions.
operative decisions are related with the day-to-day operation of the business.
These are taken generally
by middle and lower levet managers who are more
closely related with the supervision of actuar operations. TIese a"cilions-,,uy
be written or otherwise
Programmed'or Non-Programmed Decisions: Such ctassification
of decisions is
made on thi basis of the use of operations research.
programmed
d#;;;';;;
normally of repetitive nature and are taken within the broad policy
structure.
These generally have short-run impact and are taken by loweilevei
managers,
such as, granting leave to an employee- purchase
of materials in normal
,oriirr,
etc.
Individual and Group Decisions. This classification
is based on the basis of
persons involved in the decision-making
process. Individuat decisions
are taken
by a single individual. These are taken in the context of routine o, progrur*.J
decisions where the analysis of various variabres is'simple and for wh[h broad
policies are already provided. Sometimes, important'decisions
are taken by
single individuals also.
4.
5.
Group decisions are taken by a grouped constituted for this specific purpose
or
organization. Group decisions have certain positive vatue such. as greater
participation
of individudls and quality in decisions, and certain negative values
such as delay in decision-making process .and
difficulty in fixing the.
responsibility of decisions.
.A.rriving at a decision implies that a manager has gone
though a series of systematically
relate steps. These steps of the decision making process include (l) determining
the
problem as related in objectives being sought; (2) identifiing alternative
solutionq q:)
analyzing the possible outcomes of each alternative;
and (4) setection of an atternative
for subsequer:t implementation. Pictorially, this process
is shown betow.
'. lr:|TE rr
The Decision
Makine
process.
Analysis
of
Future
Possible
Outcomes
or
-eonsequencest
List of
Atlernatives
Comparison
of
Outcomes
to
Determine
which
Alternative
Is Selected
*
Different artemattives will lead to different possible
outcornes
or
'
consequences.
This can
!g
expressed symbolically as
yrAr;
thus, the ouicome
Y1 if alternative A1 is follows
Determining
the preciie probtem
to be solved is-.the first and possibly
most important
st3n
in
the decisional process. Every decision is directly r"tatea'to
"
problem.
Time and
effort should be expanded. onry in gathering
data and inrorrutioi.
d;-;;;;;;#;
in on the corect problem is toask.-
Establish
Alternatives to the
problem:
To. be most meaningful only viable and realistic alternative
should be inctuded in the
listing. There are also time and cost constraints
that wi[ restrict the number of
reasonable
alternatives.to
be setected. Psychological
barriers'may
also restrict the
number
of alternatives that will be devetoped by
"
gir.n
manager.
v"
'l
Creativity and the Search for Alternatives.
Good managers
are innovators who depend heavily on an ability to think creatively. A.ll
present and potential managers should involve into the mental and procedural aspects
Lf creativity. The application of creative ideas to managerial operations is often
difficult. Three reasons seem to be responsible for this difficulty:
l. The formal organization with its multiple levels of administrative authority may
act as a barrier.
Z. The desire for security on the part of some managers may hinder the approval
and imptementation of new ideas.
3. When it appear that an organization is operating successfully' managers may
not be willing to
Brainstorming
Alternatives .
One'creative
technique used in identifying alternative courses of action is
referred to as
" brainstorming." Basically, the approach seeks to elicit ideas by pooling
the efforts of several people who either meet as a group, or work on a problem by
themselves.
Analyze Alternatives.
Managers can never be sure of the actual outcome of each alternative, uncertainty
alwayi exists. Consequently,
this step is a real charige requiring managers to call on
present knowledge,
past exPerience, foresight, and scientilic acumen:
Seeking Srategic
Factors:
The acute decision maker must recognize the strategic or limiting factors creating a
,problem.
Strategic factors refer to those that are most important in determining the
'action
to be takin in solving
a given problem. fui organization of strategic factors is
also important in analyzing
alternative course of action. In this way, the probability of
makinja more rational
selection from among alternative courses of action is increased.
Some definitive statements
about decisions include the following:
l. There is no decisional
problem until two or more alternative courses of action
ire available'
2.. Only one course
of action can be selected. However, any combination
actitns can be considered as a singte action'
3. A course of action
is selected to either solve or alleviate a problem. In order to
choose an action
that will lead to a desirable solution, the problem must be
specified
as clearlY
as
Possible'
of
4'
A satisfactory.decisio.n
impties
that the decision maker as anaryzed
the
alternatives
and judged
a particurar
action to have tt e greatest.
probabirity
of
solving
the problem in a desirabte
manner.
-5' The problem
of measuring
desirability
has not been sotved, particutarly
when
there are severar possible
ort"or.*-**ociated
*irr, .*h uir.rnative.
6' In facing
some.manageriat
probrems,
the monetary
srur.
"un'bi
used to
measure
the varues in a probrem.
However,
thid scare is
"*
.*pi".iv
satisfactory
and should be uied with care.
t:
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t.
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/
\r'
\,CON{MI.INICATION
Communication
is the process of transmitting and receiving iniormation. It is the process of
exchanging
significant symboling. It is the conveyance or interchange of intangibles-thoughts,
.. opinions,
ideas or instruction - by spoken or. written messages. Communication can be defined
as the chain of understanding that integrates the member of an organization from top to
bottom, to top and laterally. It will be
.
noticed that thir definition contains the following
ingredients:
(l) an act of making oneself understood, (2) a measures of passing information
among peopte,
and (3) a system for communicating between individuals the definition atso
distinguishes
the three types of communication flow, namely, (l) downward (2)
upward (3)
lateral.
r
,
t.-
-r'
.
7
Downward
communication:
Downward
comm'unication refers to the directives and other messages that originate the
officials
at the top of the organization and are transmitted down through the hierarchy -
through the intervening levet of supervision - until they reach the lowest ranking workers in
the chain. Among the various channels available to carry infofmation downward are the
followings:.(l)
chain of command (2) posters and bulletinboards (3) company pamphlers (6)
inforrnation
racks (7) loudspeaker system (8) grapevine (9) annual reports (10) labour union.
There are doubtlessly many other channels that are used every day by management in
attempting
to communicate with subordinates. Middle and lowCi manageis'are usually
contacted personally and through such written devices as memoranda, policy manilas and
authorized
schedules. Eternal means such as radio, television and the press, can be used to
contact employees as well as the general public. Managemerit should
judiciously
choose the
subjects to be communicated
,determine
the characteristics of the intended audience, and
select a restricted number of channels most likety to reach the minds of that audience.
Drawbacla
:
The use of these downward channels is potentiatty damaging to effective communication. A '
fundamental
source of difticutty is that of differing cultures. Management personnelwith a bias
toward bfficiency might attempt to establish understanding with subordinates who
are biased'", .
toward personal or economic security. Often only the manager urlderstands what he is siiying.
This terminology reflects both his background and his scale of alues
,
which can serve to
confuse subordinates or engehder resistance. Management people should be futly aware of ihe
likelihood of beihg misrihderstood
while attempting to use these downward channels of
cornmunication.
Y
,l
Upr,r'ard Communication :
Where massages are passed from the tower tevets of rhe harriers upto the management,
it
signifies upward communication. There are many channels to choose for the ,p*uid flow of
informaiion, feelings and attitudes, some of which are : (l) the chain of command (2)
grievance procedure (3) complaint system (4) counseling (5) morat questionnaires (6) ripen-
door policy (7) exit interview 98) grapevine (9) labour union (10) the informer (ll)
ombudsman. There are many other specific avenues of communication that can be set up from
subordinates to supervisors. There are also certain subtleties of which the manager should be
aware.
. Laterat Communicntion
t'
Lateral or horizontal communication takes place amount workers of the same tevet in the
hierarchy, or among individuals of different levels who are ndt in a superior - subordinate
relationship.
Lateral retationships will frequentty go from one agency to another, and are not rgstricred to
inter-agency relatioriships. The communication down the hierarchy are likely to'be critical and
communication up the hierarchy are likeiy to be commendatory.
I,-=:-A
O..----- O
'
'(,
Communication is important in an organization because it is one of the chief means by which
its members work together. Knowledge of the communication pattein in an organization is
indispensable for a proper understanding of how if functions. A prcipei comsystem is the basis
for coordination. It also helps to centralize the harmful effects of bureaucracy by mitigating
somewhat. the interpersonal relationship that characterize large enterprises, for it is partly
through com. that people may be kept in an institutional setting. Com. Helps to deteimine the
span of control of an administrator. '
!
I
'*T
Elements
of Communication:
;:.,:""IT:.,..^.]ion
system was five major elements
: (r) rhe source - the senders,
speaker,
rssued
or suggest of a. communication (2) the message and its form - an order, regutation,
manual
letter, report, circutar, rating or other designuion, (3) rhe channel or the transmission
procedure,
(4)
the recipient or the receiver (5) the iesired'r.rponr.. Every commuiicarion
act
is a cycle
of interrelated
events which starts with (t) an abitract idea or mental impression
s'hich
(2) is encoded
or pur into symbors they then 9 3) are,r.nr*,i.J ; ;;;;;;;'rro
*t o
({)
receives
them (5)
deCodes them back into an idea which shoutd approximate
rhe-meaning
originally
con dived by the communicaror.
Feedback
Yet communication
is not computed unrit there is some form of response.
This
,,feedback,,
may be assent, dissenr or sonre type of action which shows the communicatcir
that the idea has
been received.
In the preverbat-siate, the idea is wordless, it is merely a conception,
notion,
thought, percePtionr
sentiment. Operarion, reflection, consideration or abstraction
rhat must be
translated.into
symbots such as words, hands or g.itrr",
before it .an ue ii;;;
anorher
person'
The process
by rvhich this idea is. transferred into sonre form,of t"nguugell*rirren,
spoken
or gesture)
is calted encoded.
FEEDBACK
TMIISMITTED---*
tnto
:"x
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't
,,il
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t:
,'$,
:i;
,?
li
.!
.l'
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t
abstract idea
7
THE BASIC COMJMUNICATION
PROCESS
Ideas must be transtated into a set of symbots,'which .r. ,h.n transmitred to the second
Person'Hereceivesthesymbolsandattemptstodecodethem.Itheobtaintheideaas
transmitted
by the first person, communication has been affected.
The first person
can only
learn of his success by receiving symbols returnecl by rhe second.
within the firm, two-way
communication
must be developed through the establistlment
'of
both upward and downward
channils between superiors and subordinates. The essence
of the process is the act of
T
transmitting ideas and understanding from one person to anothir, this'involves (l) encoding
the idea into such symbols as word, acdons, pictures and numbers, (2)
sending it.,ignu[
through speech, writings,
l.lioll
or pictures, (3) receiving and understandlng
thriugh
listening, reading and obsening. Though perfect communication can rarely if ever bI effecteld,
skill in the use of these symbols will help to reduce many of the bariers.
-
Acqeptance of communication : A person can and witl accept a communication
as
authoritative only when the following fdur conditions simutianeously
obtain : (l) he can and
does understand the communication (2) at the time of his decision, he believes rtrat it is not-
inconsistent with the purpose of the oreanization. (3) at the time of his decision, he betieves it
to be compatible with is personal interest as a whote, (
)
he is able mentally and physically
to
comply with it.
Zone o[ indifference.
The phrase '! Zoneof indifference" rnay be explained as follows : If all the orders for actions
reasonably.practicable
be arranged in orderoftheir acceptabitity to the person
affected, it m"y
be conceived that there are a number rvhich wilt no be obeyed: there is anothei group
somevrhat more or less on the neutrat line, that is, either barely ....p,.Ui.-'o,
Uur.ty
unacceptable, and a.third group unquestionably accepiabte. This l.tt grori
ii6 1,,Jirnin
tt,e
"Zone
of ind ifferen ce".
Bernard
Chaster I. Bernard was one of the first, and at least the best known of the a'uthors who gave
serious consideration to com. In large Scale enterprise. He viewed it as the means by which
people were linked together in an organization in order to achieve a central prrpor.. This is
stillthe fundamental function of com. Group activity is impossible without information transfer
because without it coordination and change can not be effected.
Healthv
Communication :
Healthy communication generatly inctudes : (l) the channels of com. must be definirelyknown
(2) ttrere must be a formalchannelof conrmunication to every member of the organization,
13)
it must be as direct and-as short as poiiiut. (4) rhe lines of comrrnirution*ililil;a1y'be
respected (procedure
through channels)
,
(S)
those who serve
as
communications cenrres
( officers, supervisors) must be competeru, (6) lines of com. shoutd not be interrupted during
the operation of a distinct phase of work (7) every communicarion
must be autheniicated, anJ
(8) the cadses of breakdown in comntuilication such as distorrion, filtration, organ. size and
,r,r.r,.7r
complexity'
failure
to understand,
lack of acceptance,
must be properly guarded
against.
social
factors like set norms
are arso greatry
responsibre
for hearthy communicarion.
commandments
of com. :
vvr'rr'rurlrlatr('rt'
There are certain
comma-ndments
of good
comm. which are : ( I) seeking to clariS one's ideas
'
before communicating,
(2) .xaminin!it,.r*"
purpose of each corn.
,
(3) considering
the total
phvsical
and human
r.tlng whereier
;;;;;;;
l?j
.onrrr,ing with orhers. u,here
appropriate
in planning
"or.
1s;
being carefut
about tire uasic o'ertones as well as content
or the message
while
communicating,
(6iconveying .something
herpful to the receiver wherever
there is an opportunity,
(70
rirJ*rrg
up
1r,"
com. (gj communicating
for today
and
lornorroq
(9)
actions
must.support.or..rd
(loo seeking'not
only to be understood
but to
understand
as well.
.Barrios
/
probtems
Tfe.en ire com'
system seldom results in a complete understanding.
Each com. represents
a
relative
degree
of success
in achie'ing ,nd.rsranding.
The
"or.
pro.rrs
is subject ro
many
conditions
whictr
can
Prevent
cJoser
frproximation
,-o ,oipto. success.
The most frequent
problems
or barriers
to effective anj'healthy
com. are .'r
-irli"*r-l"i,j"in"'jl"irsion
the
expression
is com. (z)
r1i.lu1e to recogniz. ih.t com. is mulri-'direqri"rlr,
f:i'ailure to
recognize
that messages
rr'hich threatens ih, ,tutu, quoted ro be rejecred: (4)
s;a;c'h for a rigid
com' structure,
(5)
management's
tendency to distourage
com. which
do not reinforce
its
ideas, (6)
clogging
downward
com. channeis (7) tenden.!
to fiIr., ou, threatening
messagCs,
(8)
failure
to recognize
that communication
is attered uy;naiuju"t
perception,
(9) tendency
ro
look for com' formula..andgunlocks,
1)o;
failure to
"rl.t.
favourable.rri.nr.nis
(r r) urt
of proper
corporate
d,.llf (lz) ptor iupervision, (t3r;isin".rity
and lack of confidence
( I 4) faultv translation,
( I s) faulty'inrerpretition ( r 6) inatiention,
1t
i; il;6"J
irrrption
(18)
hato-effect
(re)
noise (26) rr.[ ;i.lll6"i-r"rpr"rrbirity
(2r)
badry expressed
messages,
(22) insufticient
adjustment period (23) failure to torruril.;
ftp;;.
The above
mentioned
barriers
to com. not only causis a barriers for the ereciive
n,nninf
;";;
administration
but atso causes misundeistanding among tt" .rnproy...
.l
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-
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f
J
I
il;
!,
Li
l:
;1
!I
.. tl{
.it
NI
ir
E
z.
I
!ts
to sound personnel admn. But as the understanding
of com grows,
the
[.,:j..::fj*''n:llyill
.il,
lecreles
clm ;n ,i. ,."*, ,,;ffi,illl,l'ln1];1,1i
[:::'i"r,,*l]:"::l
y:":':yil3i:I""tg:::t:d;;
ii..n,
orcom rt is a
"ffi#X
,tr.utulllg
lJ:t;e::,,li:^T
n:_, be compartmentarized
or reduced ro one or more com.
programme
for
lT.f,:::l::,y' ::1p]..,:.undersranding.
And
.,r,i'
i.qrir; ;;;;;;ri"r"rilXli'li
ij:'::l?:.,:lo
jl'j"::T:l'-'ll":'"i
b.",y":1i19 e1nrov"";;;
;; ;;';;H:
#;::1
,"j
be achievedr
com. must be constant, indeed habituat and automatic.
Y,
Conclusion:
Com. is the btoodstream of any administrative organization. Management must constantly
strive to improve the com. process as a means of cnsuring a gommon
understanding
of
organizational purpose. Decisions which can not be transtated into-acrion through effective
con. Are scarcely decisions at all. Managem6nt must accorilinglf'be.concerned
to ensure that
its com. process with its various media actually achieve a shared understanding of shared
purpose. Com must be authenticated and the power of authenticity
shoutd rest in some
authority. Authority, of course always rests on the acceptance
of the individuat.
Communication should not only involve today also tomorrow.
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MOTIVATE
FEEDBACK MODEL
A communication network is a system of decision-centres inter-connected by comrnunication
channels. A network consists of inter connected individuals who are linked by pattern
communication.gtows. A network is a snratl pocket of people who communicate a great deal
with each bther or a multitude of such packets the are linked'by the communication flLws.
Networks can be measured sociometically but they are otherwise not usually obvious.
'
Nevertheless, they are quite real. The basis of association that holds a network together may
MOTIVATE
I\,IOTIVATE
be common liking for or alteration to each other of a mutuatity of interests in some topici.
ng up
.out
ot' the day to day
communication behavior of individuals in an organization. Actuatly communication network
analysis is one of the least available ways to find out the extent and nature of the difference in
the formal and informal relationship - rvhereas, the organization chart depicts the ideal
communication relationship in an organization.
The major characteristic of the conrmunication networks which shotd be considered .t. ( f
)
.
size of the loop.: the amount of o.rganfi4ational spacg covered by given types of information;
(2) nature of the circuit whethEi a simple repetitive pattern or a chain modification types 93)
open or closed character of circuit - the extend io which the manages can be modified once rhe
communication process has. (4) the efflciency of the circuit for its task compel rhe speed and
accuracy with which the circuit permits the completion of specified tasks; (5) goodness of fit
between the and its systemic function. Communication circuits may embrace the entire system,
may be rusticated
to a major subsyslem,
or may involve only a small unit within a subsystem.
Larger
the loop the greaier.
will 6e the probtems of communicarion, parricutarty
*ilr. tt.
f::tj:lfl_1f ,subslstem
boundari.s
aie invotved. A ctosed penerration
of subsysrem
oounoartes
are involved.
A closed cornmunication
loom woutd be one in which the cycte of
transmission
act is not open to change
once it rl.r u.." ;"iti.t;l: no new information
and no
radical
modification
in tire process ie prorided
for by the strucrurai'pro;;'-.;i,
*u,
pose
to be a hindrance for an organizarion
to be effective.
The term network is actualty used by communication scientists to
concepts
: ( I
)
total sysrem nerwork (2) clique nerwork
The total systenl network comprises
of the communication parrerns among all the individuals
rn a system, such as an organization. This network may consist of thousands of individuals
if
the organization
is a large one, for exampte radio tetevision.
'A
ctique
network is defined as subsl'stem whose etements interact wirh each other retativety
m-ore frequently
than with other rnenrbers of the communication system. Most ctiques consisr
of 5 too 25 members and are rhiis one of the main compohents of communication
netw.ork in
an organizaiion
along rvith isolates. lislson and such orher.s. tts characteristics
are : clique
members
are lined with each other b1' communication flo*s, (b) the patlerns
of communication
relationships
among clique memberi deviate from equatity d'members of a ctique
#;;;
information
rvith the ctique's external environment
1'd1
communication
tinks exist between a
particutar
clique'and all oiher ctiques in the system
.
\
Personnel
communication network is defined as those inlerconnected
individuals who are
linked
by patterned
communication flow to any given individuat. There are two types of
personal
netu'orks (i) personat radial network,
1ii1 lersonat
interlocking
network. E pa;r"r;i
radio network
is one is which an individual interacts directty with frieni's who do not interact
rltir eacfr
other. A personal interlocking network is one is *trictr un inairiarufi il;;; ;;;;;;;;
s'ith each ottier, Personal radiat netu'orks are more open then personal
inter locking networks
and thus are more effective in obtaining new information. Most'personal
networks are to sonre
extentradialandtosomeextentinterlocking.
refer io three different
(l) personal
network.
'=T
\.t,
.
INDIVIDUAL
FACTOR (PERCEPTION)
A) BACI(
CROUND
B) INTEREST
C) PAST EXPERIENCE
D)
st'ERIO TYPINC
E) HALO EFFECT
F}
PRO.IECTION
C) SELECTIVITY
H) VALUES & ATTITUDE
I)
KNOWLEDCE
.I)
I\4OTIVATION
L) ROLE
O ITCANIZATI
ONAL FACTORS
A)
ORGANIZATIONALSTRUCTURE
B)
ORCANIZATION
CULTURE
C)
STATUS DIFFERENCE
D) FILTERING
E) BEI{AVIOUR
OF THE BOSSES & BEHAVOUR
OF THE
SUB.
OITDINATES
F)
LEADERSHIP
C) TRA INING
I-I)
PERFORMANCE
EVALUATION
AND REWARD
I)
CEO:CRAPHICAL
DISTANCE
J)
MAINTANENCE
OF RECORDS
t) TNFORMATTON
2) FEEDBACK
3) M.M.
\r
l-lS]'E\lNG : THE KEY TO UNDERSTANDINC.
LIS'TE)iINC IS A SI(ILL THAT CAN BE DEVEI-OPED.
STCP T.^.LKI}.IC.
PU'T THE TALKER AT EASE. SHOW THE TALKER TH,AT YOI..] WANT
TO LISTEN. REMO\/E DISTRACTIONS
: EMPATHISE WITIJ THE
TALKER.
\ BE PATIEN]'
I-IOLD YOUR TEMPER.
GO E.ASY ON ARGLJMENTS AND CRITICISM
STOP TALKINC
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7
Motivation is a psychological persuasion. Motivation is described ds ass those
inner striving conditions described as wishe.s, deiires, drives. It is always concerned with
trhy'r of human behavior. It leads to increased effrciency of a worker, more production,
and Letter relationship between the employer and the employee. lt is a reciprocal thing
that leads to smooth'and effective functioning of the organization. Motivation involves
three aspects, namely, l. motivating states,2. motivated behavior, 3. the conditions that
satisfy or alleviate the motivating ...-,r"'
Each individuat has a variety of desires and beliefs that shape his reactions to any
particutar instruction. It is the task of the executives to arrange the total work situation,
lr perhaps modiry the individual or group attitudes, so that each of his subordinates find
greater iatisfaction in carrying out instructions than in following any of a number of
a-lternatives open to him .In fact, he needs not merely passive acceptance but a positive
desireto do the work effectively and effrciently.
Motivation aciivates sonieone io do oi not do soiieone. It is an intervening
variable that canhot be directty observed, seen, heard or felt: it can inferred by observing
and analyzing actual behavior. Managers are position holders whose prime
responsibiliiy is the influencing of behaving
a long lines deemed appr.r;iate to
organizationat
goals. The actual effect of these influence comes from an assessment by
the receiver ( subordinate) of the following.
(l) the anticipated value of the perceived outcome of the behavior, and
the strength of expectancy that the act will eventually result in a realization of the
(2)
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Theories:
There are many theories in motivation,
Motivation is a-very dynamic concept
and researches are.being conduqted continuously on the basic fundamental question of
how to motivate people. But, we can divide the theories into three categories:
(l)
early or ancient theory,
(2) monistic or classical theory and (3) modern
(l) early or ancient theory,
:;!
ANCIENT/EARLY
TFIEORY
:
Prior to the industrial revolution
days, the theories of motivation were known as early
ancient theories of motivation.
At that time men were considbred as machines. Number
of labors were more that number of industries. So the industrialists did' not have to
motivate the to motivate the peopte. Motivation
was mainly given in terms of money'
\
The monistic or classical theories come up during the industrial revolution era
and immediately after that time. Freederick Winslow Taylor was the m.ain exponent. The
theorists assumed men as: (l) men are cr^zy and wanting beings, (2) men like money
more than anything, (3) men are economic men, (4) men are obedient, do not have
personality and could be enslaved,(S) men are ambitionless. The theorists assumed that
motivation is M---E+V, where M stands for motivation
,
E for expectation
and V for
variety of needs . On the basis of the above principles, Taylor established his piece-rate
system-whoever works more will get the more money.
CRITICISM
The theory has been criticized as this leads to disputes and antagonism among
the workers. The theorists thought that individual incentive is more effective than group
incentive, as they thought that man could only be motivated through money. They
thought that: (l) an individual incentive is more effective than a group
incentive, (2)
the incentive is more effective, the more will be the stimulus. according to the classical
theorists a fortnightly or monthly bonus will be greater incentive than a yearly
bonus.
Incentive leads to efiiciency.
MOpERN TITEORY:
The pheratists or the modern theorists claimed that men are only economic men
until their physiological needs are fulfilled. When these needs are satisfied and one has
reached the subsistence level-men rvill react to other needs. Men is not generally
economic in nature,
,.
,ABRA}IAM H. MASLOW:
.-..
The ideas about motivation of Abraham H. Maslow has important implications
on the structure and functions of the organization. This book is entitled "Motivation and
Personality''published in 1954. Maslow differed from Elton Mayo as he assumed men as
(l) men aie wanting beings, that is, men have money wants, (2)
man want on his
motivating forces, but his wants depend on what he atready possesses, (3)
ngn
have a
hierarchy of needs - when one need is fulfilled, a new need emerges, (4) a batiSfied need
-: .'
'
primary neEds to be satisfied immediately :' ',:
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i
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:
A man's wants are unlimited. Maslow emphasized that it is an unsatisfied need
that will motivate a man and not satisfied need. Motivation forces tead to Some form of
behavior and the behavior be directed towards some end. Consequently all human
beings, rvhether they do so rationally or irrationally, subconsciously or consciously
behave
as they do, to satisS various motivating forces. Maslow expounded the idea that
men have a hierarchy of needs and so he has classified the need according to merit and
necessity into the followings: (l) physiological needs, (2) safety needs. (3) social or tove'
;
needs, (4) esteem or ego needs, and (5) self-actualization needs.
,
I
I
*
i
Physiological
needs: Physiological needs inctude the need for food, clothing, shelter,
drink, medicine, sex and such others. These needs are basic for men.
Security/Safety needs: Safety needs or security needs include a desire to have
security of life, of
job
for the present and the future, protection against physicat danger
Iike accidents, fire the question of economic security, preference
for the fimiliar rat[er
than the unfamiliar, and such others. In industrial situations the safety needs ptay an
important role.
Love/Social needs; Next to the safety needs are love or social needs. A desire to aim
a satisfactory position in the society, or among one's colleagues,"betongingness,
a sense
of leadership, acceptance by the fellow menr an urge to givc
and receive fricndship, love
affection-fall in this category.
EsteemlEgo needs: Esteem or ego needs are the desire to have self-respect, self-
esteem, public esteem, egoism. These needs are classified into two subsidiary settings.
These are, firsl the desire for strbngth, achievements, adequacy, confrdence in ttre fa-ce
of the'world, autonom% independence and freedom. Secondly, the desjre for status,
reputation, attention, recognition, glory, honor, prestige, appreciation and importance
frorir others.
Self-acfualization: Self actualization needs state the becoming of one what he wants
to be or what he is capable of being. It is a desire tq have such an occupation where one
can apply his own skill and imagination and can
judge.his
potentialities. Ir is pretty hard
to satisfy this.need. What a man can bg he must be is this need of self-actualization.
Criticism!: Maslow showed the limitationi oi hiJ iiieiirchy or neias. The need
hierarchy is by no means perfect. A neurotic man may have esteem in the third stage,
that is, in the sbcial need level. Needs are overlapping. a satisfied need no longei
motivates a man.
In another study, it was found that as managers advance in an organization,
their
physiologicat and safety needs tend to decreise in importance and-their
needs for
affiliation,' esteem and self-actualization tend to increase.
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}IEMBERG:
Frederlic Herzberg was an industrial psychologist who undertook the study on
motivation and management. He had good knowledge about worker's feeting ,.grraing
job.
He improved upon the theory stated by Maslow. Herzber's theory was based on
the premise that a person's relation to the
job
is basic. He also held that the attitude of
the person toward his
job will determine his success or failure. Herzblrg's main question
of enquiry was what people wanted from their
job.
herzberg chose this rese.rcl team,
chose a sample of 200 accountants and interviewed them to describe in detailwhen
they
felt extremely good or bad in different situations. He then caiegorized and tabulated the
answers. The replies the people gave when they fett good
'about
the job
were
significantly different than those when they felt significantly bad about the
job.
,
Frederlic Herzberg's assumptions regarding men are :
(l) men are progressive in their mentality and are working beings. They can change
their mentality with changes in circumstances, time, science and techrlology. I4e*
are not lazy and are working beings;
(2) men are interested to improve their moral which subsequently may enrich
.
happiness and self-realization. Men wants to improve upon their quality, rectify
the wrongs which will enrich happiness and self-esteem;
(3)
men are only dissatisfied with negative environment. Herzberg's
.theory
is also
known as Motivation maintenance theory or motivation hygiene theory.
Herzberg's famous work is the "Work and Nature of man" published
in I966.
Herzberg held that needs can change shape and form of behaviour and may sadsry
people. He has divided Maslow's need hierarchy into two settings: (l)
Hygiene factors,
(2) motivational factors. By 'Hygiene factors", he describes the physiological
security
and social needs. Satisfaction to these will not be much motivating for a min. These are
a man's basic requirements. These remove dissatisfaction but do not give positive
satisfaction. Positive salisfaction can be only obtained from other factoir, *-hirh h"
calls" motivators". These arise from a man's capacity and need for psychological growth
- achievement, recbgnition, work itself, responsibility. By motivational factors thus, he
means job
satisfaction. iobs must be enriched and their quality must be improved. By "
enrich " Herzberg means involvement, participation, thinking .scope,
challenging or
cornpetitiye work. The total setting must be formal character.
Herzberg's' oue of the main contributions was that'tranquillity may prevail in the
organization but that may not mqtivate the employees. He clearly showed that factors
relating to satisfaction are different from those related to dissatisfactioh.
: Certain
characteristics tend to be related to
job
satisfaction, and
job
dissatisfaction. Intrinsic
factors include achievement, recognition, work itsel(, responsibility, advancement and
are related to
job
satisfaction. Extrinsic factors include organization policy and admn.
supervision, inter-personal relations, working conditions, salary and are related to
job
dissatisfaction. according to Herzberg the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction and
opposite of dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
DOUGLA$ McGREGOR:
Douglas McGregor has stated two theories, namely, theory
'X'
and theory 'Y'
- these
are nothing but how we look at individuals.
He talked about industriat workers. He, for the first time, talked ibout the participatiori
ofworkers and consultationby management. Fle tried to establiSh pefformance
appraisal
system as a sort bf self-evaluation system. McGregor also spoke of
job
enlargemeni.
Managers should try to converge organization goals with individual goals, he held. By
stating his theories McGregor means not theories argued explicitly; but the conscious or
subconscious assumptions on which managers base their action. His work is important
both as a recapitulation of what most social research in industry seem to imply and atso
as a useful analytical tooi in its own right. His famous book is title<l-tluman side of
enterprise" published in l%L
.t-' ''" " ' '
:1.
:
'. Assumptions:
i-
I fn theory "X', McGregor has stated some assumptions regarding men which are (l) men
are baSically lazy and Jo not like to work - average human being has an inherent dislike
, ofwork and wiliavoid it if he can, (2) because of this human characteristic of dislike of
, get t'hem to pit forth adequate effort tow.ald the achievement of organizational
';
oUi"air.r,
(3i the average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid
'
reiponsibiiity,ias
titled .rnbition, wants security above all, (4) men are being controlled
,
by external forces and hence men have forces'
Since men are to live they need fuel which is food. To acquire this food, men must strive
'.
r
and work. But ,n.n .ri basically lazy ail are not reliable. Men needs continuous
;,.,
supervision and followup.
Indeed men are glad to be directed and are mainly concerned
;,
abtut security. Average
people do not have much self-confidence.
People are motivated
,;,
by external forces and hence men have forces. The remedies suggested by McGregor are
i:. (i) Since men are lazy they should be given work under direct supervision, (2) Since
}i ,o"n likes to be suplrvised.'they
should be controlled
Td
given guidance by
-the
i
irrn.Jiu," boss,
(3) men should be freed from his external control and motivated to
itr assume selFcontrlf.
The internal forces of men are always intemrpted, controlled by
',,.1'
external forces. If men can control the external forces they can gather self-conftdence,
iil
self-reliancg self-control.
They can then work freely. and. their internal force can be
ii,
direited towards the achievements of the organizational
goal.
r,i A6sumptions:
.;:. r
ri,; In theory,,y', McGregor says work is natural to human beings and a high proportion
i
:::-
--
'--'
lika,'o, Jan be-broughr to liki work, responsibility
and a sense of achievement yet u[der
,ood"rn industrial conditions, ferv aqe normally allowed such scope- This theory is also-
know as the integration of
goals theory. Its assumptions
are: (l) th! expenditure.of
physical and mei-tal effort in work is as natural as rest or play. Depending upon
controllable conditions
work may be a source of satisfaction or a s9ulc.9 of punishment,
iil
,* will exercise self-direction
and self-control
in the service of objectives to.whjch
t. i, .or*itted,
(3) the satisfaction
will fill the gap of ego needs need of actualization
*r,i.r, i.air.",ly .ri,i.r.r
the organizational
objectives,
(4) the average human being
Iearns, under
pioper conditions, not only to accePt but to seek responsibility, (5) the
"*.cit, "*er"is.
. rrtatirety t igt, gegree of high imagination, ingenuity and creativity.in
the solution in the
population, (6) u
i*ll;.,*l
potentialitiis
of the average human are only partially utilized'
Every individual
while working in an organization
is committed to some work. An
employer
gir.s monrf to an eriployee- in ixchange of work. and thereby the employer
"lni.*,
hi-s organizational
goals- It is the duty of the employ.er-to motivate the workers
and so his firm must create in atmosphere where workers will feel
ls-
if.they are playing
instead of working.
They will then have self-control
and will direct their efforts toward
the realization
of th"'organizational
'
goal. The working environment must
give
satisfaction
to the emproyeei.
McGregor has been criticized for his theories by many-
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17.
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19.
PRAISE THE SPECIFIC TASK OR JOB
C IVE SPECIAL ASS IGNMENTS.
GIVE OI( SIGNALS WHEN YOU AGAREE WITH OTHERS.
ACTIVELY LISTEN
\\/RITE DOWN OTHERS IDEAS
TAI(E IDEAS SERIOUSLY
ACCEPT OTHERS OPINION
ACCEPT DIFFERENCE IN OTHERS.
EXPRESS FEELINGS.
GIVE TANGiBLE REWARDS.
.
POrNT OUT TrlE GOOD CONSEQUENCES OF OTHERS
:,
ACTION.
SPEND TIME WITH OTHERS.
SUPPORT OTHERS ACTION.
DELEGATE.
ASK FOR HELP
SHARE EXPERIENCE.
ADMIT YOU ARE WRONG.
SAY YOU ARE RICHT.
SAY, HI, HOW ARE YOU.
SMILE.
Y--
26.
27.
28.
ASI( ABOUT
OTHERS INTEREST.
INVITE
SOME TO TEA / DINNER.
INQUARE
ABOUT
SOME
_
ONE'S TROUBLES.
ASI( A PERSON
TO LEAD THE W.HOLE
OR PART
OF THE -
MEETING
USE THE EMPLOYEES'S
NAME.
SHARE INFORMATION.
CIVE COMPLETE
REASONS
FOR DIRECTION
/
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LEADERSHIP
STUDYTNG BEHAVIOUR
IN GROUPS
It is said that leadership is the observed effort of one member to- change other
members Uet urio, by.altering the motivation of the other members or by changing their
habits. If the teadership is ruccessful,
what is observed
is a change in the menrber
accepting the leadershiP.
According to ROBERT TENNENBUM
- Leadership
is the "interpersonal
influence exercised in a situation and directed through the communication
process
towarcis the attainment of a specialized
goal or
goals"'
In fact, leadership
is the process of inlluencing
the-activities
of an individuat or
. grouf .trorts toward
ioal
achievement in a given situation. So leadership process is
thefunctionof L=f
i
t,
{,
s)where I =ieader,f
=followerand
s= situational
variables.
Leadership also is accomplished
by initiating
structu[e
-. maklng gth.e.rs more
able to overcome the obstacles thwarting
goal'ordering
and deciding. Again, a single
ali"i a"56rruis ho* leaders in formal organizations
vary in such initiation'
LEADERSHIP AND GROUP EFFECTIVENESS
:
,
A group defined as a collection of individuals
whose existence as a collection is
,.*uiOingio ihi inOiuiaruls
( or enables them to avoid. punishment).
is more significant for
change
occur in the behavior
of metnbers of a
qo.un
il.order to increase the
rewards for performance.
while such changes can be initiated by individual isolated
irial and
"rro,
o, other
personal
nleans, itisassurned that they more often are the
;;;"i;hen'interaction
is possible
;
(2) the changes occur faster;
(3) interaction-
brings rewards
not possible
to indi,iduuts in isolation; and (4) isolated individuals are
likely to reduce trre vaiiaUitity
of their behavior or withdraw frorn the environment if it
is not a stimulating
one.
Y':
I
l.
i:
b) ManagerialGrid:
In the Managerial Grid for different types of leadership based on concern for
result ( task
)
and concern for people (relationship) are located in four quadrant.
TASK
TEAM
IMPOVERISHED
CLI.IB
Concern for result is illustrated'on the vertical axis. Risult becomes more
important to the leaders as his rating advanced on the vertical scale.
concern for people is illustrated on the horizontal axis. People become more
important to the leader as his or her.rating progresses up-the.vertical axis.
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Impoverished - Exertion of minimum effoit to get required work done is
appropriate to sustain organization
CIub - Thoughtful attention to needs of people for satisfiing relationship teads
to a comfortable friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo.
Task - Effrcienry in opirations results from arranging conditions of work in
'such
a way that human Clem.nis interfere to a minimum degree.
Team - Work accomplishment is form comrnitted people interdependence
through a common stake in organization purpose leads to retationships of trust and
respect.
Ifgroup effectiveness depends on the occurrenci ofinteraction,
it also depends
on the occurrence of attempted and successful leadership,
facing the group and
blocking goal attainment or the loss able the membership to cope with their problems
and reaih their goals, the more teadership is necessary and likely to be attempted and
successful. But if the difiiculties are too great, member's expectations of-failure may
make the group sufficiently unattractive to cause the members to withdraw from it,
rather than-attempt to solve the problems or attempt and succeed as leaders.,
STYLE OF LEAERSHIP:
(a) Democratic and dictatorial:
Therefore, there are two main extremes of leadership behavior - authoritarian
and democratic. It can be illustrated in the below
( a model
given by Prof.
Tennenbum):
of Auth
Leader makes decision and
announces it
Leader sells decision
Liadei' pieiinli ideas'and
invites questions
Leader present tentative
decision subject to change
Leader presents problem
gets suggestion and makes
decision
Leader defines limits, asks
group to make decision
Leadei permits, subordinates
to firnction without limits.
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i
MAI{AGING CONFLICT
Introduction
Traditionally, management's handling of conflict has been based on the belief that
conflict should be suppressed and eliminated; conflict was viewed as dysfunctionat and
time consuming. Over the years, however, management theorists and behavioral
scientisti have begun to recognize that in many instances conflict can be a sign of a
healthy organization. The "productivity of the confrontation", in Richard Walton's
phrase, arises from the fact that conflict leads to change, change leads to adaptation,
and adagitation leads to survival.
WHY IS THERE CONFLICT ?
Whenever humpn beings compete for scarce sources or share different goals and time
perspectives, conflict is likely to exist. Two Harvird management theorists,'Paul
Lawrence and Jay Lorsch, have argued that the hallmark of complex organizations is
their high degr.ee of differentiarior,. People in an organizadon of different kinds of
work.'Departments tend to differ in terms of goals, time orientation, formatity of
structure, and management styles. The gieater the
!'differentiation"
between
'
departments, the mechanisms that wilt integrate those departments. Therefore, one
fact that complex
-institutions
expect people who share diffeient goals, time
'-.
-
orientations; and management philosophized-to-integrate their efforts into a cohesive ---
*h.ol" directed towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives.
furother source of conflict is communication distortioh. Because of the complexity of
modern institutions and their high degree of differentiation, communications between
divisions as well as within divisions can easily become distorted..We all spiak the
language of odr training and backgrounds. We suspect the motives of those who have
goats different from our own. tt is a well-know fact that human beings seek out peopte
who are like themselves and tend to stereotype those who are different-especially if
are rn ition with them.
fuiother and frequent source of conflict arises from interpersonal or behavioral
factors. Differences between iubordinates' and supervisors in terms of role
expectations, goals, and even personality characteristicS arc often source of
interpersonal conflict. In complex organizations, responsibilities'are often defined
through the organization chart and
job
descriptions; unfortunately, the
job
descriptiqqs
and departmental goals often let employees or customers slip through the cracks.
When departments overlap and each must depend oh the other to accomplish its
objectives,
jurisdiction is am,biguous and a high potential tbr conflict exists.
.
Allan Filley tists some characteristics of social relationships associated with various
kinds or degrees ofconflict:
Conflict of interest
Conflict of interest exists where there is competition between the parties for scarce
resources or one group gains at the expense of another, a common occurrence in a
world made up of highty dependent and interdependent departments.
Communication barriers
If parties are separated from each other physicalty, or by time for example, day and
night shifts, the possibility of misunderstanding and the opportunity for conflict are
increased.
Dependency
The possibility of conflict will be greater where one party is dependent upon another
for pirformance of tasks or for the provision of resorirces.
Degree of association
Conflict will be greater as the degree of participation in decision making and informat
relations'increases.
Need for consensus
Conflict will result if consensus is absolutely neiessary in order to proceed.
It is obvious that any effective management of conflict, one that is going to resolve
conflict and move it in the direction of achieving organizational goals, must somihow
deal with the structural, interpersonal, and coinmunication factors as well as these
social conditions associated with conflict. The process ofmanaging conflict is therefore
APPROACHES
TO RESOLUTION
John. B. Jones and J. Willard Pfeiffer speci$ five common ways oi dealing with
organiziiiciiiil
-conflict:''Hny
'one
method will not apply
'to
all situations or' all
personalities. The leader in a group n:ust consider when to employ what style and with
*hom. If a leader has used one method successfully, he.or she may use it to excess.
Knowing alternative means of handling conflict gives managers a wider choice of
actions to employ in any given situation and rnakes them better able to tailor the
response to the situation.
Confrontation
or lntegration
Lawrence
and Lorsch examined the use of confrontation (win-win
methods),
forcing
(resorting
to authority or coercion), and smoothing (agreeing
on un intellectual
or non
threatening
level) in six organizations.
rhey conrludedlhat
tie two organizations
with
the
.highest
performance
used confrontation
to a greater
degree than the four other
organizations,
and that the. next two organization-i (in orde? or p"rrorm"*.)
,;;;
confronration
more than the ldwest t*o. a ,tldy by Filley asked seventy_four
managers
to describe the way in which they and their immediate
superiors deali with
conflict'
of the five types of conflict-resolution
t..r,niqr.r-identified,
supervisors
reported
the best results, in order of effectiveness,
with confrontation
,niootting,
compromise,
forcing, withdrawal
or non_involvement.
confrontation
does indeed seem to be the hallmirk of both effective organizations
and
effective
supervisors. In short what the titerature seems to ile telling us is that
confronting
conflict situation, and using strategies ,t ri prolr..
Jin-*in
results, is the
key to managing conflict.
.
THE PROCESS
OF RESOLUTION
For conflict
to be effectively
managed, the ends or goals
of the parties involved
must
be identified
and a mutually acceptable
statement of those goals
,
or of the obstacles
to
those goals,
musr be formutated. In other word_s,. p3{e.s
n].rur..ainr-.r,iffi;il;
each-partvmust
accepf"thd itaied goals
of ihe'ot]iei'ana;;i';o;!ia;iih;p;;bi;;
solved until the sotution is acceptable to both parties. ln orari to achieve . ;i,;.li;
acceptable
statement
or problems
or a definitibn
of tt rir sourc"s, Fi[ey,s guidelines
might bb helpful. .
"conduct a problem
anfylis to determine the basic issues,,. when parties
enter
into a potential
conflict situation, it is not uncommon for them to have premature
solutions to the stated objectivel ......... It is essential
to find out the needs or desires of
:f,1.:1].r
bj,. asking them ro define specificaily what they wish to accomplish
with
"State the problem
as a goal or as an obstacle rather than as a sotuiionr,.
Very
often conllicts
occur because individuals are solution minded. For exampte,
a labo?
union's demand for a union ship might be rejected by management
for
"
r.ri.t1or.
reasons. I[ however, the union indicated that its demand was based on the problem
of
controlling
its members when nonunion employees atso benefit from union effo'rts but
ds i'rot pay dues,-then
other solutions besides.a union shop might be found.
.
'-
- --
"Identify
the obstactes to attaining the goal".
In some cases, the easiest way to
identiff problems
is to clariS obstacles in the way of the goal.
"Depersonalize thc probtem". Conflict manegement
is greatty
enhanced if the needs
and objectives of the parties involved are described through some kind of imp"r.onai
Y
Denial or Withdrawal
With this approach, a person atternpts to get rid of conflict by denying that it exists.
Usually, however, conflict does ncjt go away; it grows to the point where it becomes
all but unmanageable. But when the issue or the timing is not critical, denial may be ihe
most productive way of dealing with conflict.
Suppression or Smoothing Over
"We run a happy ship here".
"Nice people don't fight". A person using smoothing
plays down difference and does not reiognize the positive aspects of handling the
conflict openly. Smoothing may, however, be employed appropriately when it is more
important to preserve a relationship that to deal with an insignificant issue through
conflict.
.
Forcing or Power
The source of the power may be vested in authority or position (including referral to
"the system," higher supervision, and so on). Power may take the form of a majority
(as in voting) or a persuasive minority. Power strategies, however, result in winners
and losers, and the losers do not support a final decision in the same way thal wi,nne,rg
do. Future meetings of a group r-nay be marred bi i Coriicioui oiunco-nsCi6ui iiniwai-
of the struggte
previously "settled" by the use of power. In some instances, however,
especially where other forms of handling conflict are clearly inappropriate, power can
bi effective. Voting is used in national elections, for example, and laws apply equally
to all.
i
Compromise or Negotiation
iXf,JQh oEA Egarded as a virtue in our culture, compromise has some serious
drawbacks. Bargaining often causes both sides to assume an inflated position since
they are aware that they are going to have to give a little and want to buffer the loss.
Thi compromise sotution may be so watered down or weakened that it will not.be
effective. There is often little real commitment by any of the'parties to a compromise
solution. Yet there are times when compromise makes sense, such.as when resources
are limited or it is necessary to forestall a v,'in-lose situation.
format'
Listing
objectives on a flip chart or a blackboard helps ahift artenrion
away
from the personalities
to the probrems
themserves.
For both palies,
the probrems,
and
not the opposing
side, can then become the target.
"Separate the process
of defining the problem
from the search for solutions
and
from the evatuation of arterna-tives.'
Groups that are successfur
in achieving
integrated
sotutibns spend more tinre in probtem
defi"ii", ii.nJ" groups
that engage
in solution
megods .....-.. The,eed
ro i.puru,. pr.br;
#;ililn rrom sotutions
is
particularly
irrybrtant when different
indiviiuals
may engage in euctr of the two steps.
The problem
difinition is arways
the situation,
bur so-tu-rionr r"y be derived
from
sources
other.ihan
the participants
in thefioilr.,
J"nrii;;--""
"'-'
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TIME MANAGEMENT
THE IMPORTANCE
OF TTME MANAGEMENT:
One thing that makes any manager's job
different from the work of an employee is the
complexity
of responsibilities,
tasks and time demands that are alwayJ part of
managing. For a manager to be really productive, it is essentiat not only to work hard
but to be organized, to set priorities, to
juggle
conflicting demands and duties, and
consciously pian and schedule personal time.
Managers are routinely faced with more work in a greater variety than they can easily
handle. That is why they have to manage their time and the time of thos" *ho work for
them, carefully.
Timb is dn ireplaceable resouice;:once it has pass6d, it can never be reclaimed.
Effective
use of time makes a direct impact on productivity.
If twenty tasks must be
accomplished,
it is clearty more effective if they can be completed in six hours rather
than in twelve.
CONSIDERATIONS
FOR MANAGEMENT OF TIME.
Managing time is primarily a process of setting priorities, forcing one setf to do the
importantthingsfastavoidingunnecessaryinterruptions.
Ifwe are concerned about how we are spending out time and serious about improving
lake a look at what's involved.
Commitment:
We must be committed to doing something about it.
Anatvsis :
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we must have data on where,we spend our time, what our problems are and the
causes. Time logs and other form of analysis are essential.
!
Ptanning:
Effective management always requires
planning.
Follow-Up and Reanalysis :
A plan won't work very well, no mattpr how good it is, if
),ou
don't monitor results,
detect problems and modiff the plan.
.,]
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Thus, time management is a continuous on going process of analysis, planning
reanalyzing and re-planning.
WHERE DOES THE TIME GO ?
Since time is a resource, like materials or electric powcr, a god first step in improving
its utilization is finding out how it is being used now. 1 good
,un.grr'shoulj
understand the nature of the demands made on his time and should study his personal
expenditure of time to locate areas ofwaste.
In looking at where work time for the supervisor goes, it can help to consider two
categories. time devoted to useful wo.rk and time wasted.. Time devoted to real
job
tasks must be marshaleu ona rn'ua. rm.i.nq ti,* *t.o must be reduced to a
minimum.
It is possible to classifr the kinds to work activities that consume time, and thereby get
a better grasp of how work time is being used. Four general kinds of work ,iy1.
found in most supervisory
jobs.
l. Routine Work :. This includes administrative tasks like frtling in time cards,
answering mail and memos, completing reports, filling and other paperwork.
These
are minor but essential trappings of supervisory work that should require little
thought' unless kept under control, though, they can eat up varuable
time.
2. Regular Job Duties. This is the meat of any supervisory job:
Planning, directing apd
'
checking employees;
-giving-work-
assignments;'training-workers,--cornr.lling -
employees. For some supewisors, time has gone so out of control that these dutiei
which are ihe most important actually receive the least amount time.
3. Special Assignments : These may range from a special study of reorganizing
the
department'to running training programme, to submit a special assignment report.
Special assignments are unpredictable. One may take only a few minutes; oih.rs
may require scores of hours over a six month period. There are two things about
them which are predictable every supervisor will have them and they take time
4. Creative Work : The supervisor who really succeeds uses initiative to make his
department and himself work better. This might involve planning improvements in
rvork methods, simptif,ing report procedures, giving special joL
training to
improve employees skills. Creativity takes time. Only good time managernent will
leave the hourE left for this function.
,.-.^-r
{
WASTED
TI]VIE:
Most supervisors
and rnanagers have the nagging feeling that they are wasiing time
during
the day that coutd be made productiJJ
if-only they could grasp it somehow,
fight off the interruptions.
avoid tlre tos-ses of corrsentration. This feetigg may be
exaggerated
some times. Attention and planning can reclaim valuable time frJm almost
any work day. Avoiding wasted time dols not riecessarily mean working
harder, it only
requires
working
smarter.
Wasted
time has been a poputar topic for research in ofiices and factories,
Some
common
themes have emerged when looking for causes of waste.
l' Lack
of Focus : Probably the single greatest cause of wasted time is the failure
io
approach
tasks systematically, in some order, finishing one task or one part oltask
before going
on to others nere, really finish.,
"nSiihing
he starts. It also takes
advance
planning
and setting priorities.
2' Fa.ilure
to Delegate : Managers jobs
are designed with the assumption
that they
will give
subordinates a substantial part of the work and let them handle it. f ttrl
supervisor
does not do this, there is certain not to be enough time to g" ;r;;;.
.
For a supenuisor
to try to do everything personafly is a waste-of
time.
3'
-Failure-to
cornniuRicate
: A good rure of time management
is
,.Do
it right the
first time".
Good communication is essential if this is io Ue achieved. Agaln and
again it has been found that poor communication
is the root cause of war[-lf"i.
-
Fither.
the person giving directions and making decisionc aia ;;iii;i;,r"i;ti;
n;ri
place
in order to obtain a true picture of the sltuation, or orders ; ;;a[;;;;i,
'
.
were never accurately communicated to those who were to carry tt
"rn
out.-
. .
-
4' Fa-ilur-e
to Look Ahead : This causes crisis management dealing with problems
only after they have become so severe that they demlnd attention.
it ur*oli;l--"y.
takes longer to manage the effects of a crisis ihan to anticipate problems
"na
,r,
careful analysis
and ptanning to head them offwhen they are stillsmall.
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most mangers to
thieves of time.
communication
is important to the management job
blt it is often not easy to
distinguish
between a genuine essential coni""t *d
"onr.rration
which is sirnply-a
waste of time.
6. Fatigue and Retated Probtems : Managers are human and find themsetves day
drearning, losing concentration, and p.rocrastinating.
They work long days at
stressful and often confusing jobs.
Simply being tired contributed
to.*u-rt.d'tinr.
poor physical
condition can make the situation even worse.
.i'
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TIME WASTERS:
The identification of time wasters may produce a listing such as the follou,.ing:
0 Lack of planning and organizing
0 Procrastination and indecision
0 Mistakes
0 Misplaced items and paper
0 Shuffling
0 Poorly handted meetings
0 Inadequatecommunication
0 Failure to co-ordinate
0 No priorities or objectives
0 Inconsistency
0 Poor filling system
0 Confusion/disorder
o Soiializi;s
_-
-
0 Failure to delegate
WAYS OF DEALING WITH TIME WASTERS:
The usual conclusion drawn from the evaluation of the wasters is that the major
causes and solutions of these problems lie within the individual. Th6 important thing at
this point is'that ance the individlal knows where he or she is wisting time, the
process of solving the problem can begin.
following list:
l. Time lost in getting started
0 socializing, including coffee breaks
0
. leading
0 procrastination
0 Perfectionism
0 Unnecessary correspondence and
memo-it is
0 Poor reading habits
0 Failure to listen
0 Too much attention to details
0 Management by crisis
0 Red tape (policies and procedures)
0 Interruftions (telephone
and visitors)
0 Doing Unnecessary things
)
Tirne
lost through
disorganizatiolr
0 too many things
to handle
0
too nrany people
to work
with
0
clutter
around
fhe workplace
0
wrong
priorities
Time
lost through
diversion
0
socializing
0 hobbies
0
unnecessaryactivities
J.
4.
Time
lost in paperwork
0
excessiveinformation
O
reports
0
correspondence
0
red tape
0 perfectionism.
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f.:
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-usi-ng t,iG;rr.r
i:f_r;i_:,
-rh.
,**ro,
can dwetop
and impremenr
a
lJii*:
;Xl].?,:ll'ff:i;";T*lH*TJi,.#iiJ',,,,**
e,n.ountio,in,,,,
- -
_
or'tranizing.
directing,
,'ra
""rii.,'rt.,i
li*orr.
rvir
herp ir rr,rfi;:r:'H,:rlllfr.nriu*,
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PERSONAL TIME M,ANAGEMENT TOOLS :
Concrete ittforrrratiorr lrellls itt ntana*qirlg tinre. A sirlpte personal
tinre study
cottducted for a weel( or tu,o rvill sonretinres point out opportunities for
inrproving the sue of tinre and nray show specific u,ays in u,hich tinre is
beirrg tvasted. It also has the benefit of focusing attention on poor use of tinre
and often brin-cs about.improverrrent
sinrply by Iogging wastage.
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..,
i! A
trrersonal
tinre stricly santples activities at regular intenrals thl'ou.chout the
tl
-'--
:---r --:"r'-"
Ii day for a certain period using daily tinre log sheet. Since tinre n:anagenrenr.
f;'
li
t'equires attention both to legitimate u,ork activities and to those which are a
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\\'aste. a flexible and fairly detailed recording method is necessary. Making
ll
obsen'ation e\rery half hour is a reasonable compronrise between getting
lr
e-
t
-
detailed data and still beirrg able to -can'y on the day's u,ork u,ithout:
t:,
li
e.rcessive disruption.
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One of the central questions of personal
tinre management is how to give the
:
il
Iegitirrrate iunctions their appropriate proportion of tinre.
.
ii
rr- -r-
L
ii
I
A personal
time budget nray help remedy this situation. Assignirrg
specific
li
I
duties, special assignnreltts, and
: il
!:
thenr. For example, this tinre budget is arranged inro a rveekly schedule :
.
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Routine
Routine
Routine
Routine Routine
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F
E.
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FI
Ei.
f'
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i.
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t:
I
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Regular
I
Inspection
and
supervision
of
world
activities
l
I
I
Regutar
I
Individual
I
work
with
I
Staff I
Regular
Inspection
and
supervision
operations
of
Regular
Individual
work with
Staff
Regular
:
Inspection
and
supervision
of dperations
Regular
Individual
work with
Staff
Regular
Inspection
and
supervision
of operations
Regular
Inspection
and
supervision
of operations
individual
work
with
staff
Special
assignmerrts
Regular
Planning
&
organizing
Group Staff
Meeting
LUNCH
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Regular
I
Control
Regular
.
_Control
reports
,-:
Regular
Department
Sat meeting
Regular
Inspection
and
supervision
of worlc/ -
activities
I I
reports
i/::
L Creative
Regular
IntervieWs
and Contracts
Reguler
Inter.views
and Contracts
Regular
Interviews
and
Contracts'
Regular
Interviews
and
Contracts
Regular
Inspection.:,
and
supervision
of
Regular
Inspection
and
.t
supervision of
Special
Assignments
Routine
Regular
t6
t7
activities
s
Routine
Routine Routine Routine
Routine
Routine work is lirnited to about one hour per dayl The bulk
of the weck,s time is
devotcd to the core of the
job
: regular duties tike staff meeting, inspection
anJ
suPervision,
planning and organizing, regular report. Specific protecterl
p.iiod, are set
aside for special assignments and creative efforts.
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An exlrernety
specific,
minute-to-minute.
budget is impractical
for dealing
with the realities'
The allocation
must be rough
anJ some*hat
flixible. If a supervisor
takes
it serious
that there is onry
one. hour p.i a"v r*routine
work, he oi ,r,. may be impeiled
\ to s'eriously
that thereis
onry or.-lou
., aay ror ruutin.r*oit,
he-clr
she may be
-
impelled
to search for ways to maki the routine *ork p.rforrrir."
*or. efficient
so that it will fit into its time stot.
Daily Time Log Sheet
\c
CONSER\/ING PERSONAL TIME:
Determination to mrke the best use of time is essential. Supervisors rvho have
succeeded in improving their time efliciency have used some or all of the follorving
approaches.
l. Communicate : When listening, they concentrate their attention and ask questions
to make sure they understand. When giving assignments and decisions, they again
ask questions and ask others to repeat to be sure the correct message has been
communicated. In rneetings, they keep the discussion on the subject through good
discussion leading.
Cut Darvn Paperrvork : They consolidate the really essential communications and
records and consciously think of simpler ways of doing the
job.
They delegate.
Tlrey pick out the truly important. administrative matters and act fast on them,
getting them dbne without cluttering up the offtce.
Make Decisiorrs: Efficient supervisor make up their mind. They are decisive and
able to dispose of rninor items without having to retum to hem later. Small matters
do not deserve prolonged study and thinking over.
4. Control Interruptions: Th'ey stick to the topic. They limit telephone calls to real
-communications,
save unessential contacts for a free period, and limit social
conversations to lunch or breaks. Their time budget helps because blocks of time
rvill be set aside for routine communications, and interruptions other than
5. Set Specific Times: They set a definite appointment with a definite duration.
Tuesday at 3:00 for fifteen minutes for instance. They establish a reputation for.
punctuality which helps make others punctual with them.
6. Make Written notes: They make sure planned tasks are completed when they are
needed by using written reminders. If the scheduled time for a
job
passes without it
being done efficiency suffers.
ACTION GUIDELTNES FOR TIME IT{ANAGEMENT:
Ensure that your staff are aware of the importance of time conservation
communicate this clearly to them. Help subordinates to understand that using tinre
effectively does not necessarily mean working harder, but working more
efficiently.
Make some periodic effort to study how time is being used both personally and in
the department. Even an informal time study can help locate waste and focus
attention on the importance of good time use and martagement.,
2.
3.
I.
2.
3
' Make sure to have at least a rough personal
time budget. Essential
supervisory
duties will almost certainly be negleited unless time Is set aside for thern in
advance.
4' Make a checklist with the major time wasters lack of focus and scheduling,
interruptions,
and.so on-and keep the rist with some document
which you
have to
refer to periodically,
such as plani
or schedules. check th; ii;; peri6dicapy
to see if
there is anything you can do right to improve your use of item.
5' check your admirlistrative
procedures
and oftice routine to make improvements
that will save time. Eliminate paperwork,
make it clear that int"r*ption,
;;;il
only be for something truly important
and that other mattes should be handled in
the time set aside.
6. Review
everything you. have done for a day or two. For every item, ask the
question. "Is this a good
use of my time as supervisor or shourd ,or. on. .rr.lo
doing this?" Delegate anything which could beiter u aon. uy ,or"on.
;r;
-'. - '-
7. Make Ptan. Fifteen minutes spent.planning
a
job
thatwill take a day or two can