RELAY INSTALLATION & MAINTENANCE

Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. list the general guidelines for mounting/installing relays
2. list the common relay defects and its causes
3. list the points to look for, in a faulty relay
4. list the tips for maintenance of relays
5. list the important adjustments in a relay
6. Explain the steps to carryout relay adjustment.
1
Installation/mounting o !ela"s
!ounting/installation of relays depends on the shape of the frame or "ase of the relay. #n
general, the follo$ing points are to "e noted $hile mounting relays%
&elays should "e firmly "olted, using lock $ashers to pre'ent mo'ement due to 'i"ration.
(ithout the lock $ashers, the scre$s are likely to get loose "ecause of mechanical
'i"rations.
&elays should "e mounted $ith their contact surfaces 'ertical to pre'ent dirt and dust
from accumulating on the contacts.
&elays that depend on gra'ity for return, as in the case of solenoid type relays and oil
dashpot relays , must "e mounted upright.
&elays $ith mercury$etted contacts must "e mounted 'ertically.
#f the relay is a plugin type, the socket must "e fixed firmly to the chassis and the relay
must "e made to sit in the socket and secured.
Rela" #eects
Contact damages
)f all the parts of any relay, the relay contacts cause the most trou"le. *uring opening and
closing of the relay contacts, heat is generated due to the electrical discharge "et$een the
contacts. +his heat damages the contacts gradually. ,or a gi'en applied 'oltage, each metal
has a characteristic minimum 'alue of current $hich, if exceeded, causes arcing $hen the
contacts open. +his is called the minimum arcing current. *uring the opening of the contacts,
se'ere contact damage takes place if the current interrupted is higher than the minimum arc
current. +he extent of arcing and sparking is increased, if the circuit "roken is inducti'e. +his
is "ecause, inductance in a circuit results in high 'oltage at the time of "reaking. #n the
process of closing, as the contacts at different potential come closer, electric field may cause
a discharge to "ridge the gap. +he time $hen the spark exists, depends upon the speed $ith
$hich the contacts approach each other. - num"er of such discharges may take place,
causing damage, "efore the contact is fully made.
+he reasons for damaged relay contacts can "e found "y o"ser'ing the damaged contacts a
fe$ of $hich are listed "elo$%
.urnt contacts and se'ere pitting indicates excessi'e contact current.
/itting $ithout "urning of contacts is due to excessi'e num"er of operations.
(elded contacts is due to 'ery slo$ operation at high contact currents, incorrect 0uench
circuit and capaciti'e loads.
1raters and spikes on contacts indicate contacts chatter during a slo$ release.
2pikes and $hiskers on contacts indicate high load or high repetition rates.
.lack deposit on contacts or in their 'icinity is due to the condensation of metal 'apors,
and is not a car"on deposit.
1areful attention to contact protection from transients can result in 1333 times impro'ement
in relay life.
$igtail #amages
-nother common source of trou"le is the pigtail used in some relays to fasten the mo'ing
contacts. +hese pigtails are usually made of "raided or t$isted fine copper $ire. 1ontinuous
mo'ement may nearly "reak the pigtail, making it necessary to replace it.
Coil #amages
&elay coil damages are 'ery rare. 4o$e'er in lo$ 0uality relays if the enamel of the copper
$ire is poor or if the coil $inding is not done $ith care then some of the turns of the coil may
2
"ecome shorted. +his $ill reduce the resistance of the coil. +his $ill cause higher current to
flo$ through the coil and the coil and core get heated up fast. #f the num"er of turns shorted
is large, then either the relay $ill not operate or the coil may get "urnt due to excessi'e
current flo$.
MAINTENANCE O% RELAYs
(hen a relay fails to $ork, look for the follo$ing possi"le defects%
#mproper control 'oltage to relay coil.
5oose connections.
*irt, grease or gum on contacts or mo'ing parts.
1orrosion or deposits on metal parts.
Excessi'e $ear out of mo'ing parts.
*iscoloring or charred insulation on coil or "ase due to excessi'e heating.
.ent mo'ing parts.
#mproper spring tension.
Excessi'e arcing $hen the contacts open.
Excessi'e slamming $hen the relay closes.
Excessi'e hum in -1 relay.
6ery slo$ or 'ery fast speed of operation.
Maintenance ti&s
- 'ery common source of trou"le in a relay is the dirt and dust on the relay contacts. &elays
should al$ays "e kept as clean as possi"le. ,ollo$ing points are to "e noted in the
maintenance of relays%
*ust and dirt should "e remo'ed $ith a dry, stiff "rush and a lo$ pressure sucking air
hose.
*o not use a "lo$er to clean a relay as the "lo$n dirt $ill settle on the other parts of
the e0uipment causing trou"le.
1ontacts should "e cleaned only $hen necessary. +here are 'arious contact cleaners
a'aila"le in the market.
*o not use car"on tetrachloride as a cleaning agent. #t lea'es a film $hich can
ad'ersely affect, and in some instances, pre'ent electrical contact. .esides the fumes
can "e harmful.
7se a relay contact "urnishing tool to clean dirty or oxidi8ed contacts. *o not use files
or sandpaper as they $ill remo'e some of the protecti'e plating material and make the
contacts deteriorate rapidly.
!any types of relays use replacea"le contacts. 7se a $atchmakers eyeglass to
inspect the contacts. #f contacts are found not usa"le, replace them $ith ne$ ones.
#f contacts are found to "e continually "urned or pitted and fre0uent cleaning fails to
keep them in shape, it is reasona"le to assume that the relay is not of the proper type
for use in that application, or that there are some other circuit malfunctions.
&elay coils that ha'e "een exposed to excessi'e moisture should "e dried in moderate
heat. 7se a hot air "lo$er for drying. 9i'e a coat of insulating 'arnish after drying to
protect the coils.
3
RELAY A'()STMENTS
+here are four main points of adjustment in most relays. +hese are:
armature tra'el
contact spring tension
contact pressure
armature return spring tension.
#n many cases it may not "e possi"le to adjust all of these on all relays. (here it is possi"le
to adjust, each one of them must "e carried out in a definite order as gi'en "elo$%
First step - check the residual air gap
&esidual air gap is the gap "et$een the armature and core $hen the relay is energi8ed. #f the
armature and core touch they are likely to stick together. +herefore, a slight air space is
al$ays maintained "et$een them. +his air space is determined "y the setting of the residual
adjust scre$ sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he residual gap adjustment can "e made to make the relay drop out at a higher or lo$er
'oltage. +he $ider the gap the higher the 'oltage at $hich the relay $ill drop out. !ost relays
ha'e a residual gap "et$een 3.3315 inch to 3.334 inch.
Second step - check contact spring tension.
-fter long periods of use, the spring tension is likely to "ecome $eak. 4o$e'er, do not "e too
hasty to carry out this adjustment. !ake spring tension adjustments only $hen you are sure
that there is nothing else $rong. 2traighten the "ent springs using spring straightening tool. #f
it is suspected that the spring tension is not right, tension the spring "efore doing any further
adjustment. 2pring tension can "e measured "y a spring tension gauge. #f the "ushings are
tilted due to "ent springs, straighten the "ushings using a spring straightening tool.
Third step - check contact pressure
6arious gauges such as the one sho$n in ,ig 2 are a'aila"le for measuring contact pressure.
4
1ontact pressure is specified "y the relay manufacturers usually in grams. 1ontact pressure
$ill "e usually "et$een 1; to 25 grams of pressure for most light duty relays. ,or sensiti'e
relays, the pressure may "e much less. +he contacts on some relays are adjusta"le "y
means of a scre$. -djusting the scre$ mo'es the stationary contact closer to or farther from
the contact arm. +his adjustment $ill alter the contact pressure. 1ontact pressure can also "e
adjusted "y "ending the contact arms. 4o$e'er, flat contact springs <arms= should ne'er "e
adjusted $ith pliers. 7se a spring "ender or spring adjuster as sho$n in ,ig 3 for this
purpose.
Fourth step - check return spring tension
9reater the return spring tension, more the current re0uired in the coil to hold the armature.
+his means a higher current though the coil is re0uired to pull the armature. +his also makes
the current 'alue at $hich the armature drops out higher than that re0uired for a smaller
amount of spring tension.
- trou"le shooting chart indicating o"ser'a"le relay defects, its pro"a"le causes and
suggested remedial measures is gi'en in 1hart 1 at the end of this lesson. - set up as sho$n
in ,ig 4 can "e used to find out the operating and release 'oltages and currents of relays. .y
increasing the applied 'oltage from 8ero till >pullin> occurs and then decreasing the applied
'oltage till >dropout>, the operating, holding and release currents can "e found. ,rom these
'alues, the return spring tension defects/air gap defects can "e found and adjusted. #n the
experimental set up gi'en in ,ig 4, it is not possi"le to find out the relay timings. +his is
5
"ecause, the pullin and release times are generally 'ery small, of the order of a fe$
milliseconds. 2uch short durations can "e measured either using an oscilloscope.
6
7
ACO)STICS AN' CASCA'E' A)'IO AM$LI%IERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state ho$ sound is produced and ho$ it is sensed "y the human ear
2. state the audi"le range of fre0uency
3. state the relationship "et$een $a'elength, fre0uency and 'elocity of sound
4. state the terms loudness and pitch
5. state the meaning of harmonics
?. state the meaning of octa'e
@. state the meaning of sound transducers $ith an example
;. state the need for cascading amplifiers
A. state the need for coupling "et$een the stages of amplifiers
13. list the applications, ad'antages and disad'antages of directcoupled amplifiers.
8
ACO)STICS
+he $ord audio is a 5atin term $hich means Bl hearC. -ll that $e hear through our ears is
sound. 2ound is a sensation produced in the "rain "y sound $a'es. -coustics is a "ranch of
science $hich deals $ith the study of sound and its effects. 2ound is a result of 'i"rations in
air as sho$n in ,ig 1. (hen these 'i"rations strike the eardrum of a person, the drum
'i"rates and the auditory ner'e in the ear is stimulated. +hese ner'es communicate the
'i"rating information to the "rain. +he "rain interprets the meaning of the 'i"ration: for
instance 'oice, music, noise etc.,
%!e*uenc" o soun# +aves
- normal human ear can percei'e sound $a'es in the fre0uency range generally "et$een 1?
to 1?,333 48 <some may hear up to 23,333 48=. +he fre0uency of sound $a'es is also
referred to as pitch of sound. 5o$ fre0uency sound signals are referred to as 5o$ pitch and
high fre0uency sound signals as 4igh pitch. /ercussion instruments such as drums, ta"ala
etc., produce lo$ pitch sounds. 2tring instruments such as 'iolin, 'eena etc., produce high
pitch sound.
,avelengt- o soun# +aves
+he $a'elength D <lam"da= of any $a'e motion depends on, the fre0uency of 'ariations and
the 'elocity of propagation. )ne $a'elength D of sound $a'es, is the distance encompassing
one complete cycle of pressure 'ariation as sho$n in ,ig 1. +he 'elocity <'= of sound $a'es
is approximately 344.43 meters per second <m/s= in dry air at a temperature of 23E1. +he
relationship "et$een, (a'elength D , 'elocity <'= and fre0uency <t= is gi'en "y.
9
2ound $a'es can also tra'el in other medias such as in metals and li0uids. +he 'elocity of
sound is higher in metals and li0uids.
Lou#ness o soun#
+he term loudness refers to ho$ the human ear percei'es the amplitude of sound $a'es. +he
greater energy gi'en to the medium <amplitude= means a louder sound.
Tone o soun#
.oth tone and pitch are used to descri"e the effect of sound at different fre0uencies. +he
range of audi"le fre0uency is approximately 1? 48 to 1?,333 48. .elo$ 1?48, the sound is
more a matter of feeling than hearing. -"o'e 1? F48, the ear cannot respond to the high
fre0uency 'ariations. 4igh fre0uencies, as in the sound of a 'iolin or flute are kno$n as tre"le
tones. -t the opposite extreme, lo$ fre0uencies such as the deep sound of drums are kno$n
as "ass tones. - male 'oice produces sound of fre0uencies around 133 48, $hereas that of a
female is around 253 48.
.a!monic !e*uencies
+he 'i"rating string as sho$n in ,ig 1 is a source of sound. +he string $ith its entire length
'i"rating produces sound $a'es $ith a fre0uency of 1333 48. +his fre0uency is referred to as
the fundamental fre0uency. #t is the lo$est fre0uency the string can produce. #n practice,
since the string is not perfectly rigid, some sections of the string also 'i"rate producing
additional fre0uencies. +hese additional fre0uencies produced $ill "e higher if the 'i"rating
sections are of shorter lengths. +herefore, the 'i"rating sections produce fre0uencies higher
than the fundamental. +hese higher fre0uencies are called harmonics. #t is important to note
that harmonic fre0uencies are exact multiples of the fundamental fre0uency. 4o$e'er, the
amplitude of each harmonic decreases in in'erse proportion to the harmonic num"er.
+herefore, it is not necessary to consider more than 13 to 23 harmonics. #t is the harmonics
that make one source of sound different from another source although "oth the sources are
producing the same fundamental fre0uency. 4armonic fre0uencies are necessary "ecause,
sound $ill not other$ise ha'e its characteristic 0uality or tim"re. +he high fre0uency
harmonics "lend $ith the fundamental fre0uency and gi'e each indi'idual and each
instrument its indi'iduality.
T-e octave
)cta'e is a unit of sound representing a span of fre0uencies ha'ing a ratio of 2:1. ,or
instance, one octa'e a"o'e 533 48 is 1333 48 and one octa'e a"o'e 1333 48 is 2333 48.
+he reason for the name octa'e is that, eight successi'e tones in the musical scale
<sa
o
,re,ga,ma,pa,da,ne,sa
1
,= ha'e a ratio of 2:1 fre0uency inter'al. ,or example, if sa
o
corresponds to 23348, then sa
1
corresponds to 43348. +his means, sa
o
to sa
1
is one octa'e.
10
T!ans#uce!s o! soun#
#n pu"lic address systems, to ena"le the sound reach se'eral thousands of people, the sound
has to "e amplified. .efore amplifying the sound, the sound $a'es $hich are in the form of
compressions and rarefaction of air molecules <,ig 1 a= $ill ha'e to "e con'erted into its
e0ui'alent electrical energy <,ig 1 "=. +his electrical signal is amplified to the re0uired le'el
and recon'erted into sound $a'es. +hese de'ices used for con'erting sound energy into
electrical energy are kno$n as sound transducers. +he most common soundtoelectrical
energy transducer is kno$n as a !icrophone and the most common electricaltosound
energy transducer is kno$n as a 5oud speaker. - typical microphoneamplifierloud speaker
arrangement is sho$n in ,ig 2.
Casca#e# au#io !e*uenc" /A0%01 am&liie!s
-mplifiers specially designed to amplify audio fre0uency signals <1?48 to 1?k48= are called
to as audio fre0uency amplifiers or -., amplifiers. 2ingle transistor amplifiers discussed in
unit 3A do not pro'ide enough gain to "e used $ith output transducers such as speakers.
+herefore, se'eral amplifiers are usually connected in series <cascaded= as sho$n in ,ig 3 to
o"tain sufficient gain to dri'e a speaker.
%ig 2
#n ,ig 3, the output of one amplifier, ser'es as the input for the next amplifier, and so on, tills
the re0uired gain is o"tained. -lthough the indi'idual amplifiers can "e of any configuration,
the most commonly used is the common emitter configuration especially in -., amplifiers.
+his is "ecause of the fact that, the 'oltage, current and po$er gain of 1E amplifier is high.
#n ,ig 3, if the gain of stage -
1
is 133, -
2
is 23 and -
3
is 13, then the o'erall gain or the total
gain of the cascaded amplifier $ill "e,
G 9ain of -
1
x 9ain of -
2
x 9ain of -
3
..H2I
+otal gain G 133 x 23 x 13 G 23,333
,or instance, if stage -
1
is gi'en an input signal of strength 1m', the output signal le'el $ill "e
23 6. 2uch cascaded amplifiers are also referred to as multistage amplifiers. 2uch cascaded
or multistage amplifiers are common in almost all -., amplifiers used in tape recorders,
pu"lic address amplifiers and so on.
11
Met-o#s o cou&ling
-s sho$n in ,ig 3, in cascaded amplifiers the output of one amplifier stage has to "e fed to
the input of the next amplifier stage. (hile doing so, it is important to match the impedance
"et$een the t$o stages. #t is e'en more important to ha'e good impedance matching in lo$
le'el signal stages <initial amplifier stages= so that 'ery little signal is lost in the process of
feeding. +his techni0ue of connecting the output of one amplifier stage to the input of the next
amplifier stage, such that, the impedance of the stages are matched ena"ling maximum
transfer of signal from one to other is kno$n as coupling. +here are se'eral methods of
coupling. - fe$ of the most common methods of coupling are discussed in su"se0uent
paragraphs:
'IRECT CO)$LIN3
- typical direct coupled amplifier is sho$n in ,ig 4.
#n ,ig 4, the collector of the first transistor, <first amplifier stage output= is connected directly
to the "ase of the second transistor <second amplifier stage input=. 2ince no components
such as capacitors, transformers are used "et$een
the output of one stage and the input of another, this method of coupling is kno$n as direct
coupling. -s there are no components in'ol'ed in coupling, "oth the *1 component of the
signal and the -1 component of the signal are passed to the input <"ase= of the 2nd amplifier.
-lso, since there is no fre0uency restricting components in the path of coupling, there is no
fre0uency restriction in the coupled path.
#n ,ig 4, transistor J
1
is self"iased. #f K
dc
of J
1
G 133, then, the 0uiescent collector current l
c
is gi'en "y,
L)+E: +he ad'antage of using self"ias <feed"ack "ias= is that the transistor can ne'er
reach saturation, and hence, the distortion is minimum.
12
/lease note that it is not compulsory to use self"ias. Mou may use di'ider "ias also for J1.
4o$e'er, in most amplifier circuits the first amplifier stage generally use self"ias to pre'ent
transistor getting saturated.
l
c
of 3.15m- produces a drop of approximately 4 6 across 2@ F. +herefore, collector of J
1
$ill
"e at 46 $ith respect to ground. -llo$ing 3.@ 6 for the emitter diode of J
2
4 3.3 6 $ill "e
across 1 FN. 4ence l
c
of J
2
is approximately 2.@5 m-.
+he 'oltage gain of the first stage <J
1
= is,
L)+E: -lthough the theoretical gain is 'ery high, due to resistance tolerance 'ariations and
impedance mismatching, in practice -
l2
$ill "e slightly lo$er.
'C &otentials
#n ,ig 4, it is 'ery important to note, that there is no separate *1 "iasing pro'ided to the
transistor J
2
0 +his is "ecause, the "ase of the transistor J
2
is at the same *1 potential as the
collector of J
1
<46=.
&esistors &
1
<3F3= and &
2
<153N= are pro'ided to o"tain suita"le *1 'oltages for the different
stages of the amplifier using a common 6
cc
supply of OA6olts.
A&&lications o #i!ect5cou&le# am&liie!s
,or amplification of *1 control 'oltages in industrial electronic applications <*1
amplifiers=.
-t the input stages of audioamplifiers for good lo$ fre0uency response do$n to 348.
#n some applications, direct coupling is used just for economy, as this method
eliminates the need of coupling capacitors.
13
*irect coupling is used in circuits kno$n as complementary symmetry $hich use /L/
and L/L transistors.
L)+E: 1omplimentary symmetry configuration is discussed in further lessons.
'isa#vantages o 'i!ect cou&ling
Each successi'e stage of amplifiers needs progressi'ely higher supply 'oltages. <2ee
6
cc
of J
1
and J
2
in ,ig 4=
+ransistor characteristics like 6
.E
'ary $ith temperature. +his causes collector currents
and 'oltages to change.
-ny undesired change in dc 'oltage in J
1
affects all the potentials for J
2
.
+he po$er supply must pro'ide 'ery good filtering of the 53 48 ripple <4um=, $hich
other$ise $ill "e amplified "y the direct coupled amplifier <*1 amplifier=.
14
15
16
CLASSI%ICATION O% AM$LI%IERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. list the t$o main classifications of amplifiers
2. list the classifications of amplifiers "ased on the amount of "ias
3. state the amount of "iasing to "e gi'en for 1lass - amplifier
4. list the disad'antages of 1lass - amplifiers
5. list the applications of 1lass - amplifiers
17
Am&liie! classiication
#n addition to the 'arious classifications discussed in 7nit 11, amplifiers can also classified
as,
6oltage amplifiers
/o$er amplifiers.
+he amplifier circuits discussed in pre'ious lessons $ere small signal 'oltage amplifiers. +his
means these amplifiers are intended to amplify 'ery $eak signals in the range of P 'olts to
mill 'olts. +hese amplifiers $ere concerned $ith increasing the $eak signal 'oltage into a fe$
'olts. .ut the output of such amplifiers cannot "e used to operate de'ices such as
loudspeakers.
#n order to operate loudspeakers, in addition to 'oltage amplifiers, amplifiers kno$n as Power
amplifiers are re0uired. - po$er amplifier is essentially a current amplifier. - po$er amplifier
may or may not pro'ide any significant 'oltage gain. ,ig 1 illustrates 'oltage and po$er
amplifiers.
-n easy $ay of identifying $hether an amplifier is a 'oltage amplifier <small signal amplifier=
or a po$er amplifier is "y checking the type of transistors used in the amplifier. +his is sho$n
in ,ig 1.
-nother method of classifying amplifiers is "ased on the amount of *1 "ias gi'en to the
amplifier in its 0uiescent state. .ased on this the amplifiers may "e mainly classified as,
1lass - amplifiers
1lass . amplifiers
1lass 1 amplifiers.
Class A am&liie!s
-n amplifier is said to "e operating as a 1lass - amplifier if the amplifier is acti'e and current
are flo$ing through the different paths of the amplifier e'en $hen no -1 signal is fed to it for
amplification. +he a"o'e statement means that the transistor of the amplifier is operating in
the acti'e region at all times $hether or not the input ac signal is present. +o ensure that the
transistor is al$ays in acti'e region, suita"le *1 "iasing arrangement is necessary. ,ig 2a
sho$s a transistor amplifier $ith *1 "iasing such that it $orks in 1lass- mode <al$ays
acti'e= of operation. #n the 1E amplifier of ,ig 2, an -1 'oltage 6
in
dri'es the "ase, producing
an -1 output 'oltage 6
out
. +he "iasing arrangement and the *1 load line of the 1E amplifier
at ,ig 2 is "elo$%
18
,rom the a"o'e 'alues the *1 load line is dra$n in ,ig 2". 5oaded 'oltage gain <-
65
= +he
unload gain <$ith &
5
open= of the amplifier is gi'en "y
(hen load &
5
is connected, then the resistance seen "y the collector of transistor <call it r
out
=
is gi'en "y,
+herefore in ,ig 2, loaded 'oltage gain is,
Cu!!ent gain <-
i
=
1urrent gain of the transistor -
i
is,
$o+e! gain <-
p
=
#n ,ig 2, the ac input po$er to the "ase is,
/
in
6 6
in
.i
"

+he ac output po$er from the collector is,
/
out
6 6
out
. i
c

+he po$er gain <-
p
= of the amplifier is,
#n ,ig 2, -
p
G -
'
.-
i
G <13?= <133= G 13,?33
+his means that an ac input po$er of 1 P $att
results in an ac output po$er of 13,?33P $atts
or 13.?m $att.
Loa# &o+e!
n ,ig 2, the ac po$er into the load resistor &
5
is gi'en "y,
19
+his is the maximum -1 load po$er that a class - amplifier can produce $ithout output
distortion or clipping.
AC loa# line
+he saturation and cutoff points of -1 load line are different from those of *1 line.
-1 output compliance
+he -1 output compliance is the maximum unclipped peaktopeak -1 'oltage that an
amplifier can produce. +his -1 output compliance can "e o"tained "y dra$ing *1 and -1
load lines. -s can "e seen in ,ig 2", the -1 compliance is,
20
Ma7imum AC loa# &o+e!
+he -1 output compliance <peaktopeak= e0uals the maximum unclipped 'oltage, therefore,
maximum -1 load po$er /
5
is gi'en "y,
T!ansisto! &o+e! #issi&ation
(hen there is no input signal, transistor is still in conduction in 1lass- amplifier hence po$er
is dissipated. +his po$er /J is gi'en "y,
+he po$er input to the amplifier is 0uiescent state is
Eicienc" o class A am&liie! stage
21
,rom the a"o'e calculation the efficiency of the 1lass- amplifier is only 5Q. +his lo$
efficiency is the main disad'antage of 1lass- amplifiers. (ith e'en "est design it only
possi"le to get an efficiency of less than 33Q in 1lass- amplifiers. .ut this disad'antage is
compensated in 1lass- "y the 0uality of undistorted amplified output. +ypical 'alue of
distortion in 1lass- amplifiers is less than 5Q.
A&&lication o Class A am&liie!s
*ue to the ad'antage of minimum distortion, 1lass - amplifiers are used as the first amplifier
stage to amplify $eak signals coming out of de'ices like microphones, play head of tape
recorders etc. #f the first stage is not pro'iding minimum distortion, the distortion gets
amplified in further stages and makes the sound gar"led. 4ence, 1lass - is the most
common $ay of making transistors $ork in 5inear circuits "ecause these circuits lead to the
simplest and most sta"le "iasing circuits.
NOTE: !any 1lass - amplifiers use fixed"ias "ecause of its inherent ad'antage that the
transistors $ill ne'er go to saturati'e and hence, distortion is minimi8ed. 1lass - amplifiers
$ith transformer coupling are sometimes used as po$eramplifier stage in $hich case stage
efficiency up to 53Q can "e o"tained.
INTE3RATE' CIRC)ITS AN' O$ERATIONAL AM$LI%IERS
22
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. state the "ase material used in making #1s
2. state $hy large 'alue capacitors, inductors and transformers cannot "e fa"ricated in
#1s
3. state the most important considerations in designing #1s
4. list the ad'antages of using #1s in circuits
5. state the meaning of operational amplifier
?. state the t$o "asic modes of operation of )p-mps
@. state the output e0uations of )p-mp in t$o modes
;. state the importance of 1!&&
A. list the different methods of gi'ing input and taking output from )p-mps
13. design simple in'erting and nonin'erting amplifier "y fixing 'alues of feed "ack
resistor
11. list ideal and typical characteristics of )p-mps
12. design a simple summing amplifier
13. state the meaning of sle$ rate and its importance
14. 2tate ho$ a )p-mp can "e made to $ork $ith single supply.
INTE3RATE' CIRC)ITS
-n integrated circuit<#1=, as its name implies, is an integrated <put together= form of se'eral
components of a circuit on a single chip or $afer of a semiconductor material, generally
silicon. -s already discussed in lesson 11.35, #1s may ha'e hundreds of acti'e components
<transistors, diodes= and passi'e components <resistors, capacitors etc.,=. #1s are made "y a
complex photographic process on a 'ery small si8ed surface. +his process is kno$n as
23
micro photolithographic process. +he "ase material of #1s is a highly refined silicon chip
<also kno$n as su"strate= as sho$n in ,ig 1. 9enerally the si8e of the silicon su"strate is of
the si8e of a pin head.
+he acti'e and passi'e components are deposited or diffused on this minute si8ed silicon
su"strate. +he su"strate is then mounted on a ceramic or a insulated metal "ase called
header as sho$n in ,ig 1. -luminum or gold $ires of a"out onethird thickness of a human
hair are "onded "et$een the #1 contacts called pads and the header leads. +he package is
then sealed. +he most common types of #1 packages are sho$n in ,ig 2.
+he num"er of pins each #1 has depends on the complexity of the circuit "uilt into the #1.
4o$e'er, any #1 $ill ha'e minimum of 3 pins as in any 'oltage regulator #1s, to more than ?4
pins in computer #1s. #n #1s, fa"rication of acti'e components such as transistors and diodes
take much less space on the chip than resistors and capacitors. -lso, "ecause of the limited
space on the chip, resistors and capacitor 'alues then can "e made on the #1 limited. ,or this
reason direct coupling "et$een transistor stages are used in #1s. -lso transistors are used as
resistors instead of fa"ricating resistors themsel'es. 1omponents like chokes, coils and
transformers cannot "e fa"ricated in #1s "ecause of its physical "ulkiness. +herefore,
$here'er inductors are necessary for a circuit leads are "rought out of the #1s such that,
inductors can "e connected external to the #1. )ne 'ery important consideration in the design
of #1s is its flexi"ility in application. !ost #1s are designed to "e used for more than one
application "y making small changes in external circuitry. ,or example, an #1 may "e used as
an amplifier or as an oscillator and so on.
A#vantages o integ!ate# ci!cuits
24
-lthough the circuit inside an #1 is complex consisting of a large num"er of
components, the o'erall physical si8e of the #1 is extremely small resulting in
miniaturi8ation of the electronic gadgets.
*rastic decrease in the o'erall $eight of the gadget due to miniaturi8ed si8e of the
circuit.
5o$ po$er re0uirement.
#ncreased relia"ility due to less num"er of solder connections.
9reater flexi"ility in use of the same #1 for different circuit configurations.
.etter functioning under $ide range of temperatures.
5o$ cost per #1 due to large scale production of #1s.
Limitations o integ!ate# ci!cuits
5arge 'alue capacitors and resistors cannot "e fa"ricated.
1hokes, inductors and transformers cannot "e fa"ricated.
#f any one stage inside the #1 circuit "ecomes defecti'e, the complete #1 has to "e
discarded.
4andling is 'ery delicate.
8asic linea! integ!ate# ci!cuit 5 9O&e!ational Am&liie!s9 /O& Am&s1
-n operational amplifier, often referred as )p-mp, is a high gain, direct coupled differential
amplifier, designed to amplify "oth *1 and -1 signals. +he term )perational is used $ith
these amplifiers "ecause, in early days these amplifiers $ere used in analog computers to
perform mathematical operations such as addition, multiplication etc., 2ym"ol used to
represent an )p-mp and the functional "locks inside it are sho$n in ,ig 3.
-s can "e seen from ,ig 3, operational amplifiers $ill ha'e t$o inputs and one output. +he
reason for ha'ing t$o input points is that )p -mps ha'e a special type of amplifier
configuration kno$n as *ifferential amplifier as its first stage. - typical differential amplifier
25
stage is sho$n in ,ig 4. - differential amplifier stage consists of t$o transistors $ith an input
to each transistor. +he output is taken "et$een the collectors of the transistors as sho$n in
,ig 4.
+he most important point to note is, "oth the transistors ha'e identical characteristics, load
resistors, input resistors and a single emitter resistor. *ual po$er supply <O'e, 'e and 9nd=
is re0uired for differential amplifiers <single supply can also "e used $ith a fe$ extra
components=. #f a dual supply is used and if the amplifier is properly "alanced <symmetrical
'alues=, the output 'oltage across the collectors $ill "e e0ual to the difference of the t$o input
'oltages. 4ence, this amplifier is called differential amplifier.
Mo#es o o&e!ation o #ie!ential am&liie!s
-ny operational amplifier can "e operated in t$o modes. +hey are,
1ommonmode operation
*ifferentialmode operation.
Common5mo#e o&e!ation
#n ,ig 5, since "oth sides of the differential amplifier circuit are identical, if an identical signal
<same le'el and phase= is applied to "oth the inputs <transistors=, the same output signal
results from "oth collectors.
26
#f a meter is connected across the outputs the 'oltage difference $ill "e 8ero. +hus, the
output is e0ual to the gain times the difference "et$een the input 'oltages. !athematically,
this is expressed as,
:
out /com1 6
A /:
;
5 :
<
1 +-e!e4
27
- is the gain of each transistor% 6
1
and 6
2
are the "ase input 'oltages measured to ground.
+his mode of operation is called 1ommonmode operation. #n commonmode operation, a
differential amplifier theoretically rejects the common mode signals <signal that is identical at
each input= and hence the output $ill "e 8ero as sho$n "elo$, #f "oth the magnitude and
phase of 6
1
and 6
2
are the same, then,
:
out
6A /:
;
5 :
<
1 6 A /:
;
5:
;
1 6 A /=1 6 =0
#n practice, since the t$o hal'es of the circuit cannot "e perfectly identical, instead of 8ero
output there $ill "e a 'ery small output. ,or example, a differential amplifier $ith a 3.5 6
commonmode input signal may gi'e an output of 3.325 6 instead of 8ero. +his 3.325 is
"ecause of the slight mismatch "et$een the t$o half of the differential amplifier circuit.
'ie!ential5mo#e o&e!ation
,ig ? sho$s the differentialmode operation. (hen the t$o input signals are out of phase "y
1;3E, the amplifier amplifies the difference of the input signals. 2ince the input signals are of
e0ual in amplitude, "ut out of phase "y 1;3E the output signal is e0ual to, t$ice the gain times
the input signal. +his can "e mathematically $ritten as,
:
out /'i1
6 A >:
;
5 /5:
<
1?0000 ><?
#f magnitude of 6
1
G 6
2
then,
:
out /'i1
6 A >:
;
5 /5:
<
1? 6 A>< :
;
? 6 <A/:
;
1
Common5mo#e !ejection !atio: +he ad'antage of differential amplifiers is, it does not
amplify input signals that are in phase. +his is kno$n as commonmode signal rejection.
-lthough the rejection should "e 133Q theoretically, in reality the rejection $ill not "e 133Q.
+herefore, the measure of the effecti'eness of rejecting common mode signals is called
1ommonmode rejection ratio <1!&&=. 1!&& is gi'en "y,
$here,
-
*!
is the gain of the amplifier in differentialmode
-
1!
is the gain of the amplifier in commonmode.
E7am&le: - differential amplifier $ith a 3.5 6 input signal in commonmode has an output of
3.325 6. +he same amplifier $ith a input of 3.25 6 in differential mode has output of A.56.
,ind -
1!
, -
*!
and 1!&&.
28
Met-o#s o giving in&ut an# ta@ing out&ut in #ie!ential am&liie!s
- differential amplifier is normally used $ith a dou"le ended input and dou"le ended output.
.ut this is not a compulsion. - differential amplifier can also "e used as single ended input
and $ith single ended output.
Single5en#e# in&ut: +he input signal is applied to only one input and the other input is
grounded as sho$n in ,ig @a.
Single5en#e# out&ut: +he output signal from the amplifier is taken from the collector to
ground instead of across the collectors as sho$n in ,ig @a. +he output can "etaken from the
collector of J1 to 9nd or J2 to 9nd or from "oth collectors to ground as sho$n in ,ig @".
$hen the output is taken from "oth collectors to 9nd the t$o signals pro'ide a pushpull
output as sho$n in ,ig @".
29
&ecall that the t$o transistors of a pushpull amplifiers need signal of some amplitude "ut
outofphase "y 1;3E.
'ie!ential in&ut: +he t$o inputs gi'en are signals ha'ing opposite polarity <1;3E out of
phase=. +he input is similar to input to a pushpull amplifier.
'ie!ential out&ut: +he output is taken across the t$o collectors $hich is nothing "ut the
difference "et$een the t$o collector 'oltages. +he difference $ill "e 8ero $hen the input
'oltages are e0ual and are of the same polarity. +he input signals add up if they ha'e
opposite polarities.
$!actical O&5Am&s an# a&&lications
#n )p-mps as sho$n in ,ig 3, apart from the first differential stage, the su"se0uent stages
are the dri'er and emitterfollo$er stage $hich are already discussed in earlier lessons. !ost
of the commercially a'aila"le )p -mp #1s $ill usually ha'e t$o input terminals and only one
output terminal as sho$n in ,ig 3. +he t$o inputs of the )p-mp are called, #L6E&+#L9 <=
and L)L#L6E&+#L9 <O= inputs. +his is "ecause% a signal applied to the in'erting <= input,
produces an output $hich $ill "e 1;3E out of phase $ith the input. (hereas a signal applied
to the L)L#L6E&+#L9 <O= input produces an output $hich $ill "e inphase $ith the input.
30
3ain o O&5Am&s
+he gain and other characteristics of the operational amplifier depends upon the external
components connected external to the )p-mp. +he theoretical gain of )p-mps is 'ery
high, of the order of 133,333 or more. #n practical amplifiers using )p-mp, a resistor is used
to pro'ide an external negati'e feed "ack to the )p-mp. +he negati'e feed"ack resistor is
generally connected "et$een the output terminals to either of the input terminals as sho$n in
,ig ;. -lthough the negati'e feed "ack reduces the gain of the amplifier drastically <13 to
1333=, the negati'e feed "ack makes the amplifier sta"le, pre'ents it from going into
oscillations and increases the fre0uency response range of the amplifiers. +he gain of )p
-mp $ithout negati'e feed"ack is referred to as )/EL 5))/ 9-#L $hereas, the gain of )p
-mp $ith feed "ack is referred to as 15)2E* 5))/ 9-#L.
O&5Am& as IN:ERTIN3 AM$LI%IER
,ig ; sho$s a typical in'erting amplifier using an )p-mp. #n this in'erting amplifier, the input
signal is applied to the #L6E&+#L9 <#L6= terminal. +he L)L#L6E&+#L9 <L)L= terminal
$hich is grounded in the input signal is applied at the #L6 terminal, the output of the amplifier
$ill "e an amplified signal of opposite polarity. +he resistor &, "et$een the output and input
pro'ides necessary negati'e feed"ack. +he amount of negati'e feed"ack pro'ided depends
on the 'alues of resistors &
,
and &
in
.
-s an example, let us calculate the closedloop 'oltage gain, for the in'erting amplifier at ,ig
;. -ssume 'alues of &
,
G 4@3 FN and &
in
G 4@ N. -ssume an input signal 'oltage of 3.56.
+he closedloop gain of an in'erting amplifier is gi'en "y,
31
O&5Am& as NON5IN:ERTIN3 AM$LI%IER
#n the nonin'erting amplifier sho$n in ,ig A, the input signal is applied to the L)L <O=
terminal and the #L6 <= terminal is connected to ground through &
in
as the input signal is fed
at the L)L#L6E&+#L9 <L)L= terminal of the )p-mp, the amplified output $ill "e inphase
$ith the input signal as sho$n in ,ig A.
-s an example, let us calculate the closedloop 'oltage gain, for the circuit at ,ig A. -ssume
&
,
to "e 4@3 N, and &
in
to "e 4@ F N, +he input signal is 3.5 6.
+he closedloop gain of a nonin'erting amplifier is gi'en "y,
32
Lote that the gain of a nonin'erting amplifier is slightly more than that of the in'erting
amplifier. +his is "ecause% the feed"ack resistor is not connected to the same terminal as the
input signal.
3ain5ban#+i#t- &!o#uct /38$1
+ypical fre0uency response of an )p-mp is from direct current, or 3 48, to more than 1
!48. 4o$e'er, "ecause of internal shunt capacitances, the amplifier gain drops off sharply
as the fre0uency is increased. +herefore to specify the gain of an )p-mp at different
fre0uencies, a term called as 9ain.and$idth/roduct <9./= is specified. ,or example, if the
9./ of an )p-mp is gi'en as 1 !48, it means that the gain of the )p-mp "ecomes unity
at an input signal of 1 !48. #t is al$ays useful to kno$ the gain"and$idth product <9./=, of
the )p-mp "eing used.
Example: +he 9./ of an )p-mp is specified as 1!48. (hat is the maximum gain that can
"e o"tained using this )p-mp at 1 F48 9./ of 1 !48 means, gain G1 at 1 !48. +herefore,
at 1 F48 more gain $ill "e,
+his means, at 1 F48 an )p-mp $ith 9/. of 1 !48 pro'ides a maximum gain of 1333. +his
is sho$n in cur'e - of ,ig 13.
33
1ur'e - of ,ig 13 sho$s the open loop fre0uency response of an )p-mp $ith a constant
9./ of 1 !48. -s can "e seen from cur'e -, for the same )p-mp, the gain is 133 at 13
F48, 13 at 133 F48 and "ecomes unity at 1 !48. +his huge 'ariation in open loop gain -
<)/EL=
can "e made almost constant using negati'e feed"ack. -s sho$n in cur'e . of ,ig 13,
using suita"le 'alue of resistor &
,
and &
in
, if the closed loop gain -
<15)2E*=
of the )p-mp is
set at say 13, then the fre0uency response of the )p-mp "ecomes almost flat upto 133F48.
+his is one of the major ad'antages of negati'e feed "ack in )p -mps.
+#/: The lower you set the gain of the amplifier, the higher will be the bandwidth of the
amplifier.
C-a!acte!istics o O&5Am&s
-n ideal operational amplifier $ill ha'e the follo$ing characteristics:
#n practice such ideal characteristics cannot "e achie'ed. 4o$e'er, in many practical
situations, )p-mps come close to these characteristics. - typical specification of an )p-mp
is gi'en "elo$%
T"&ical O&5Am& a&&lications
-pplication of )p-mps are innumera"le. +his is "ecause, of the flexi"ility that is "uilt into
the internal circuit of the )p-mp. #n addition to its "asic function of amplification, )p-mp
are used as comparators, adders, su"tracters, differentiator, integrators and so on.
34
A&&lication o O&5Am& as a summing am&liie!
,ig 11 is the circuit of a )p-mp summing amplifier or in simple terms an adder. 4ere, the
)p-mp is used as an in'erting amplifier to do the summing operation.
#n ,ig 11, three input signals are applied to the #L6 terminal of the )p-mp through resistors
&
1
, &
2
and &
3
. +he amount of negati'e feed"ack gi'en to the )p-mp is dependent on the
'alue of &
,
di'ided "y each resistor in the feed"ack path. -s a result, the output 'oltage of
the )p-mp is gi'en "y,
#f, &
1
G &
2
G &
3
G &
,
, then &
,
/& "ecomes 1 in each signal path.
+hen, the output is gi'en "y,
+he output of ?6 is e0ual to the sum of the three input 'oltages. Lote that the 'alue of
resistor &
4
<3FN= at the L)L terminal of )p-mp is made e0ual to the parallel com"ination of
three A F resistors at the #L6 terminal. +his resistor is re0uired to "alance the inputs of the
differential amplifier in the )p-mp.
Sle+ !ate in O&5Am&s
2le$ rate is an important characteristic of )p-mps. +he term sle$ refers to, the rate of
change of the output 'oltage. -s an example, a sle$ rate of 1 'olt per microsecond <6/ Ps=
means, the amplitude of output 'oltage can change "y a maximum of 1 6 in 1 Ps. ,ast sle$
rate or high sle$ rate is desira"le for high fre0uency amplifiers, especially those $ith non
sinusoidal input signal $a'e shapes.
'C su&&l" voltage o! O&5Am&s
)p-mps generally need dual <R= *1 supply. +ypical 'alues of *1 supply 'oltages are R A 6,
R 15 6 and R 22 6. Lote that a "oth positi'e and negati'e 'oltage of same amplitude is
35
re0uired for )p-mps. +he 6O is used as the collector 'oltage, and the 6 is used as the
emitter supply 'oltage of the first differential amplifier stage of the )p -mp as sho$n in ,ig 4.
+he *1 load current dra$n from the po$er supply for an )p -mp is generally less than a
fe$ milliamps. +ypical po$er rating of )p-mps is around 533 m(.
Comme!cial O&5Am& ICs
+he earliest and most popular commercial )p
-mp is the @41 #1. +his )p-mp #1 is
manufactured "y se'eral manufacturers, and
hence, carries along $ith it tags such as P-
@41<,airchild=, 5! @41<Lational semiconductor=
and so on. 1ommercially se'eral other types of
)p-mp #1s ha'ing different type num"ers are
a'aila"le in the market. 2ome #1 packages may
consist of more than one )p-mp "uiltin a
single package. ,or instance, 5!324 <Lational
semiconductors= is a 0uadoperational amplifier.
+he term 0uad means it has four )p-mp in one
package. 2ome of the popular )p-mps and its
specifications manufactured "y Lational
2emiconductors is gi'en in +a"le33 of /ocket
+a"le .ook. 1hart 1 at the end of this lesson
gi'es details of some popular #1 packages.
Single su&&l" o&e!ation o O&5Am&s
!ost )p-mp circuits are designed to $ork
using dual <R= *1 po$er supply. *ue to some
incon'enience of dual supplies, many )p-mp
circuits are made to $ork using single supply.
+he method of making )p-mps to $ork $ith
singlesupply is sho$n in ,igs 12a and 12".
Noise in o&e!ational am&liie!s
-n undesired electrical signal present in the output of an amplifier is referred to as noise.
Loise in the output of a circuit may "e due to the noise generated in the circuit <internal= or
noise getting into the circuit from external sources. External noise can "e minimi8ed "y
adopting proper construction techni0ues. - fe$ tips to reduce external noise is listed "elo$%
1I 2horten the interconnecting $ire lengths. !ount components as close to the )p-mp as
possi"le. Feep the output circuit components a$ay from the input components <this a'oids
un$anted feed"ack=.
2I .ypass the )p-mp 'cc supply pins using 3.31 to 3.1p, disc capacitors.
E'en if there is no significantly 'isi"le/audi"le noise at the output, there $ill "e some noise in
the output of )p -mp due to internal noise. +his internal noise can "e minimi8ed "y a'oiding
large 'alues of &
in
and &
,
. +his internally generated noise due to resistors can "e reduced to
a large extent "y connecting a small capacitor in the range of 3 to 5? p, across feed"ack
resistor &
,
. +his $ill reduce internal noise, specially the high fre0uency noise.
+#/: +ry to keep &
in
around 13 FN &educe the 'alue of &
,
to minimi8e noise.
36
37
AM RA'IO RECEI:ERS 5 8ASIC CRYSTAL RECEI:ER
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. explain the "asic principle of radio reception
2. explain the "asic principle of selecting one of se'eral signals a'aila"le in space
3. name the t$o main fre0uency "ands used for commercial -! radio "roadcasting
4. sketch the different types of -! recei'ing antennas
5. sketch the schematic of a crystal recei'er and explain the $orking of the circuit.
38
$!inci&le o Ra#io !eceive!s
+he modulated $a'e emitted from a
transmitting antenna in the form of
electromagnetic $a'es <energy= tra'els in
free space at the speed of light <3x13
;
metres /sec=. +he distance these
electromagnetic $a'es tra'el depends
upon the chosen type of transmitting
antenna and the transmitted po$er. -s
sho$n in,ig1, if a $ire is suspended a"o'e
the ground in the region $here the
electromagnetic $a'es are tra'elling, the passing electromagnetic $a'es induce a small
'oltage in the $ire.
-lthough the induced 'oltage in the suspended $ire is 'ery small, of the order of micro 'olts,
the $a'eform of the induced 'oltage is an exact replica of the signal transmitted "y the
transmitting antenna. +hus the suspended $ire acts as a recei'ing antenna. #f the recei'ed
$eak signal, at the recei'ing antenna is processed, the information <'oice and music etc.=
$hich modulated the carrier at the transmitter can "e reproduced.
Selecting !e*ui!e# Elect!omagnetic +ave /signal1
2ince se'eral transmitting antennas of se'eral stations transmit information <'oice and music
etc= simultaneously into air, the electromagnetic $a'es of se'eral stations simultaneously
exist in free space. -ll these electromagnetic $a'es corresponding to se'eral stations
intercept <cut= the recei'ing antenna at the same time. Each of these simultaneously induces
'oltages in the recei'ing antenna as sho$n in ,ig 2. 4ence, the recei'ing antenna or the
aerial $ill ha'e signal 'oltages corresponding to se'eral transmitting stations as sho$n in ,ig
2.
+he first jo" of a radio recei'er is to select a particular station signal in $hich $e are
interested and reject the rest of signals. +his can "e done easily using a tuned circuit as
sho$n in ,ig 3a.
39
-s already discussed in pre'ious units, the fre0uency response of the parallel tuned circuit at
,ig 3a $ill "e as sho$n in ,ig 3". 4o$ good is this parallel tuned circuit, in selecting a
particular fre0uency signal is termed as the selecti'ity of the circuit. +his selecti'ity of the
tuned circuit in a recei'er decides $hether or not the recei'er suffers from interference of
un$anted stations.
AM !eceive! an# !e*uenc" ban#s
-t present -! "roadcasting is restricted to the follo$ing fre0uency "ands%
!edium (a'e <!(= "and 535 F48 to 1?35 F48
2hort (a'e <2(= "and 3 !48 to 2? !48
.roadcasting stations, transmitting amplitude modulated <-!= !( "and signals relay on
ground $a'es for prorogation. +he 2( "and -! transmitters on the other hand relay "oth on
ground $a'es and sky $a'es for prorogation. 4ence, the distance co'ered "y !( -!
stations is much less than that of 2( -! stations.
T-e !eceiving antenna o AM !eceive!s
#n earlier days a lengthy copper $ire or a lengthy copper tape made of thin copper $ire mesh
as sho$n in ,ig 4 $ere used as recei'ing antennas for -! recei'ers.
40
*ue to the large space occupied "y these antennas, and for use $ith porta"le -! recei'ers,
a loop antenna coupled to an antenna transformer as sho$n in ,ig 5 is used in present day
-! recei'ers.
&ecent inno'ation is the ferrite rod antenna as sho$n in ,ig ?. +his antenna, $ith ferrite,
ha'ing an extremely high permea"ility has excellent pickup/ recei'ing characteristics.
+he antenna transformer used to couple the selected signal to the next stage is often referred
to as antenna coil rather than antenna transformer. +he primary $inding of the antenna coil
<antenna transformer= isolates the antenna side from the tuned circuit and pro'ides proper
impedance matching to the antenna. 9enerally ferrite core antenna coil is $ound on
insulating material such as paper or plastic. +he gauge of $ire used and the num"er of turns
used for the antenna coils designed to recei'e !( "and stations and the 2( "and stations
differ.
8asic c!"stal !a#io !eceive!
+he simplest form of a radio recei'er is the crystal recei'er sho$n in ,ig @.
41
+he "asic crystal -! recei'er consists of an 51 resonant circuit <antenna coil and a 'aria"le
capacitor=, a crystal diode, a filter capacitor and a headphone.
Selection &-ase
#n a crystal recei'er, the desired station fre0uency is selected "y the 51 parallel resonant
circuit $hose resonance fre0uency is altered "y tuning the 'aria"le capacitor. )nce the
parallel 53 circuit is tuned to a desired station fre0uency, the 'oltage across the parallel
tuned circuit $ill "e maximum for that fre0uency, thus gi'ing a modulated 'oltage at the
anode of the rectifier diode as sho$n in ,ig @.
'etection o! #emo#ulation &-ase
+he modulated $a'e a'aila"le at the input <-node= of the diode has "oth positi'e and
negati'e en'elopes of the modulating signal and the carrier fre0uency. &ecall that the
information transmitted is in the en'elope of the modulated &, carrier $a'e and not in the
carrier $a'e. #n ,ig @, the crystal diode is used rectifies the modulated $a'e to get the
positi'e side of the modulated $a'e <negati'e side may also "e chosen as the information
contained is the same=. +his process is called *emodulation or *etection. - germanium
crystal diode is used for detection "ecause% the amplitude of the recei'ed signal is 'ery $eak.
#f a silicon diode $as used, it $ould need a minimum @33 m6 to conduct, and hence, it fails to
detect lo$ 'oltage le'els.
%ilte!ing t-e ca!!ie! &-ase
+he rectified modulated $a'e contains the &, carrier fre0uency component in addition to the
information as its en'elop. #f this $as fed to the head phone directly, it $ould result in
excessi'e noise along $ith the information <en'elop=. 4ence, this &, carrier component in
the detected signal has to "e eliminated "efore feeding the detected signal to a head phone.
+his can "e easily done "y filtering, using a capacitor. 7sually a piefilter as sho$n in ,ig ; is
used to trap the &, carrier completely.
42
Lote that, the "asic crystal recei'er sho$n in ,ig @ uses a single capacitor instead of a pie
filter. +his is "asically to a'oid the loss across the resistor in a pie filter. #f suita"le
amplification of the recei'ed modulated
signal is carried out, then a piefilter can "e used as is generally done in commercially
a'aila"le -! radio recei'ers.
Au#io &-ase
+he detected and filtered audio signal can "e connected to a high impedance <S32N=
headphone $hich $ill reproduce the information in the form of sound $a'es. !ost radio
recei'ers, ho$e'er, amplify the detected and filtered signals to suita"le le'els using audio
amplifiers and then fed to a loud speaker.
,ig A sho$s a crystal recei'er $ith a piefilter for impro'ed &f filtering and a transistor
amplifier for impro'ing the audio output le'el. 2ince an amplifier is used, the circuit no$
re0uires *1 po$er supply.
43
AM RA'IO RECEI:ERS 5 TR% RECEI:ERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. explain the terms selecti'ity, sensiti'ity, fidelity and signal to noise ratio
2. list the limitations in crystal recei'ers and the reasons for the same
3. explain ho$ the limitations of a crystal recei'er are o'ercome in +&, recei'ers
4. 2ketch the schematic of a +&, recei'er using integrated circuits.
44
SELECTI:ITY
)ne of the pro"lems in a crystal recei'er is its ina"ility to sharply select the re0uired station.
+his station selection performance of a radio recei'er depends on the characteristics of the
tuned 51 circuit $hich has to accept only the desired fre0uency, $hile rejecting the rest. +his
characteristic is termed as selecti'ity of the recei'er. 2electi'ity is the a"ility of a recei'er to
tunein or recei'e a desired channel fre0uency $hile rejecting other undesired channel
fre0uencies.
#t is important to note that a 'ery high selecti'ity does not necessarily make a "etter recei'er.
+his is "ecause, a radio "roadcast signal consists of the carrier and its side "ands $hich are
the sum and difference of fre0uencies produced "y the modulating signal. ,or example, if a 5
F48 audio tone modulates a carrier of 1333 F48 the fre0uencies produced after modulation
are,
1arrier: 1333 F48
7pper side "and: 1333 F48 O 5 F48 G 1335 F48
5o$er side "and: 1333 F48 5 F48 G AA5 F48
+hus for the recei'er to property reproduce the modulating signal, the selecting section of the
recei'er has to pass a "and of fre0uencies from AA5 F48 to 1335 F48. +his means that the
selecting section of the recei'er should ha'e a "and $idth of 13 F48. - recei'er more
selecti'e than this, cannot reproduce the entire modulating information. 4ence, the selection
section of the recei'er must pass the 13 F48 "and around the 1333 F48 carrier, "ut it must
reject fre0uencies outside this "and $hich other$ise may ride through the recei'er and heard
as "ackground sounds. 2electi'ity of a recei'er is determined "y the "and$idth of the tuned
circuit in the recei'er. +his in turn depends upon the J of the tuned circuit. 4ence, if the
re0uired selecti'ity cannot "e o"tained "y a single tuned circuit, <due to the limitation in the
'alue of achie'a"le J= the re0uired selecti'ity can "e o"tained "y increasing the num"er of
tuned circuits used in a recei'er as sho$n in ,ig 1. -nother pro"lem in crystal recei'ers is
that it is a"le to recei'e only the near"y transmitting stations and not all the stations in the
!( "and. +his is "ecause the crystal recei'er is not sensiti'e enough to pick up $eak
signals coming from far off transmitting stations.
45
Sensitivit" of a recei'er is the a"ility of the recei'er to respond satisfactorily to $eak signal
'oltages. #n other $ords, sensiti'ity is the minimum signal input 'oltage re0uired to produce a
specified output.
2ensiti'ity of a recei'er is measured in terms of the 'oltage that must "e induced in the
antenna "y electromagnetic signals to de'elop a standard audio output from the amplifier.
+his standard output is ar"itrarily chosen as 53 m(atts.
+he sensiti'ity of "roadcast recei'ers is not more than 133 micro'olt. 7nder most fa'ora"le
conditions, specially designed communication recei'ers ha'e the highest sensiti'ity of the
order of 1 micro'olt. +he lo$er the numerical figure indicated for sensiti'ity, the "etter is the
recei'er. ,or example, if recei'er- is said to ha'e a sensiti'ity of 133 micro 'olts, it means a
minimum of 133 P'olt is necessary for this recei'er to function satisfactorily. #f another
recei'er. is said to ha'e a sensiti'ity of 25 micro 'olts, it means the 25 micro 'olts itself is
sufficient for this recei'er to function satisfactorily. 4ence, recei'er. is more sensiti'e com
pared to recei'er-. +he third pro"lem $ith crystal recei'ers is the poor 0uality of the audio
signal heard from the headphones. +his is "ecause of the lo$ signal le'el at the input and the
poor processing of the detected audio signal "efore it is fed to a loudspeaker.
%i#elit" is the term used to indicate the accuracy of reproduction at the output of the radio
recei'er. ,idelity of a recei'er is the a"ility of the recei'er to truly reproduce the audio signals
transmitted. 7sually it is found that the sound produced "y one radio is different from another
radio. +his is "ecause the radio recei'er may not "e in a position to reproduce all the audio
fre0uency transmitted "y the transmitters. +he fidelity of the recei'er depends on 'arious
factors such as, carrier fre0uency alignment of the recei'er, fre0uency response of the -.,
amplifier and the loudspeaker. - graph sho$ing the fidelity characteristics of a typical radio
recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 2. #deally this graph should "e flat.
A)'IO %REA)ENCY5.ERTB
-nother important parameter associated $ith radio recei'ers, that define the 0uality of the
radio recei'er, is the signal to noise ratio.
46
Signal to noise !atio: #t is the ratio of signal po$er at the output to the noise po$er at the
output at the gi'en &., fre0uency. 7sually the ratio is found out at 'arious fre0uencies in the
gi'en "and and a cur'e is dra$n. +he ratio is al$ays expected to "e 'ery high. #n other $ords
the higher the signaltonoise ratio, the "etter is the radio recei'er.
Limitations o t-e c!"stal !eceive!
1rystal recei'ers are important only during the initial stages of understanding the "asics
"ehind radio recei'ers. 1ommercially crystal recei'ers are not of any use "ecause they suffer
from four major disad'antages. +hey are as follo$s%
5o$ selecti'ity "ecause it has a single tuned circuit. 4ence such a recei'er $ill ha'e
interference from the transmitting stations operating $ith carrier fre0uency close to the
$anted station carrier fre0uency.
5o$ sensiti'ity "ecause it does not ha'e any &, amplification stages to amplify the recei'ed
modulated signal of 'ery lo$ le'els.
5o$ fidelity "ecause it does not ha'e sufficient &, and -, amplifiers and necessary audio
signal processing circuit.
5o$ signaltonoise ratio "ecause the signal le'el is not suita"ly increased nor is there a
circuit to suppress noise. 4ence crystal recei'ers can "e used only in places $hich are 'ery
close to the transmitting stations $here the modulated signals are strong. -lso crystal
recei'ers are used $here sound 0uality is not important.
Tune# Ra#io %!e*uenc" !eceive! /TR% !eceive!1
5imitations in the crystal recei'er can "e largely o'ercome "y $hat are kno$n as +&,
recei'ers. +his type of recei'er essentially consists of a chain of radio fre0uency amplifiers
$hich impro'es the selecti'ity and the sensiti'ity of the radio recei'er. - typical +&, recei'er
is sho$n in ,ig 3.
47
,ig 3a sho$s a +&, recei'er $ith tuned &, amplifiers. ,ig 3" sho$s the circuit of a +&,
recei'er $ith t$o tuned circuit. 2ince t$o tuned circuits are used, the selecti'ity is impro'ed
o'er that of simple crystal recei'er% the sensiti'ity is also impro'ed "ecause $e ha'e
introduced a stage of &, amplification "efore the detector circuit. -lthough theoretically it is
possi"le to further impro'e the sensiti'ity of the recei'er "y adding additional &, amplifier
stages, in practice se'eral pro"lems and difficulties arise if the num"er of &, amplifier stages
is more. 2ome of these difficulties are listed "elo$% .ecause of the insta"ility pro"lem, the
num"er of &, stages that can "e used is limited. #t is practically impossi"le to "uild a 'ery
high gain &., amplifier merely "y connecting se'eral stages together. Each stage is o"'iously
operating at the same fre0uency and it is 'ery easy to ha'e positi'e feed"ack from the latter
stages to the input. E'en though the 'oltage feed"ack may "e 'ery small, "ecause of the
high gain of the amplifier stages, conditions for selfoscillation are almost al$ays present.
+herefore, the amplifier may turn around and $ork as an oscillator. +he other pro"lem is to do
$ith tracking. E'ery stage has its o$n tuned circuit and it is necessary to 'ary the resonant
fre0uency of each tuned circuit in such a $ay that all tuned circuits ha'e the same resonant
fre0uency. -part from the practical difficulty of o"taining ganged capacitors $ith many
sections, the ine'ita"le stray capacitances in the 'arious parts of the circuit upset the
matching of each stage.
+he next pro"lem has to do $ith the fidelity of the final audio output. -lthough addition of
each tuned circuit impro'es the selecti'ity, and results in excellent sensiti'ity, the o'erall
response "ecomes 'ery sharp. #t is as though a single tuned circuit $ith an extremely high J
'alue is "eing used. #n order to recei'e the transmitted program information, a recei'er $hich
can respond, not only to the carrier, "ut also to the side"ands is re0uired. -s the recei'er
"ecomes more and more selecti'e, the side "ands get eliminated increasingly. +herefore, the
audio fre0uency response "ecomes restricted. -lthough the a"o'e dra$"acks se'erely limit
the use of +&,recei'ers these recei'ers are used in some applications in $hich the radio
recei'er is expected to recei'e only a fe$ stations and is used sparingly. +he ad'antages of
+&, radio recei'ers o'er crystal recei'ers are% .etter selecti'ity, .etter sensiti'ity, impro'ed
signal to noise ratio.
TR% !eceive!s using integ!ate# ci!cuits
#ntegrated circuits such as TL414 and TL41 ? <"y ,erranti= are a'aila"le commercially for
constructing +&, recei'ers. - simple circuit of a +&, recei'er using TL414 and TL41? is
sho$n in ,ig 4. +he electromagnetic/radio $a'es are concentrated $ithin the ?Ux3/;U ferrite
rod around $hich is $ound ?3 turns of thin insulated $ire. +he type of $ire is not important,
"ut the num"er of turns should "e close together and $ound
48
in the same direction. +he 'aria"le capacitor should "e of solid dielectric type. +he layout for
the circuit is not critical, "ut the leads should "e kept as short as possi"le. +he output could
"e fed to a high 0uality, lo$ impedance headphone using any speaker transformer or a po$er
amplifier can "e dri'en using the output. +his recei'er is "est suita"le for microsi8ed radio
recei'ers fitted right on the headphone itself.
49
S)$ER.ETRO'YNE RECEI:ER 5 CON:ERTER STA3E
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. explain the process of heterodyning
2. state the name gi'en to radio recei'ers $hich adopt the principle of heterodyning
3. sketch the different "locks of a super heterodyne recei'er
4. explain the difference "et$een a mixture and a con'erter circuit in a radio recei'er
5. explain the principle of the $orking of a con'erter stage in a superhet recei'er
?. sketch circuit of con'erter stage of a superhet recei'er
@. explain the function of #,+ in a superhet recei'ers
;. state the gain of the #, amplifier compared to the o'erall gain of the recei'er
50
+he limitations that exist in +&, recei'ers are o'ercome in $hat are called the su&e!
-ete!o#"ne radio recei'ers.
.ete!o#"ning
4eterodyning is a process of mixing or "eating together t$o signals of different fre0uencies to
produce a set of ne$ fre0uencies. +he resultant output of this mixing contains% the t$o
original input signal fre0uencies, the sum and difference of the fre0uencies of the t$o input
signals.
,ig 1 illustrates the 'arious fre0uencies in'ol'ed in the process of heterodyning.
-s sho$n in ,ig 1, if the t$o fre0uencies to the so called mixer is ?33 F48 and 1355 F48, the
output $ill contain signals of fre0uencies,
V ?33 F48
V 1355 F48
V1355 F48 O ?33 F48 G 1?55 F48
V 1355 F48 ?33 F48 G 455 F48.
+he ne$ signal so produced $hich is e0ual to the difference in the t$o fre0uencies <455 F48=
is of importance in radio recei'ers. +his fre0uency <455 F48= is referred to as the
#ntermediate ,re0uency <#,=. #n a radio recei'er, such a mixer circuit is used to shift do$n the
recei'ed carrier fre0uency "efore amplification and detection.
NOTE: -lthough such a circuit is referred to as a mixer in radio recei'ers, in reality, it is a true
modulator. +he term mixer $as pro"a"ly first used to a'oid its association $ith the
transmitter.
&adio recei'ers $hich make use of the heterodyne principle are called super heterodyne
radio recei'ers. ,ig 2 sho$s the 'arious "locks of a super heterodyne recei'er.
51
- super heterodyne recei'er consists of,
a ferrite rod aerial to pick up the transmission signals, an oscillator and a mixer. +he
fre0uency of the oscillator is set such that, the difference "et$een the incoming carrier
fre0uency and the oscillator fre0uency is al$ays the same <intermediate fre0uency or #,=.
+his difference or #, is generally chosen to "e 455 F48. one or t$o stages of amplification of
the intermediate fre0uency signal, a detector to reco'er the audio information, an audio
amplifier stage to dri'e a loud speaker.
!ost of the dra$"acks of +&, radio recei'er are o'ercome in a superheterodyne radio
recei'er "ecause of the follo$ing reasons%
+he superheterodyne recei'er con'erts all incoming station carrier fre0uencies to a fixed
intermediate fre0uency <455 F48=. +he #, amplifiers that follo$ contri"ute 2/3 or more of the
total gain of the recei'er
+he high gain is due to the fact that these amplifiers are designed to amplify signals of a 'ery
narro$ range of fre0uencies <narro$ "and$idth= around the intermediate fre0uency. 2ince
the re0uired "and$idth of #, amplifiers is only 13 F48 <R 5 F48= the gain of these #,
amplifiers $ill "e 'ery high<9ain "and$idth product=. 4ence, the superheterodyne exhi"its
increased sensiti'ity, sta"ility and selecti'ity.
#mmaterial of the station carrier fre0uencies recei'ed, since the #, is fixed, there is no
tracking pro"lem as each tuned circuit o"'iously needs to "e tuned to one fre0uency. 4ence,
no 'aria"le capacitor is re0uired in the amplifier stages.
+he sta"ility pro"lems are minimi8ed "ecause% the feed"ack pro"lem at the lo$er
intermediate fre0uency is much less than at the higher carrier fre0uency.
2electi'ity is impro'ed "ecause of the use se'eral tuned circuits.
#n spite of higher selecti'ity, the superheterodyne does not suffer from the degradation of
audio 0uality <inherent to highly selecti'e circuit in +&, recei'ers=. +his is "ecause a "and
pass response close to the ideal is possi"le in a superheterodyne recei'er. +his is achie'ed
"y using #, transformers. .y 'arying the coupling "et$een the primary and secondary coils of
the #, transformer <1,+= it is possi"le to o"tain an excellent response in that part of the
fre0uency range $hich includes the carrier and the side"ands. -t the same time, the #,+
discriminates sharply against adjacent carrier signals. +his is illustrated in ,ig 3. ,ig 3a sho$s
the expected ideal "andpass response cur'e for a radio. ,ig 3" sho$s almost the near ideal
52
response in a superheterodyne recei'er using #,+s. 2ince the response is determined mainly
"y the characteristics of the #,+, the mutual inductance of the #,+ is so adjusted as to "e
greater than the critical 'alue. +hen the response $ill "e close to that of an ideal recei'er as
sho$n in ,ig 3a.
T-e Mi7e! o! t-e Conve!te! stage
#ntermediate fre0uency in a superheterodyne radio recei'er is produced in the mixer stage or
con'erter circuit <see note "elo$=. - typical con'erter stage of a super heterodyne recei'er is
sho$n in ,ig 4. #n most transistor radio recei'ers only one transistor ser'es as "oth local
oscillator and the mixer. (hen this type of circuit is used, it is called as a 1)L6E&+E&
instead of mixer. 2ometimes the oscillator/mixer circuit is referred to as the first detector
"ecause it changes the carrier to a lo$er fre0uency.
53
#n ,ig 4, one of the inputs to the con'erter $ill "e the modulated &, signal corresponding to a
radio station and the other input is from an oscillator $hose output fre0uency is 455 F48
more than the modulated &, carrier signal input to $hich the recei'er is tuned. +he oscillator
is generally called as the local oscillator. +he signal output of the con'erter is held constant at
the intermediate fre0uency <#,= of 455 F48 regardless of the modulated &, fre0uency to
$hich recei'er tuned. +his is achie'ed "y synchroni8ing the tuning of the oscillator and the
preselector circuit <antenna tuning= using a gang capacitor.
Example: #n the con'erter circuit sho$n in ,ig 4, if the antenna section is tuned $ith the help
of the ganged capacitor to recei'e A53 F48, then the oscillator circuit gets simultaneously
tuned to 1435 F48 <A53 O 455 F48=. 4ence, the output of the con'erter $ill "e,
<1=A53 F48
<2=1435 F48
<3=2355 F48
<4= 455 F48.
+he collector tank circuit of the con'erter is tuned to #, of 455 F48 $hich is one of the
a'aila"le fre0uency component after mixing/heterodyning. #f the antenna section <pre
selector= of ,ig 4 is tuned to @;3 F48, then, the common gang tunes the oscillator fre0uency
to 123; F48 <@;3O455=. 4ence the output of the con'erter $ill "e,
<1=@;3 F48
<2=123; F48
<3=2321 F48
<4=455 F48.
2ince the collector tank circuit of the con'erter is tuned to #, of 455 F48 $hich is again one of
the a'aila"le fre0uency components after mixing/heterodyning.
$!inci&le o +o!@ing o t-e conve!te! stage
+he functions of the con'ertor stage of a superheterodyne radio recei'er sho$n in ,ig 4 are%
1 #ntercept the re0uired modulated &, signal to $hich it is tuned.
2 -mplify the $eak &, signal intercepted "y the antenna.
3 1on'ert the recei'ed &, signal to intermediate fre0uency <455 F48= $ithout any change in
the shape of its en'elope.
+he con'ertor in the a"o'e circuit is a &, amplifier using a &, transistor. +he amplifier has
tuned circuits in its "ase, emitter and collector. Except for the #,+ $hich is permanently tuned
to 455 F48, other tuned circuits ha'e 'aria"le capacitors $hich are ganged <sho$n in dotted
lines=. 4ence, these tuned circuits are tuned simultaneously. +he tuned circuit in the "ase has
an antenna coil $ound o'er a ferrite rod and connected across the 'aria"le capacitor. +he
tuned circuit in the emitter has an oscillator coil across $hich is the ganged 'aria"le
capacitor. +he oscillator coil has a secondary $inding $hich is connected to the collector of
the transistor. +he secondary $inding of the oscillator coil helps in pro'iding the re0uired
positi'e feed"ack necessary for the local oscillator. +he !( oscillator coil $ill ha'e a
mo'a"le ferrite core as sho$n in ,ig 5.
54
#n superheterodyne radio recei'ers, the tuned circuits must "e correctly tuned for any station
to "e recei'ed. +he local oscillator must al$ays "e tuned for a fre0uency $hich is greater
than the recei'ed fre0uency "y an amount e0ual to intermediate fre0uency. #f there is any
small de'iation it results in $hat is kno$n as tracking errors. +o minimi8e tracking errors,
additional semi'aria"le capacitors are connected in parallel to the 'aria"le capacitors as
sho$n in the circuit at ,ig 4. +hese semi'aria"le capacitors are called +rimmers. ,ig ?
sho$s a typical gang capacitors and trimmers.
(hene'er a station is tuned in, "y 'arying the gang capacitor, the preselector or antenna 51
circuit goes into resonance at the desired station fre0uency. +he 'oltage at this instant $ill "e
maximum across the tuned circuit and this 'oltage is applied to the "ase of the &, transistor
J
1
. -t the same time the tuned circuit in the oscillator gets tuned <simultaneously due to the
ganged capacitor= to a fre0uency 455 F48 more than the recei'ed fre0uency. #f the desired
station fre0uency is xxx F48 then the oscillator tank is tuned to xxx F48 O 455 F48.
+he &, signal at the "ase and the local oscillator fre0uency at the emitter are then mixed or
heterodyned. -t the collector of the transistor is a'aila"le the signals of fre0uency
components corresponding to the tuned station fre0uency, the oscillator fre0uency and the
sum and difference of these t$o fre0uencies. 2ince the intermediate fre0uency transformer
55
to #,+<tuned circuit= is tuned to 455 F48, across the secondary of the #,+ is a'aila"le an
output of only 455 F48.
+his #, signal en'elop $ill "e exactly the same as that of the amplitude modulated carrier
$a'e intercepted "y the antenna, except that, the carrier fre0uency is do$nshifted to 455
F48 +he intermediate fre0uency thus produced is then connected to one or more #, amplifier
stages for further amplification as sho$n in ,ig @.
+he #, amplifiers pro'ide more than 2/3 of the total gain that the signal gets in the recei'er.
*epending on the re0uirement the num"er of #, amplifier stages can "e increased. 9enerally
a simple transistor radio $ill ha'e three #, stages including the con'erter stage. +he amplified
#, signal is detected using a diode detector <as in the case of a crystal recei'er= as sho$n in
,ig ;. +he &, carrier component is remo'ed using a /#Esection filter <as discussed in crystal
recei'er=. +he detected audio signal is amplified using transistors or an integrated circuit
audio amplifier. 2ome of the most common types of audio amplifiers used in commercial
radio recei'ers are gi'en in ,ig A. +he amplified audio generally of the order of a fe$ $atts is
then fed to a speaker of suita"le $attage rating. 2ince the transmitted audio signal has a
"road spectrum <up to 15 F48=, generally a single $ide range dual cone speaker is used in
-! radio recei'ers. #t is of course possi"le to use a crosso'er net$ork and feed the
amplified audio to a separate $oofer, midrange and t$eeter to get a "etter audio reception.
56
57
S)$ER.ETERO'YNE RECEI:ER 5 'ETECTOR STA3EC
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. state the function of the detector stage in -! recei'er
2. sketch the detector circuit in -! recei'ers
3. explain the $orking of the detector stage
4. explain $hy -61 is necessary in recei'ers
5. explain the $orking of -91 in recei'ers
?. state the difference "et$een single tuned and dou"le tuned #,+s
@. state the "and$idth of #,+s used in recei'ers
8. 5ist the t$o most popular types of #,+s in the market.
58
'emo#ulation o! 'etection in Su&e!-et !eceive!s
+he function of a radio recei'er is to reproduce the original modulating audio fre0uency signal
from the selected modulated &f carrier $a'e. +he process of separating or o"taining this
audio signal from the modulated rf $a'e is called demodulation or detection.
#n a superheterodyne <a""re'iated as superhet= recei'er discussed in the pre'ious lesson the
con'erter stage shiftsdo$n the recei'ed station carrier fre0uency, to a lo$er fre0uency called
the intermediate fre0uency. +he most important point to note is that, although the do$nshift
of the fre0uency takes place in the mixer, the shape of the original en'elope $hich actually is
the information is not distur"ed. +herefore, detecting either the original carrier<as in +&,
recei'ers= or detecting the do$nshifted #, carrier<455 F48= makes no difference as far as
getting "ack the actual modulating audio information is concerned. +his is sho$n in ,ig 1.
#n superhet recei'ers the amplitude modulated signal #, carrier after suita"le amplification at
the #, amplifier stages $ill "e detected/demodulated to get "ack the audio signal. #t can "e
seen from ,ig 1 that, the positi'e half cycle of the modulated $a'e or the negati'e half cycle
of the modulated $a'e has the same information. 4ence, if one side of the $a'e <O'e side or
the W'e side= is extracted, the modulating information can "e o"tained. +he first step in
detection is getting "ack the audio information either from the positi'e side or the negati'e
side of the modulated $a'e. +his is done easily "y simple rectification using a diode. +his is
illustrated in ,ig 2.
59
+he half$a'e rectified output sho$n in ,ig 2 contains the rectified #, <455 F48 and the audio
information.
+he second step in detection is that the carrier fre0uency component in the detected $a'e
has to "e eliminated. +his is done using a capacitor filter. +he lo$ 'alue capacitor pro'ides a
lo$ resistance path for the high fre0uency #, carrier <455 F48= thus grounding #, fre0uency.
!ean$hile, the <lo$ 'alue= capacitors offer high impedance to the lo$ fre0uency audio signal,
thus pre'enting it from getting grounded. #n this manner the #, carrier fre0uency is filtered to
get only the audio signal 'ariations across the load resistor of the diode. &eferring to ,ig 2,
the detector diode used could "e a germanium or silicon diode. 9enerally germanium diode
is used "ecause of lo$ drop. #n ,ig 2", the output of last #,+ is the input 'oltage to the
cathode of the detector diode. (hen the ac <#, signal= input to the cathode is negati'e, diode
current flo$s. Lo current can flo$ $hen the cathode is positi'e. +hus the circuit $orks like a
half $a'e rectifier. +he output of the detector is, therefore, the negati'e en'elope of the #,
signals as sho$n in ,ig 2". ,ig 2a is similar to ,ig 2" except that the detector diode is
re'ersed. 4ence the detected output $ill "e the positi'e en'elope of the #, signal. (hen
detector diode conducts, current is made to flo$ through a load resistor. #n most recei'ers
this load resistor happens to "e the 'olume control potentiometer <&12= of the radio recei'er.
+he filter section is a high fre0uency <#,= filter consisting of t$o small 'alue capacitors <13
Fp, capacitor= and a resistor as sho$n in ,ig 2. +he capacitors 11? and 11@ "ypass the #,
carrier <455 F48= from the audio output. +he audio signal through a potentiometer is then fed
to an audio amplifier through a large 'alue capacitor for further amplification and finally fed to
the loudspeaker.
#t is important to note that the detector circuit in a radio recei'er $orks $ithout the need of a
*1 po$er supply. +he polarity of a'erage *1 'oltage at the detector output depends on ho$
the anode and cathode of the detector diode are connected.
60
Automatic :olume Cont!ol /A:C1 o! Automatic 3ain Cont!ol /A3C1
#n simple terms -91 or -61 is a type of feed"ack. -61 or -91 is used in radio recei'ers to
compensate for the fluctuations in the strength of the recei'ed radio signals. -61 is
particularly important in radios used in motor cars since the radio recei'er is mo'ing "et$een
places $here the signal strength may 'ary considera"ly. -utomatic 'olume control <-61= is a
simple &1 filter circuit as sho$n in dotted lines in ,ig 3. +his circuit is incorporated in radio
recei'ers to automatically control the gain of #, amplifiers according to the strength of signals
recei'ed at the antenna. +his gain control pre'ents o'erload distortion due to strong signal
strengths recei'ed. +his means, $hen the recei'ed signal strength at the antenna is
maximum, the -61 circuit has to produce such a le'el of -61 "ias 'oltage $hich reduces the
gain of the #, amplifier stages of the recei'er. - simple -61 circuit used in -! recei'ers is
sho$n in ,ig 3. #t is important to note that the -61 "ias is al$ays of such polarity that it
reduces the amplifier gain. +his means that a $eak signal produces less -61 "ias, and
hence, the recei'er gain is not reduced much. #n this manner the -61 "ias controls the
recei'er gain ensuring almost constant le'el of audio output for stations $ith different signal
strength. +he ad'antage of -61 in a recei'er is that, the le'el of audio output remains almost
constant e'en though the recei'er is tuned from one station to the other or mo'ed from one
place to another<$hile tra'eling in a 'ehicle=. - more general name for this process of
automatic 'olume control is -91 or automatic gain control "ecause it controls the gain of #,
amplifier stages.
3ene!ating A:C bias in !a#io !eceive!s
-s sho$n in ,ig 3, in most -! radio recei'ers, the output of the diode detector itself is used
to supply the -61 "ias instead of a separate diode for -61. 2ince the detected signal has
"oth *1 and -1 components, the detector output can ha'e t$o separate *1 and -1 paths
$ith completely different functions. +he a'erage *1 'oltage across the 'olume control
potentiometer <acting as the load resistor for the rectifier= is proportional to the signal
61
strength. +herefore, this *1 'oltage can "e used for -61 "ias after filtering off the all ac
components. &
;
and 1
14
forms the -61 filter. 1apacitor 1
14
is used to "ypass the audio
signal. +he time constant of this &1 filter is long enough for filtering out the audio signal from
the -61 "ias line, "ut fast enough to allo$ the -61 "ias 'oltage to change $hen tuned to
different stations. #t is important to reali8e that the -61 function does not interfere $ith the
a"ility of the detector to pro'ide an audio output signal to further audio amplifier stages. +he
audio signal and the -61 "ias line are in t$o separate paths. +he detected -1 signal is fed to
a amplifier for suita"le amplification and then to a loud speaker. +he -61 circuit just uses the
dc component of the detected output $hich is proportional to the #, signal le'el.
+he #, amplifier $hich precedes the detector stage is nothing "ut tuned high fre0uency
amplifier $hich uses a tank circuit at its collector. +he special type of transformer $hich
forms the tank circuit of #, an amplifier stage is kno$n as intermediate fre0uency transformer
<#,+=.
Inte!me#iate %!e*uenc" T!anso!me!s /I%Ts1
#ntermediate fre0uency transformers or #,+s are essentially either dou"le tuned <tuned at
"oth primary and secondary= or single tuned <tuned at primary only= parallel resonant circuits.
#, transformers are used to selecti'ely amplify the intermediate fre0uency signals in radio
recei'ers. +he "and$idths of #, transformers are 'ery narro$. ,or instance, the "and$idth of
#,+s used in -! radio recei'er is around 23 F48 only. +herefore it allo$s only fre0uency
components in the range "et$een 455 F48 13 F48 to 455 F48 O 13 F48 only.
+he electrical e0ui'alent, selecti'ity cur'e and parts of a typical metal can #,+ are sho$n in
,ig 4.
62
+he po$dered iron core of #,+s can "e mo'ed up and do$n. +his causes the coupling <!=
"et$een the primary and the secondary $indings to 'ary, and thus the resonant fre0uency of
the transformer. -s can "e seen from ,ig 2c, an air core ceramic capacitor is permanently
connected across the primary $indings <1 3= of the #,+. +his type of #,+ ha'ing only one
capacitor across the primary is kno$n as single tuned #,+. 2ingle tuned #,+s are commonly
used in transistor radio recei'ers. #,+s are also a'aila"le ha'ing dou"le tuning $ith t$o slugs
or t$o trimmers. +hese are also referred to as dou"le tuned or uni'ersal type #,+s. ,ig 4d
sho$s typical uni'ersal #,+s.
#,+s are a'aila"le in different si8es and colors <of core=. -mongst a'aila"le types, the most
popular are the long can type and the short can type. *ifferent manufacturers of #,+s use
different colour schemes for #,+s. +he details can "e o"tained from the manufacturer>s
"ooklet. +$o such colour schemes generally follo$ed "y #ndian manufacturers are gi'en
"elo$.
NOTE: +he a"o'e colour scheme may not necessarily "e follo$ed "y all manufacturers.
#,+s used in transistor -! recei'ers $ill ha'e t$o ro$s of pins for connection as sho$n in ,ig
4a. +he ro$ ha'ing three pins is the primary $inding. +he ro$ $ith t$o pins is the secondary
$inding of the #,+.
+he follo$ing ta"le gi'es the approximate *1 resistance of the $indings of the three #,+s
used in transistor radio recei'ers. +his information is useful for checking the #,+s "efore using
it in the recei'er circuit.
'C RESISTANCE O% I%T ,IN'IN3S
TI$: #n some cores #,+s and oscillator coils look alike. +he t$o tips gi'en "elo$ may help you
to differentiate "et$een them:
X#,+s generally ha'e a miniature capacitor connected. 5ook "elo$ the #,+ 1an to find them.
)scillator coils $ill not ha'e this capacitor.
D#,+s are generally made of metallic 1an. )scillator coils generally $ill ha'e plastic 1an or
$ill not ha'e any can.
63
S)$ER.ETERO'YNE RECEI:ER 5 I% AM$LI%IERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. explain the term image fre0uency interference
2. list the possi"le methods of pre'enting image fre0uency interference and its
conse0uence in -! recei'ers
3. state the meaning of tracking in -! recei'ers
4. list the factors influencing the choice of intermediate fre0uency
5. state the standard fre0uency of #, in -! "roadcast recei'ers
?. sketch the circuit of an #, amplifier stage in a recei'er
@. sketch the circuit of generating -91 and controlling gain of #, amplifiers
;. explain the ad'antages of cascaded #, stages in impro'ing selecti'ity and reducing
adjacent channel interference
9. 2tate the meaning of #, alignment.
64
Inte!me#iate %!e*uenc" am&liie!s o! I% am&liie!s
+he main o"jecti'e of ha'ing #, amplifiers in radio recei'ers are to a'oid the 'arying
selecti'ity and gain at different recei'ed fre0uencies as in a +&, recei'er. +his is achie'ed "y
the use of #, amplifiers "ecause, #, amplifiers $ork at a fixed fre0uency of 455 F48
immaterial of the carrier fre0uency to $hich the recei'er is tuned. 4ence superhet recei'ers
$ill ha'e almost constant gain and good selecti'ity for all the stations to $hich the recei'er is
tuned.
Image %!e*uenc" inte!e!ence
-ssume t$o "roadcasting stations are transmitting at t$o different fre0uencies say, ;33 F48
and 1@13 F48 respecti'ely. 2uppose a recei'er is tuned to the station "roadcasting at ;33
F48, then the local oscillator produces a fre0uency of 1255 F48 <;33 F48 O 455 F48 G 1255
F48= for an #, of 455 F48. 2uppose, an undesired station transmitting at 1@13 F48 happens
to reach the mixer input, then, the local oscillator fre0uency of 1255 F48 also can mix $ith
this undesired signal of 1@13 F48 and produces #, of 455 F48 <1@13 F48 1255 F48 G 455
F48=. +his results in t$o signals of 455 F48 reaching the #, stage for amplification. +his is
illustrated in ,ig 1.
2ince the #, amplifiers amplify all signals in the fre0uency range of 455 F48, "oth the station
signals get amplified and are a'aila"le for detection. (hen these signals are detected and
further amplified "y the audio amplifiers, the audio signals so produced $ill "e a mix of the
information "roadcasted from the t$o stations. +his causes confusion and unintelligi"le
information. +his phenomenon is called image fre0uency interference. +he un$anted
fre0uency of 1@13 F48 is called the image fre0uency. +he effect of image fre0uency
interference is sho$n in ,ig 1. #mage fre0uency interference is one major disad'antage of
superheterodyne recei'er operation.
+he pro"lem of image fre0uency interference possi"ilities of minimi8ing it and its
conse0uences are listed "elo$%
D#mage fre0uencies can "e pre'ented "y using highly selecti'e &, amplifier circuits.
4o$e'er, inclusion of &, stage in commercial radio recei'ers $ill "e 0uite expensi'e. -lso
high selecti'ity may result in choppingoff of a portion of the recei'ed side "ands.
65
D.y making the intermediate fre0uency <#,= 'alue as high as possi"le such that the image
fre0uencies are outside the &, "and of the recei'er.
4o$e'er, if the 'alue of #, is 'ery high then the selecti'ity $ill "e such that, un$anted &,
signal from an adjacent station $ill also "e picked up resulting in an another type of
interference. +his is called adjacent channel interference. #n addition, a high 'alue of #,
results in tracking difficulties. 4ence the #, cannot "e 'ery high also.
NOTE: +racking is the a"ility of tuning the local oscillator fre0uency exactly 455 F48 a"o'e
the &, carrier fre0uency. *etails are discussed in lessons that follo$.
,rom a"o'e, it is e'ident that choice of fre0uency for the intermediate fre0uency <#,= of a
recei'ing system is a compromise, since there are reasons $hy it should "e neither lo$ nor
high, nor in a certain range "et$een the t$o. +he follo$ing are the major factors influencing
the choice of the intermediate fre0uency in any particular system% #f the intermediate
fre0uency is too high, poor selecti'ity and poor adjacent channel rejection results unless
sharp cut off <e.g. crystal filters= filters are used in the #, stages. - high 'alue of intermediate
fre0uency increases tracking difficulties. -s the intermediate fre0uency is lo$ered, image
fre0uency rejection "ecomes poorer. +his is "ecause, rejection is impro'ed as the ratio of
image fre0uency to signal fre0uency is increased, and this, naturally, re0uires a high #,. -
'ery lo$ intermediate fre0uency can make the selecti'ity too sharp, cutting off the side
"ands. +his pro"lem arises "ecause, J must "e lo$ $hen #, is lo$, and hence the gain per
stage is lo$. +hus a designer is more likely to raise the J than to increase the num"er of #,
amplifiers. #f the #, is 'ery lo$, the fre0uency sta"ility of the local oscillator must "e made
correspondingly higher "ecause any fre0uency drift is no$ a larger proportion of the lo$ #,
than of a high #,. +he intermediate fre0uency must not fall $ithin the tuning range of the
recei'er, or else insta"ility $ill occur and heterodyne $histles $ill "e heard, making it
impossi"le to tune to the fre0uency "and immediately adjacent to the intermediate fre0uency.
Stan#a!#iEe# Inte!me#iate %!e*uencies /I%1
+he criterion for choosing a suita"le intermediate fre0uency in addition to the points
mentioned in the paragraphs a"o'e is that, the #, 'alue should not coincide $ith the
fre0uency of any po$erful radio station or ser'ice or its harmonics. (ith the a"o'e in mind
the follo$ing #, 'alues ha'e "een standardi8ed "y the Electronic #ndustries -ssociation <E#-=
for different types of recei'ers $hich are used throughout the $orld%
T"&e o !eceive! I% value
,or -! recei'ers <for 455 F48
.roadcast "and of 535 F48
to 25 !48=.
,or ,! recei'ers <for "road 13.@ !48
1ast "and of ;; !48 to 13; !48=.
,o!@ing o I% am&liie! stages
- typical transistor #, amplifier circuit is sho$n in ,ig 2. ,ig 2 sho$s t$o #, amplifier stages
using three #, transformers. +he reason for three #,+s is, the con'erter circuit after mixing the
-! signal and the local oscillator output produces #, signal. 4ence, the collector tank circuit
also needs an #, transformer. +he succeeding t$o #, amplifiers use one #,+ each at its
collector. +he o'erall gain of the t$o #, stages $ill "e typically 133 x 133 G 13,333. +his
66
means that a 3.2m6 of an #, signal from the mixer output is amplified to 2 'olts and fed to the
detector stage.
-s can "e seen from ,ig 2, the output of the con'erter is connected to the transistor J
2
through the first #, transformer #,+
1
. +his #,+
1
allo$s only 455 F48 signal to "e coupled to the
next stage $hile rejecting all other fre0uencies. +his coupled #, signal is amplified "y J
2
and
further coupled to transistor J
3
through #,+
2
tuned again to 455 F48. -fter the second stage
of amplification "y J
3
, the output is a'aila"le at the secondary of #,+
3
for detection and further
audio signal amplification.
T-e A:C bias to cont!ol gain o I% am&liie!
&ecall that the -61 "ias line coming from the diode detector stage has such a polarity $hich
is intended to reduce the gain of the &, or the #, amplifier gain $hen the recei'ed &, signal
strength "ecomes higher.
+he -61 "ias 'oltage controlling the gain of the first #, amplifier stage in a simple commercial
recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 3.
67
-s the signal le'el at the antenna "ecomes more due to stronger/near "y stations, the -61
"ias "ecomes stronger <more 'e=. +his 'e 'oltage connected to the "ase of the first #,
amplifier < J
2
= reduces the for$ard "ias of J
2
resulting in less gain of the stage. )n the other
hand $hen the signal recei'ed is 'ery $eak the 'e -61 is so lo$ that it does not reduce the
for$ard "ias of J
2
retaining the original gain of that #, stage.
Nee# o! casca#e# I% stages in a !a#io !eceive!
Excellent selecti'ity in superheterodyne recei'ers is a result of the #, 'alue "eing less than
the &, signal and the
gain of the #, amplifiers o"tained in cascaded stages. -s an example, assume that a recei'er
is tuned to 1333 F48 and there is an interfering station at 1353 F48. +he 53 F48 separation
"et$een the stations is only 53/1333 or 5Q of the resonant fre0uency in a circuit tuned to
1333 F48. 4o$e'er at the #, of 455 F48, the same 53 F48 separation is 53/455 $hich is
a"out 13Q. -ssume that the undesired fre0uency <1353 F48= has a gain of 23Q in one #,
stage. +his e0uals 23Q response $hen compared to the 133Q response for 455 F48 signal.
&emem"er that the o'erall gain is multiplied $ith cascaded stages. ,or a t$o stage #,
amplification, the o'erall gain for the 455 F48 signal is 133 Y 133 G 13,333 at 133Q
response. -t the undesired fre0uency, the o'erall gain $ill "e 23 Y 23 G 433. 1ompared to
13,333, the gain of 433 is only 4Q of the response for the t$o stages. +hus "y cascaded #,
stages, the relati'e gain for the undesired fre0uency is reduced 23Q from the output of first
stage to a o'erall of 4Q at the output of the second stage. ,rom a"o'e it is clear that, more
the num"er of stages of #, the "etter is the selecti'ity, and hence, "etter is the adjacent
channel rejection. #t is important to note that the o'erall gain of the #, amplifier depends on
the coupling "et$een the stages. 4ence all the #,+s should necessarily "e tuned to 455 F48.
,or the purpose of tuning, the #,+s ha'e adjusta"le/ mo'a"le core $hich can "e mo'ed
up/do$n using a special type of small scre$dri'er kno$n as the #, alignment scre$dri'er.
I% alignment
+he process of tuning #,+s <$hich is nothing "ut mo'ing up/do$n the core of the #,+s= in a
predetermined se0uence, in order to achie'e maximum output from the #, stage at the
re0uired #, of 455 F48 is referred to as #, alignment.
#, alignment "egins $ith the tuning of the last #, transformer #,+3 such that maximum
output is deli'ered to the detector at the correct #, fre0uency of 455 F48. ,urther it is $orked
"ack$ardstuning the second #,+ and then the first #,+.
68
69
S)$ER.ETERO'YNE RECEI:ER 5 MIFER/CON:ERTER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
5ist the disad'antages of omitting &, amplifier stage in commercial recei'ers
1. sketch the con'erter stage of a radio recei'er and explain the function of each
component
2. explain the construction of medium $a'e antenna circuit
3. explain the limitations in the tuna"le range due to the capacitance ratio of 'aria"le
gang capacitor
4. state the type of transistor used in the con'erter stage $ith reason
5. explain ho$ oscillator tracking is done in recei'ers
?. explain $hy oscillator fre0uency is not chosen to "e less than carrier fre0uency
@. 2tate the use of padder capacitor and an alternati'e to padder in tank circuits.
70
%RONT EN' o AM !a#io !eceive!s
-n -! radio recei'er can "e di'ided into three major sections namely,
the 4igh ,re0uency section <4,=
the #ntermediate ,re0uency section <#,= and
the 5o$ ,re0uency section <5,=
+he high fre0uency section is also referred to as the front end of the recei'er. +he front end of
a -! recei'er consist of one or more high fre0uency amplifier or &, amplifier. #ts function is
to amplify the $eak signals recei'ed from the antenna. .ut not all recei'ers $ill ha'e &,
amplifiers at their front end. +his is "ecause it increases the recei'er cost. #nstead, most
commercial recei'ers $ill ha'e a mixer or con'erter at the front end. +he disad'antages of
omitting &, amplifiers are%
loss of sensiti'ity
reduced selecti'ity
poor signaltonoise ratio
increased signal radiation from the oscillator to the antenna.
2pecial purpose communication recei'ers such as satellite recei'ers use &, amplifier stages.
+his is "ecause% such recei'ers cannot compromise sensiti'ity for cost. 1ommercial radio
recei'ers on the other hand do make a compromise of sensiti'ity to reduce the cost. 4ence,
commercial recei'ers use a mixer directly at the front end. - typical mixer circuit is sho$n in
,ig 1. +he follo$ing o"ser'ations can "e made from the a"o'e mixer circuit. +he circuit is a
tuned input, tuned output, common emitter, classes -, small signal amplifier. +he input is
tuna"le "y the 'aria"le capacitor across the antenna tank circuit o'er the fre0uency range of
535 F48 to 1?35 F48. )"ser'ing the circuit at ,ig 1, the circuit has t$o input signals. )ne
signal $hich is a modulated &,, is coming from the antenna and $ill mix $ith the signal
coming from the local oscillator. +he output is tuned to the intermediate fre0uency. +he local
oscillator circuit found in -! radio recei'ers is a sine $a'e oscillator. 4artley and -rmstrong
oscillator circuits are the most common as local oscillatorsZ "ecause% it is easier to 'ary the
capacitance for tuning the oscillator fre0uency rather than to 'ary the inductance.
Lot all recei'er front ends are as refined as the one sho$n in ,ig 1. -gain the reason is
increased cost. - modified front end in $hich the mixer is com"ined $ith the local oscillator is
sho$n in ,ig 2. (hen the mixer and the oscillator circuit use the same transistor, then the
circuit is called a 1)L6E&+E& instead of a mixer. .y making one circuit to perform se'eral
functions, it $ill do so at the expense of 0uality. 4o$e'er keeping in mind the cost in'ol'ed,
the 0uality is compromised to some extent, in commercial recei'er circuits. .ut, it is 'ery
important to note that, any in'estment in the recei'er front end is a justifia"le proposition.
T-e conve!te! o! !e*uenc"5conve!te!
- practical fre0uency con'erter circuit of a typical -! transistor radio is sho$n in ,ig 2. +he
functions of the components are summari8ed "elo$%
L< 5 Antenna coil +it- e!!ite !o#
*epending upon the fre0uency "and, a suita"le antenna coil is used. ,or instance, for
medium $a'e<!66= "and<535 F48 to 1?35 F48= a medium $a'e antenna coil is used.
71
!( antenna coil is made of a thin gauge insulated copper $ire $ound on an insulated
former, generally made of paper or plastic. +his coil consists of t$o $indings as sho$n in ,ig
3.
-s sho$n in ,ig 2, one end of the primary $inding ha'ing larger num"er of turns if re0uired
can "e connected to an external antenna. +he primary $inding of a medium $a'e coil has a
72
*1 resistance of approximately ? ohms. +he secondary $inding ha'ing lesser num"er of
turns is connected to the "ase of the con'erter transistor. +he secondary $inding of the
antenna coil $ill ha'e a *1 resistance of approximately 3.5 ohms. +he antenna coil is slipped
o'er a ferrite rod made of !anganese 8inc. +his ferrite rod $orks like an excellent antenna
"ecause of its high permea"ility and lo$ resisti'ity. 4ence, in pocket recei'ers the need of an
external antenna is eliminated. - ferrite rod is generally a round rod a'aila"le $ith a
dimension of ?U length x 3/;U dia. 4o$e'er, ferrite rods of rectangular shapes and smaller
si8es are also a'aila"le.
C
;A
3ange# R% tuning va!iable ca&acito! an# C
2
T!imme!
2ince the front end of the recei'er has to tune to different stations, a 'aria"le capacitor 1
1-
, is
connected across the !( antenna coil. .y 'arying this capacitor 'alue, the recei'er can "e
tuned to different stations. +rimmer capacitor 1
3
is used for fine tuning and alignment.
+he oscillator fre0uency of the recei'er should "e set "ased on the station to $hich the
recei'er is tuned. #nstead of using t$o different 'aria"le capacitors, one for the antenna to
tune stations and the other for the oscillator to oscillate at the re0uired fre0uency, a common
ganged capacitor is used. - ganged 'aria"le capacitor simply means, more than one 'aria"le
capacitor $ith a common control shaft is a'aila"le. .y rotating the shaft of the ganged
capacitor, 'alues of "oth the capacitors is 'aried simultaneously. 6aria"le ganged capacitors
used in the olden days 'acuum tu"e radio recei'ers are sho$n in ,ig 4a and 4". ,ig 5
illustrates the miniature type ganged 'aria"le capacitor used in transistor radio recei'ers.
+he ganged capacitor sho$n in ,ig 4a and 4" uses air as the dielectric. +he miniature
ganged capacitor sho$n in ,ig 5 uses thin plastic film or mica as the dielectric "et$een the
plates. +he entire assem"ly of miniature ganged capacitor is enclosed in a moulded
<generally transparent= case to pre'ent entry of dust. +he capacitance 'alue of miniature
73
'aria"le ganged capacitors is up to 533 p,. +he one most commonly used in -! radio
recei'er sets can "e 'aried up to 2;3 p,.
9anged capacitors a'aila"le commercially ha'e a capacitance ratio of approximately13:1.
,or example, the capacitance of a miniature ganged capacitor can "e 'aried from 23 p, to
2;3 p, only. +his means, for a gi'en 'alue of inductance, the ratio of maximum to minimum
tuna"le resonance fre0uency or the fre0uency ratio is only 3:1. ,or example, if the minimum
tuna"le fre0uency is 553 F48, then the maximum tuna"le fre0uency is around 1?53
F48<three times 553 F48=.
-s can "e seen from ,ig 5, the ganged 'aria"le capacitors may ha'e t$o or more additional
trimmers connected in parallel $ith each 'aria"le capacitor.
+he trimmers are used for adjusting the oscillator tracking at the lo$ end of the fre0uency
range. - detail of oscillator tracking is dealt later in this lesson.
A
;
5 Silicon N$N -ig- !e*uenc" t!ansisto!
+his transistor is used to function "oth as the local oscillator and mixer. 4ence this circuit is
called the fre0uency con'erter instead of just mixer.
,rom the transistor type num"er <4,1A4.= it can "e easily made out that this transistor is
used for &, amplification.
5
4
)scillator coil
1
1.
)scillator tuning capacitor <part of gang=
1
12
+rimmer
+he oscillator coil, along $ith the ganged tuning capacitor and the trimmer forms the oscillator
tank circuit. 2eparate oscillator coils are used for different "ands such as !(, 2( "ands.
+he oscillator coil 5
4
sho$n in ,ig 2 is a !( oscillator coil. +his coil looks similar to an #,+
and is sometimes difficult to distinguish. .ut kno$ing the colour of the core and the tips gi'en
in lesson 1@.35, it is possi"le to distinguish "et$een the oscillator coil, 2( antenna coil and
74
#,+s. +here is a $ide 'ariety of coil shapes and si8es. #t is impractical to sho$ all of them.
2ome of the oscillator coils used in !( and 2( "ands of -! recei'er are sho$n in ,ig ?.
+he oscillator fre0uency is 'aried, "y 'arying the 'alue of the 'aria"le capacitors connected
across the oscillator coil. Lote that, the 'aria"le ganged capacitor 1
1.
in
,ig 2 is sho$n linked <through dotted lines= to the 'aria"le capacitor at the antenna tuned
circuit 1
1-
. +his means that the rotating the shaft of the ganged capacitor 'aries the
capacitance at "oth the antenna tuned circuit and the oscillator tuned circuit simultaneously.
C
G
5 R% cou&ling ca&acito!
/ro'ides &, signal from the preselector tuned to transistor J
1
&
2
.ias resistor
/ro'ides the re0uired *1 "ias to J
1
.
&
4
Emitter resistor
75
7sed for pro'iding self "ias.
#,+
1
#, transformer
+uned to intermediate fre0uency <455 F48=.
R
H
an# C
H
5 Oscillato! signal injection &at-
/ro'ides oscillator signal at the emitter. +his dri'es the mixer into conduction on the negati'e
half cycles of the $a'e making the collector current to flo$.
Local oscillato! tuning
#t is the local oscillator fre0uency that determines $hich station is tunedin "y the recei'er. #f a
recei'ing station is picked up at the $rong fre0uency marking on the tuning dial, the pro"lem
is pro"a"ly in the local oscillator.
Oscillato! t!ac@ing
-n example of tuning an -! radio is illustrated in ,ig @.
&ecei'er tuning for se'eral radio stations in the -! fre0uency range is accomplished "y
making the oscillator tank circuit to tune to a fre0uency <track= of 455 F48 a"o'e the &,
signal to $hich the antenna circuit is tuned. -s sho$n in ,ig @, for any station in the top ro$
of &, carrier fre0uencies, the oscillator fre0uency is 455 F48 higher at the 'alues listed in the
"ottom ro$. +he tuning dial on the recei'er is marked $ith &, carrier fre0uencies and not the
corresponding oscillator fre0uency. )scillator tracking is accomplished "y 'arying the &, and
oscillator circuits together. -mongst the t$o small trimmer capacitors<1
3
and 1
12
= in parallel
$ith the tuning gang, one is for the &, section, and the other is for the oscillator. +ypical
'alues of trimmer capacitors are 2 to 22 p,. +hese trimmers are used to make small
adjustments for the minimum total capacitance 'alue across coils of the tank circuits <5
2
and
5
4
=.
Oscillato! !e*uenc" above o! belo+ t-e R% !e*uenc"
)scillator fre0uency can "e either a"o'e or "elo$ the &, signal fre0uencies to produce the
same difference of 455 F48 as #, output. 4o$e'er, in practice all recei'ers, the oscillator
fre0uency is higher than the &, carrier fre0uency.
)scillator fre0uency G &, fre0uency O #,<455 F48=.
+his is necessary $hen the recei'er must co'er a $ide fre0uency range.
(hat happens if the local oscillator fre0uency is less than &, carrier fre0uency "y an amount
e0ual to #,[
#f the &, "and of fre0uencies to "e recei'ed is from 535 F48 to 1?35 F48 <medium $a'e
"and=, this $ould result in a local oscillator fre0uency range extending from ;3 F48 to 1153
F48. +his gi'es a maximum to minimum fre0uency ratio of approximately 14:1. +he tuning
capacitors <ganged capacitor= a'aila"le commercially ha'e a capacitance ratio of
76
approximately 13:1 $hich results in a fre0uency ratio of only 3:1<approximately=. +his is the
reason $hy the local oscillator fre0uency cannot "e kept "elo$ the &, signal fre0uency.
$a##e! a#justments
+he tank circuit of some oscillators $ill "e as sho$n in ,ig ;.
+he series capacitor 1
3
in ,ig ; is called the padder capacitor "ecause it adjusts the o'erall
'alue of 1 in the circuit. +he padder is adjusted for oscillator tracking at the lo$ end of the
fre0uency range. Lote that the series padder 1
3
at A3 p, is much larger than the parallel
trimmer 1
2
at 23 p,. &emem"er that connecting capacitors in series reduces the total 1. +he
reciprocal formula applies. (ith e0ual 'alues of A3 p, for 1
3
and 1
1
, the total 1 is A3/2 G 45
p,. - padder is used $hen it is necessary to reduce the maximum 'alue of the oscillator
tuning capacitance.
+he oscillator coil 5
4
in the con'erter circuit at ,ig 2 has an adjusta"le slug. +he adjustment is
made for the re0uired 5 at the lo$ end of the fre0uency range. (hen the oscillator coil has a
tuning slug, the need of padder capacitor is no more re0uired% hence the padder capacitor
may "e omitted.
77
S)$ER.ET RECEI:ER 5 STATION T)NIN3 MEC.ANISMS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. list the disad'antages of the station tuning kno" mounted directly on the gang
capacitor
2. list the ad'antages of ela"orate tuning dri'e mechanisms in radio recei'ers
3. sketch any one type of corddri'e mechanism used in radio recei'ers
4. 5ist the possi"le defects and causes in a dial tuning mechanism.
78
Tuning stations in su&e!-et !eceive!s
#n a radio recei'er, the re0uired station can "e recei'ed "y adjusting the dial on the recei'er.
+he dial on the recei'er actually sets the fre0uency of the oscillator tank circuit such that the
oscillator fre0uency minus the #,<455 F48= $ill "e the fre0uency recei'ed "y the radio
recei'er. +his means adjusting the dial on the recei'er or tuning a station is nothing "ut
setting the suita"le position of the ganged 'aria"le capacitor.
+he simplest of this tuning arrangement is in pocket radio recei'ers $hich are generally
single "and !( recei'ers. +his arrangement is sho$n in ,ig 1.
#n tuning arrangement sho$n in ,ig la and l", a fairly large tuning kno" is mounted directly on
the ganged 'aria"le capacitor. +he large dia kno" is either graduated $ith fre0uencies as in
,ig 1 a. #n some cases, the kno" has only a thick pointer line and the station fre0uencies or
$a'e lengths are marked on the ca"inet as sho$n in ,ig 1 ".
+he a"o'e tuning arrangement although simple, has certain disad'antages $hich are listed
"elo$%
X2ince the tuning is directly on the shaft of the ganged capacitor, rough handling $hile tuning
makes the ganged capacitor go defecti'e early.
X2tation markings $ill "e 'ery close% hence station tuning is more "y listing than "y the station
markings. 523
X2tation tuning $ill not "e smooth as in the case of ela"orate tuning mechanisms such as in
ta"le top recei'er models.
Elabo!ate Tuning #!ive mec-anisms
- typical tuning dri'e mechanism in a recei'er ser'es t$o purposes namely,
X#t pro'ides a slo$ motion control mechanism $hich makes tuning of stations easier.
79
X#t mo'es a pointer o'er a tuning scale so that you can exactly tell $hat $a'e length,
fre0uency or station is "eing recei'ed.
X+he life of the ganged capacitor is extended.
- simple type of corddri'e mechanism is sho$n in ,ig 2.
- special nylon or fish line cord passes round the drum and one or t$o round around the
control spindle. +he cord is tensioned using steel springs on the drum.
+he ratio of slo$ motion <the num"er of re'olutions of the control kno" re0uired to turn the
tuning condenser through an arc of A3E= depends on the relati'e diameters of the control
spindle and drum.
- more ela"orate arrangement compared to the one sho$n in ,ig 2 is to ha'e a longer dri'e
cord and take it from the drum in a straight line around a pair of pulleys and "ack to the
control spindle as sho$n in ,igs 3a and 3".
+he pointer attached to the cord mo'es along a hori8ontal or 'ertical scale marked $ith
station fre0uencies. +he cord is kept under tension "y means of steel springs. Lormally t$o
and a half turns of the cord are $ound round the pulley spindle. (hen replacing a $ornout
cord, the easiest to find the length of ne$ cord to "e used is to measure the length of the
$orn out of cord.
)ne typical cord dri'e mechanism for restringing <replacing a ne$ string= is sho$n in ,ig 4
and descri"ed "elo$ to gain additional experience in the art of tuning mechanisms
80
-s sho$n in ,ig 4, to restring the main tuning cord cut 25U length of the dial cord <string= and
tie one end to the tension spring on the main tuning capacitor dri'e pulley at position >1> on
the diagram. ,ollo$ing the num"er, 1 through 14, $ind the cord on the pulley and kno" dri'e
shaft or spindle. -t position >14>, stretch the tension spring and tie the cord securely. 1utoff
the excess cord. Lote that t$o and a half turns are $ound on the kno" dri'e shaft.
#n costly radio sets, an additional tuning de'ice called fine tuning is also pro'ided. +he fine
tuning helps in tuning the o'ercro$ded short $a'es $ith ease. - separate dri'e mechanism is
added along $ith the main dri'e mechanism as sho$n in ,ig 5.
81
+his is one example of restringing of the finetuning cord as a "and spread arrangement. ,or
this cut 35U length of the dial cord and follo$ the procedure descri"ed earlier except, start at
position >-> on the diagram and proceed through position >6>. Lote that the kno" dri'e spindle
has three turns and the dial dri'e pulley has one turn.
'eects an# !eme#ies in #ial tuning mec-anisms
- dial mechanism $hich does not $ork properly can "e due to,
X$orn out shaft,
Xthe dial cord has slipped out of the pulleys or drum,
Xcord stretched or cut due to constant $ear and tear,
X$orn out spring.
-fter considera"le use, dial cord gets permanently stretched and slip on the tuning shafts.
+here are se'eral $ays to rectify a slipping dial ca"le. 2lippage, to an extent can "e a'oided,
"y applying the nonslip compound to the cord $hen it goes round the shaft. 2lippage can
also "e a'oided "y mo'ing the ca"le spring to a place on the drum $here it puts more pull on
the ca"le or shortens the ca"le. (hen all the a"o'e efforts fail to reduce slippage, then the
only alternati'e is to replace the old spring and dial cord $ith a ne$ one.
.reakage of the dri'e cord is caused "y neglect of lu"rication resulting in the dri'e "ecoming
slippery and hence tuning mechanism $orks $ith jerks. 2uch jerk tuning mo'ement can "e
corrected "y the application of a small amount of light machine oil at pulleys. #f the parts are
excessi'ely oiled then, the oil $ill go o'er to the pulley groo'ed surface and cord $ill again
slip.
+he springs of the dial dri'e mechanism sometimes "ecome rusty, especially in moist
atmosphere. *ue to $hich the cord gets stretched or "roken in course of time. 2pares for the
tuning dri'e mechanism like steel springs, nylon cord, fish line or standard steel flexi"le $ire
suita"le for different arrangements of the dri'e mechanism are a'aila"le in radio spares
shops.
'atum a#justment on t-e #ial scale
(hen the 'aria"le gang capacitor is kept turned fully anticlock$ise direction <gang fully
closed=, the capacitance 'alue of the gang $ill "e maximum. #n this position of the gang, the
pointer on the tuning dial plate should coincide $ith the datum line $hich $ill generally "e
marked as 3 on the log dial scale. +his point corresponds to 523 F48. +his is kno$n as
datum adjustment.
82
83
S)$ER.ET RECEI:ER 5 RECEI:ER ALI3NMENT
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. state the necessity of alignment in radio recei'ers
2. name the t$o main types of alignments re0uired in a recei'er
3. explain the stages of #, alignment using modulated #, signal
4. list the t$o types of alignment in &, alignment in radio recei'ers
5. list the steps in carrying out
<a= )scillator fre0uency setting at lo$ end and high end of the "and
<"= -ntenna setting at the lo$ end and high end of the "and
<c= +o impro'e sensiti'ity in the middle of the "and.
84
Int!o#uction to !eceive! alignment
2ince a radio recei'er has se'eral tuned circuits, all these must "e tuned to their correct
fre0uencies for the recei'er to $ork satisfactorily for all stations in the desired "and. +his
process of tuning the tuned circuits to their correct fre0uencies is referred to as recei'er
alignment.
+here are t$o main alignments to "e carried out in a superhet -! radio recei'er. +hey are%
XI% alignment,
XR% alignment.
I% alignment is carried out such that all the #, transformers of the recei'er are tuned to the
correct standard intermediate fre0uency $hich is 455 F48 in the case of -! recei'ers. +he
main re0uirement for R% alignment is, setting the local oscillator to tune in the station
fre0uencies on the dial. &, alignment has t$o parts, one at the lo$ end of the "and and the
other at the high end of the "and. -t the lo$ end, either the oscillator coil or the padder
capacitor is adjusted. -t the high end fre0uencies, the trimmer capacitor is used to do the
adjustment.
Test set u& o! !eceive! alignment
-lthough a simple radio recei'er can "e aligned $ithout the need of any speciali8ed test
e0uipment, to carry out alignment accurately and in a professional $ay, certain minimum test
e0uipments are 'ery much necessary. +hey are%
&, signal generator $ith facility for modulated output
an -1 'oltmeter
a *1 'oltmeter
a dummy antenna
a nonmetallic scre$dri'er.
I% alignment &!oce#u!es
-ligning the #, amplifiers means tuning the #, transformers to o"tain the maximum output
signal at the #, center fre0uency of 455 F48. +here are se'eral accepted methods for #,
alignment. 9enerally the manufacturers of the recei'ers specify the method to "e follo$ed for
alignment, in the form of a ta"le. 9enerali8ing these methods, the t$o main methods of #,
alignments are%
H1I#, alignments using a &, signal, set at #, center fre0uency and $ithout any modulation of
the #, signal.
H2I#, alignment using a &, signal set at #, center fre0uency and modulated using a 433 48
signal $ith 33Q modulation.
>;?I% alignment using unmo#ulate# I%
+his procedure is employed "y manufacturers of high end communication sets. -s this
procedure is generally not employed in training en'ironment, details a"out this method are
not gi'en in this lesson.
NOTE: ,or details on #, alignment using unmodulated #,, refer reference "ooks listed at the
end of this "ook.
><?I% alignment using mo#ulate# I% signal:
85
+his procedure makes use of an #, carrier, modulated $ith 33Q modulation using a 433 48
sine $a'e. +his procedure is most commonly employed for #, alignment for most commercial
radio recei'ers. - "rief procedure of this method of #, alignment is gi'en "elo$.
STE$5;:
2hort the gang condenser portion of the !( antenna tuned circuit. 2et the gang at its half
$ay <half open=. 2et cores of all #,+s to$ards the top of the can.
#f you are doing #, tuning of a t$o or more "and recei'er, put the "and s$itch to !( "and
position.
2etting the gang half open corresponds to pointer position of 1333 F48 <approx= on the dial
scale.
STE$5<:
1onnect a 32 6 -1 'oltmeter across the detector load <across 'olume control 61, $ith 61 in
the max. position=. Mou can also connect a 1&) in -1 mode instead of an -1 'oltmeter.
NOTE: -s an alternati'e you may connect a higher range -1 'oltmeter across the 'oice coil of
the speaker. 2ince different recei'ers $ill ha'e different $attage audio amplifiers, you ha'e to
choose the correct range of the -1 'oltmeter.
STE$52:
2et the output le'el of the &, signal generator to lo$% use a fre0uency counter and set the
output fre0uency to unmodulated 455 F48 carrier. 2et modulation to 33Q modulation, $ith
the modulating signal at 43348.
433 48 $ith 33Q modulation of the carrier is the accepted standard for #, alignment.
STE$5G:
,eed 455 F48 modulated &, signal through a 3.22p, coupling capacitor to the "ase of the
mixer amplifier <J
1
=. +urn the recei'er po$er )L. 2et the modulated &, output amplitude just
high enough for the -1 'oltmeter at the detector load to read a"out 3.5 to 1.3 6olt -1.
STE$5I:
7sing a nonmetallic scre$dri'er, starting from the detector side, tune the last #,+ core <#,+
3= for maximum signal output on the -1 meter. +hen, tune the preceding #,+ <#,+2= and go
ahead till you reach the first #,+ <#,+1= such that the -1 'oltage reading is maximum.
NOTE: #f you ha'e not disconnected the audio stage, you $ill listen to the 433 48 tone at the
speaker. +he tone le'el heard "ecomes maximum $hen all the #,+s are correctly tuned.
-fter carrying out the a"o'e procedure of #, alignment, remo'e the modulated &, signal fed
at the "ase of the transistor of the con'erter stage <J
1
=.
R% alignment &!oce#u!es
&ecall that &, alignment is nothing "ut setting the fre0uency of the local oscillator to tunein
to correct station fre0uencies on the dial. &, alignment has t$o parts%
1= &, alignment at the lo$ end of the "and <say around ?33 F48 in !( "and= for setting the
oscillator fre0uency and antenna.
2= &, alignment at the high end of the "and <say around 1533 F48 in the !( "and= for
setting the oscillator fre0uency and antenna.
-s in #, alignment, &, alignment can "e carried out using either a unmodulated or modulated
carrier as gi'en "elo$%
R% alignment 5 using unmo#ulate# R% signal
*etails of &, alignment using unmodulated carrier are not discussed as this procedure is
rarely follo$ed in training and general ser'icing en'ironment.
86
,or information on &, alignment using unmodulated &,, refer reference "ooks listed at the
end of this "ook.
&, alignment using modulated &, signal +his consists of t$o parts%
;? Oscillato! !e*uenc" setting 5 +o adjust tracking
<a= 2etting oscillator fre0uency for lo$ end of the "and
STE$5;:
7sing a fre0uency counter, set the signal generator to 533 F48 modulated<standard=. +o
radiate the signal from the signal generator, connect the signal generator lead to Electronic
!echanic 1st Mear :
a standard radiation loop or use a 3.31 p, capacitor across the generator leads. Feep this
setup close to the recei'er.
STE$5<:
/osition the dial pointer at 523 F48 position on the dial. Feep the 'olume control in the
maximum 'olume position.
NOTE: #n some recei'ers, the datum fre0uency may not "e 523 F48. #t may 'ary from recei'er
set to recei'er set "et$een 523 to 553 F48. #n such cases, set the pointer on the dial to the
lo$est fre0uency marking.
STE$52:
+urn the !( oscillator coil core 'ery gently in clock$ise direction using an insulated
scre$dri'er, till you recei'e the radiated signal clearly.
'o not4 tu!n t-e coil4 co!e /slug1 mi!e t-an one t-i!# at a timeJ else t-e co!e ma" get
b!o@en0
<"= 2etting oscillator fre0uency for high end of the "and
STE$5G:
Lo$ set the signal generator to 1?33 F48 modulated.
STE$5I:
/osition the dial pointer at 1?33 F48 position on the dial. Feep the 'olume control in the
maximum 'olume position.
STE$5H:
-djust the !( oscillator trimmer <1
12
= gently, till you recei'e the radiated signal clearly.
&epeat the a"o'e t$o procedures t$ice, as adjustment of the oscillator trimmer affects the
oscillator coil adjustment. +he idea is to o"tain the "est tracking of the oscillator and &,
circuits.
<? M, antenna setting
<a=-djusting !( antenna coil position for "etter sensiti'ity at the 5o$end of the "and
STE$ ;:
2et the signal generator to ?43 F48 modulated <standard=. .ring the radiating loop connected
to the generator a$ay <3 mts= from the !( antenna coil of the recei'er.
STE$ <:
/osition the dial pointer at ?43 F48 position on the dial. Feep the 'olume control in the
maximum 'olume position.
STE$ 2:
2lide the !( antenna coil o'er the ferrite rod along the length of ferrite rod till the 433 48
modulating signal tone output from the recei'er increases. /osition the coil $here the output
is maximum. /ut a $edge to lock the antenna coil in that place temporarily.
<"=-djusting antenna coil trimmer for "etter sensiti'ity for the high end of the "and
STE$ ;:
(ithout changing the position of the dummy antenna, set the signal generator to 1?33 F48
modulated <standard=.
87
STE$ <:
/osition the dial pointer at 1?33 F48 position on the dial. Feep the 'olume control in the
maximum 'olume position.
STE$ 2:
-djust the !( antenna trimmer <1
3
= gently, till you recei'e the 433 48 radiated tone loudly
and clearly.
&epeat the a"o'e t$o procedures of antenna setting t$ice, as adjustment of the antenna
trimmer affects the antenna coil adjustment.
<c= -djusting "oth !( antenna coil and trimmer for
good reception of stations in the mid"and
STE$ ;:
2et the signal generator to 1333 F48 <modulated=.
STE$ <:
/osition the dial pointer at 1333 F48 position on the dial. Feep the 'olume control at the
maximum 'olume position.
STE$52:
2$itch )L the recei'er and check if the 433 48 modulating tone is loudly and clearly heard at
the recei'er speaker.
STE$5G:
(ithout changing the position of the dummy antenna, decrease the output amplitude of the
signal generator such that the radiated signal strength is 'ery lo$ and the output on the
speaker is 'ery fee"le i.e., just audi"le.
&educing the radiated signal strength from the generator is just to simulate $eak stations.
STE$5I:
&emo'e the $edge fixed to the antenna. 9ently shift the position of the antenna coil on the
ferrite rod little "y little on either side of its pre'ious position to get maximum possi"le 433 48
tone sound output from the speaker. /ut the $edge and/or apply $ax to permanently lock the
antenna coil at that position.
STE$5H:
-djust the !( antenna trimmer <1
3
= carefully till you recei'e the radiator signal as a"o'e.
88
89
90
NOISE IN RECEI:ERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. name the t$o main categories of noises
2. name and explain causes of different types of external noise
3. name and explain causes of different types of internal noise
4. explain,
i modulation noise
ii resistance noise
iii noise in mixers
i' noise due to cascaded amplifiers
' noise in tuned circuits
5. explain the term 2/L ratio and noise figure
?. explain the effect of noise in recei'ers
@. explain the method of reducing noise in recei'ers
;. state the causes of hum in radio recei'ers
9. 2tate the cause of motor "oating in radio recei'ers.
91
Noise in !eceive!s
#n electrical sense, any undesired distur"ances that interfere $ith the desired information is
considered as noise. +hese distur"ances $hich are electrical in nature produce noise in
recei'ers.
+here are numerous $ays of classifying noise depending on the type, source, its effect on the
recei'er etc., ,or con'enience noise can "e classified under t$o "road categories namely%
VEY+E&L-5 L)#2E: Loise picked up "y the recei'er from outside the recei'er.
V#L+E&L-5 L)#2E: Loise generated in the recei'er circuit "y the recei'er circuit itself
EFTERNAL NOISES
;? Atmos&-e!ic noise
+his type of noise, generally called static noise is caused "y lightning discharges in the
thunderstorms and other natural electrical distur"ances occurring in the atmosphere. +hese
distur"ances result in spurious electromagnetic radio $a'es $hich induce 'oltages in the
antenna and appear as noise at the recei'er output.
-tmospheric noises are less at fre0uencies a"o'e 33 !48 of operation.
<? E7t!ate!!est!ial noise
i? Sola! noise
2un is a 'aria"le star and it undergoes cycles during $hich period, electrical
distur"ances erupt, such as corona flares and sunspots. +hese electrical distur"ances
are radiated o'er a 'ery "road fre0uency spectrum $hich includes the fre0uencies
used for radio communication. 4ence these radiations cause sun or solar noise in
recei'ers.
ii? Cosmic noise
2ince distant stars are also >2uns> and ha'e 'ery high temperature, they radiate noise
in the same manner as the sun.
2? In#ust!ial noise
+he fre0uency spectrum of this noise lies in the range of 1 to ?33 !48. +he sources of these
noises are automo"ile \ aircraft ignition, Electric motors \ electrical s$itchgear, leakage from
high 'oltage lines, fluorescent lights etc. )f these, fluorescent lights are 'ery po$erful and a
common source of industrial noise. +herefore, fluorescent lights should not "e used $here
sensiti'e recei'er reception or testing is conducted.
#ndustrial noise is so 'aria"le that, it is difficult to analy8e on any "asis other than statistical.
INTERNAL NOISE
+his type of noise is generated $ithin a circuit "y the acti'e and passi'e de'ices used in that
circuit.
;? T-e!mal agitation noise/+-ite noise/(o-nson noise
+he noise generated in a resistance or a resisti'e component is random in nature, and
hence, is referred to as random, thermal agitation, $hite or ]ohnson noise. +his noise is due
to the rapid or random motion of molecules, atoms and electrons $hich the resistor is made
of.
+he noise po$er generated "y a resistor can "e calculated as it is proportional to the
a"solute temperature and to the "and$idth o'er $hich the noise is measured.
<? S-ot noise
+his type of noise is caused "y random 'ariations in the arri'al of electrons or holes at the
electrodes of an amplifying de'ice and thus appears as a 'arying noise current superimposed
92
on the output. (hen this noise is amplified it sounds as though a sho$er of lead shots is
falling on a metal sheet. 4ence, it has the name 2hot noise. 2hot noise is generated 'irtually
"y all acti'e de'ices. +his noise can also "e estimated for any gi'en acti'e de'ice under the
gi'en circumstances.
2? T!ansit time noise
-t fre0uencies in the upper 64, range and "eyond, the time taken "y an electron to tra'el
<say from the emitter to the collector of a transistor= "ecomes compara"le to the period of
signal "eing amplified, the so called transit time effect takes place, and the noise input
admittance of the transistor increases.
)nce the presence of this high fre0uency noise is felt, it goes on increasing to a 'ery high
le'el and 0uickly dominates other forms of noises. 4ence, $hile using transistors for
amplification in the 74, range, a transistor $ith a noise figure of less than 1 d. should "e
selected.
G? Ot-e! t"&e o noises
i1 %lic@e! o! mo#ulation noise
+his noise occurs at lo$ audio fre0uencies generally "elo$ 533 48. +his occurs in transistors
and is proportional to the junction temperature and emitter current. -s this noise is in'ersely
proportional to fre0uency, it may "e ignored for fre0uencies a"o'e 533 48.
ii1 Resistance noise
+his noise is present in transistor. #t is due to the "ase, emitter and collector internal
resistances. #n most cases "ase resistance makes the largest contri"ution for this noise
iii1 Noise in mi7e!s
!ixers are much noisier than amplifiers. +he high noise in mixers is caused "y t$o separate
effects: ,irst, con'ersion transconductance of mixers is much lo$er than the trans
conductance of amplifiers. 2econd, if the image fre0uency rejection is inade0uate, as it
generally happens at short $a'e fre0uencies the noise associated $ith image fre0uency $ill
also "e accepted "y mixers.
iv1 Noise #ue to am&liie! in casca#e
(hen a num"er of amplifying stages are cascaded, the noise at the output is a com"ined
effect of the noise generated and amplified in su"se0uent stages. )f these stages, the noise
at the input of the first stage is the greatest contri"utor to the total noise. 4ence, in cascaded
amplifiers the design of the first stage must take care to reduce the o'erall noise.
v1 Noise in tune# ci!cuit
#n a tuned circuit, outside of resonance, noise is generated. -lso, if a tuned circuit is not ideal
i.e., one in $hich the inductance has a resisti'e component, noise is generated.
NOISE MEAS)REMENT Signal5to5noise !atio /S/N1
#t is a comparison of the signal le'el and the noise le'el at any point in a circuit to ensure that
the noise is not excessi'e. +herefore 2ignaltoLoise <2/L= ratio is defined as the ratio of
2ignal po$er to the Loise po$er at the same point in a circuit. #n all circuits, efforts are made
to keep the 2/L ratio as high as possi"le and practica"le.
Noise igu!e /%1
+he noise figure ,, is defined as the ratio of the signalto noise po$er supplied to the input
terminal of a recei'er or an amplifier, to the signaltonoise po$er at the output.
93
, G #nput 2/L / )utput 2/L
+here is no use in comparing any t$o gi'en recei'ers or amplifiers and to judge $hich of the
t$o is "etter. ,or an ideal recei'er the noise figure , $ill "e 1 $hich means that the recei'er
does not introduce any noise of its o$n.
Eect o noise in !eceive!s
+he o'erall effect of noises in a recei'er is seen in the audio output. #n radio recei'ers noise
produces a missing or frying sound that can "e heard "et$een stations especially $hen the
'olume control is set at maximum 'olume.
Met-o# o !e#ucing noise in !eceive!s
&ecei'er can ha'e an additional circuit kno$n as noise limiter to reduce the effect of external
noises. .ut this circuit also limits the signal amplitude s$ing in the process of reducing noise.
*etails of noise limiters $ill "e discussed in further lessons.
Ot-e! common NOISES in A% am&liie!s an# !eceive!s
K .um
+his is a form of noise 'ery common in audio systems. +his lo$ fre0uency noise is introduced
in audio circuits "y the -1 po$er line or insufficient filtering circuits used in po$er supplies.
4um occurs at mains fre0uency or t$ice the mains fre0uency, depending on $hether the
po$er supply uses a half $a'e rectifier or a full $a'e rectifier. +his hum 'oltage gets
amplified "y the -, amplifier in the same $ay as the desired signal and causes annoying
interference.
+he causes for hum can "e se'eral. #t can "e caused inducti'ely, induced 'ia the mains
transformer into the circuit $iring. 4ence due consideration must "e gi'en to the location of
mains transformer in a circuit assem"ly. 4um can also "e caused "y the ripple 'oltage
present in *1 after rectification and smoothening. +o a'oid hum in recei'ers, additional
filtering should "e carried out for the *1 supply at the -, 'oltage amplifier circuit.
K Moto! boating
+his is a form of noise in radio recei'ers and other audio amplifier circuits. !otor "oating is a
form of oscillation that occurs at 'ery lo$ audio fre0uency. #t is caused "y excessi'e amount
of audio feed"ack at lo$ fre0uencies. +his oscillation is a succession of pulses. (hen these
oscillations occur in a circuit $hich feeds a loudspeaker, these pulses result in puttputt sound
resem"ling the sound made "y motor "oats.
,eed"ack through a common po$er supply for different circuits is one of the causes of motor
"oating. +his can "e suppressed "y using resistancecapacitance decoupling filters at the
po$er supply connected to the collector circuit.
94
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 'EA' RECEI:ER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. list the pro"a"le defecti'e symptoms in a radio recei'er
2. analyse causes for the complaint dead recei'er $ith the help of the pro"lem tree and
trou"leshooting chart
3. 2tate the shortest path for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence.
95
(hen a radio recei'er is not functioning, at first, it is re0uired to determine the nature of fault
in the recei'er $hen a defecti'e recei'er is s$itchedon it sho$s a symptom a"out the
possi"le nature of fault in the recei'er. ,rom the o"ser'ed fault symptom, applying the
kno$ledge a"out $orking of recei'ers, it is possi"le to detect the faulty area <portion of the
o'erall circuit= and from further tests identify the defecti'e component. -fter identifying the
defecti'e component, it is a good practice to analy8e the cause for the defect "efore "lindly
changing the defecti'e component "y a ne$ component.
2ome of the common symptoms of a defecti'e recei'er is summari8ed as follo$s%
V*E-* &E1E#6E& +he recei'er is not $orking at all. +here is no sound at all from the
loudspeaker.
V5)( -7*#) )7+/7+ -ll stations are recei'ed "ut the output audio from the speaker is
'ery lo$.
V4#22#L9 L)#2E #L )7+/7+ 2tations are not clearly picked up and there is a hissing
sound in the loudspeaker.
V47! #L +4E 2E+ -ll stations are picked up. -udio is of good le'el, "ut there is a hum in
the output.
V(E-F &E1E/+#)L (#+4 L)#2M )7+/7+ )6E& +4E EL+#&E .-L* -ll the stations
are recei'ed "ut the reception is noisy o'er the entire range.
V(E-F 2#9L-52 )6E& - /)&+#)L ), +7L#L9 &-L9E &eception is proper o'er a
portion of the tuning range "ut the reception is $eak o'er the remaining part of the tuning
range.
V#L+E&!#++EL+ &E1E/+#)L &eception is clear "ut goes off and comes again
intermittently.
V2)!E 2+-+#)L2 -&E L)+ /#1FE* 7/ E-2#5M *ifficult to tune some of the stations.
V(4#2+5#L9 -L* 2J7-(F#L9 2)7L* -ll stations are picked up "ut the output from
the loud speaker is ha'ing a $histling and s0ua$king sound.
V*E1&E-2E #L 6)57!E -,+E& - (4#5E +he stations get tuned. +he audio output is
satisfactory at the "eginning "ut, the output 'olume decreases after a $hile.
V&-++5#L9 2)7L* ,&)! 5)7*2/E-FE& 2tations are picked up "ut there is rattling
sound from the speaker along $ith audio.
V2+-+#)L2 L)+ /#1FE* 7/ -+ E#+4E& EL* ), +4E .-L* 2tations are picked up at
the middle of the "and "ut stations in either end of the "and are not picked up.
V)LE 2+-+#)L 4E-&* )6E& +4E EL+#&E .-L* +he same station is heard o'er the
entire "and e'en $hen tuned to other stations.
V2-!E 2+-+#)L /#1FE* 7/ -+ +() /5-1E2
96
V,-*#L9 ), 2+-+#)L2 2tation is picked up on tuning "ut, the output audio output
gradually "ecomes $eak and dies off. )n retuning, the station gets picked up "ut output
fades off again.
V!)&E +4-L )LE 2+-+#)L &E1E#6E* -+ )LE /5-1E
V!)+)&.)-+#L9 2)7L* 2tations are recei'ed "ut the speaker output has motor
"oating sound.
V*#2+)&+E* 2)7L* (4#5E +7L#L9
V*#2+)&+E* 2)7L* (4#5E 14-L9#L9 6)57!E
V/))& +)LE J7-5#+M <!7,,5E*=
V1E552/ .-++E&#E2 +) .E 14-L9E* 6E&M ,&EJ7EL+5M - recei'er $hich $orks for
se'eral days $ith a ne$ set of "atteries is "ecoming $eak and the $orks fine $hen a ne$ set
of cells are put.
L)+E: #n addition to the most common fault symptoms listed a"o'e, there may "e many
more faults or symptoms $hich are com"inations of the a"o'e listed symptoms. +rainees are
ad'ised to record such symptoms and consult their instructor for ser'icing.
Each of the a"o'e listed fault symptom are discussed in lessons to follo$%
Se!vicing su&e!-eat !eceive! +it- t-e com&laint 5 L'EA' RECEI:ER0L
+his is pro"a"ly the easiest fault to repair "ecause, generally this defect may "e due to silly
errors made or failure of certain main components $hich is easy to identify and ser'ice.
+o ser'ice a faulty recei'er, the general procedure to "e adopted is gi'en "elo$%
1I 2$itchon recei'er. Lotice and record the fault symptom. ,or example: -fter s$itching on
the set it is found that, there is no sound heard from the 52 e'en $ith 'olume control set at
maximum 'olume and this is true at all positions of the dial. +his fault refers to *ead recei'er.
2I +o identify the possi"le causes for the o"ser'ed symptom <say for a *ead recei'er=,
analyse the pro"lem tree </+=, $hose structure is gi'en in related theory lessons </+ for
dead recei'er is gi'en in lesson no.1@.13=.
+he pro"lem tree is so organised that the top most rounded rectangular "lock indicates the
o"ser'ed fault symptom. +he "locks do$n "elo$ indicate the pro"a"le causes for the fault
symptom. +hese causes are also so organised that the nearest "lock to the top most rounded
rectangle is the most pro"a"le cause to the fault.
3I -fter identifying the pro"a"le causes for the defect <from pro"lem tree=, refer the trou"le
shooting chart <+21= for the identified fault gi'en in corresponding exercise <for example:
+21 for dead recei'er is gi'en in Ex: 1@.31=. 2tudy the causes/reasons for the cause of fault
symptom. ,or example, one of the reasons for a *ead recei'er could "e the defecti'e -,
output stage of the recei'er. )ne of the possi"le causes for a defecti'e -, stage could "e a
defecti'e loud speaker
97
<52=. +he reason $hy the 52 ha'e "ecome defecti'e is gi'en in +rou"le shooting chart.
+rou"le shooting chart also gi'es the remedial measure to "e taken to ser'ice the fault.
4I -lthough the trou"leshooting chart gi'es a comprehensi'e list of pro"a"le defects, causes
or reasons for the defects along $ith suggested remedial measure to "e taken, the order in
$hich the ser'icing to "e carried out is not clearly indicated. +his order in $hich these defects
are to "e identified is gi'en in 2E&6#1E ,5)( 2EJ7EL1E <2,2= in corresponding
exercises. - ser'ice flo$ diagram is nothing "ut a se0uence or a flo$ diagram $hich
indicates the shortest path for rectifying a defecti'e symptom. 2,2s for all the symptoms
listed at the "eginning of this lesson are gi'en in exercises for recei'er ser'icing. &efer
exercise 1@.13 for the 2,2 to "e follo$ed for the *E-* &E1E#6E&. #t is necessary to
understand the 2,2 "efore going into ser'icing of a fault.
+he pro"lem tree </+31= for the fault symptom *E-* &E1E#6E& is gi'en "elo$ for
analysis. &efer exercise 1@.13 for its corresponding trou"le shooting chart <+2131= and
ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint *ead
recei'er referring to exercise 1@.13.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
98
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 LO, A)'IO O)T$)T
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. analyse the causes for the complaint lo$ audio output $ith the help of the pro"lem
tree</+=
2. analyse the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
99
!-#L 2M!/+)! : 5)( -7*#) )7+/7+ e'en $ith 61 at maximum.
-dditional symptom : -ll the stations are clear and there is no distortion in
the output.
5o$ audio output is one of the common complaints in radio recei'ers. #f the clarity of
reception is )F throughout the recei'ing "and $ithout any distortion in the output, then the
lo$ audio output may "e due to,
1I /ro"lem in the audio output stage of the recei'er or
2I #mproper alignment of the #, transformers.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint lo$ audio output are illustrated in /ro"lem +ree /+32
gi'en "elo$. &efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +2132 and 2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,232 gi'en
in exercise 1@.11 for the possi"le reasons for defects and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1: *iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint lo$
audio output referring to exercise 1@.11.
L)+E 2: 6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit
diagram of the recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
100
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 .ISSIN3 NOISE IN O)T$)T
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. analyse the causes for the complaint hissing noise in output $ith the help of the
pro"lem tree</+=
2. analyse the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
101
).2E&6-.5E 2M!/+)! : 4#22#L9 L)#2E #L )7+/7+
-dditional symptom : 2tations are not clearly picked up.
5oud hissing sound is heard in the output. 2tations through out the "and are either not picked
up at all or not clearly pickedup.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint hissing noise in output is illustrated in /ro"lem +ree /+33
gi'en "elo$.
&efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +2133 and 2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,233 gi'en in exercise
1@.12 for the possi"le reasons for defects and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint hissing noise
in output referring to exercise 1@.12.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
102
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 ,EAM RECE$TION ,IT. NOISY
O)T$)T O:ER T.E ENTIRE 8AN'
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. analyse the causes for the complaint $eak reception $ith noisy output o'er the entire
"and $ith the help of the pro"lem tree</+=
2. analyse the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
103
).2E&6-.5E 2M!/+)! : (E-F &E1E/+#)L (#+4 L)#2M )7+/7+
)6E& +4E EL+#&E .-L*
+his fault is most common in "attery po$ered recei'ers.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint $eak reception $ith noisy output o'er the entire "and are
illustrated in /ro"lem +ree /+34 gi'en "elo$. &efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +2134 and
2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,234 gi'en in exercise 1@.13 for the possi"le reasons for defects
and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice no$ se0uence for the complaint $eak
reception
$ith noisy output o'er the entire "and referring to exercise 1@.13.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in earlier exercises of this unit.
104
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 INTERMITTENT RECE$TION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. -naly8e the causes for the complaint intermittent reception $ith the help of the
pro"lem tree</+=
2. -naly8e the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
105
!-#L 2M!/+)! : #L+E&!#++EL+ &E1E/+#)L
-dditional symptom: (hile $orking, $orks fine. (hen stops $orking,
Either the set is dead or there is excessi'e noise or hissing.
+his is one of the most common faults especially in porta"le recei'er sets.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint intermittent reception are illustrated in /ro"lem +ree /+35
gi'en "elo$.
&efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +2135 and 2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,235 gi'en in exercise
1@.14 for the possi"le reasons for defects and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint intermittent
reception referring to exercise 1@.14.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
106
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 SOME STATIONS ARE NOT $ICME'
)$ EASILY
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. analyse the causes for the complaint some stations are not picked up easily using the
pro"lem tree</+=
2. analyse the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
107
).2E&6-.5E 2M!/+)! : 2)!E 2+-+#)L2 -&E L)+ /#1FE* 7/ E-2#5M.
-dditional symptom : 2trong stations are easily picked up. *ifficult to pick
up $eak stations.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint some stations are not picked up easily are illustrated in
/ro"lem +ree /+3? gi'en "elo$.
&efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +213? and 2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,23? gi'en in exercise
1@.15 for the possi"le reasons for defects and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint some
stations are
not picked up easily referring to exercise 1@.15.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
108
'E%ECTS IN RECEI:ERS 5 ,.ISTLIN3 AN' SA)A,MIN3
SO)N'
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. analyse the causes for the complaint $histling and s0ua$king sound $ith the help of
the pro"lem tree</+=
2. analyse the causes for the defect leading to the complaint $ith the help of
trou"leshooting chart<+21=
3. -nalyse the se0uence for ser'icing the defect using ser'ice flo$ se0uence <2,2=.
109
).2E&6-.5E 2M!/+)! : (4#2+5#L9 -L* 2J7-(F#L9 2)7L*
-dditional symptom :
+his pro"lem generally occurs at the time of assem"ly and testing or $hen some of the coils
or #,+s are changed.
/ossi"le causes for the complaint $histling and s0ua$king sound are illustrated in /ro"lem
+ree /+3@ gi'en "elo$.
&efer +rou"leshooting 1hart +213@ and 2er'ice ,lo$ 2e0uence 2,23@ gi'en in exercise
1@.1? for the possi"le reasons for defects and the suggested remedial measures.
L)+E 1:
*iscuss the +rou"leshooting 1hart and 2er'ice flo$ se0uence for the complaint $histling and
s0ua$king sound referring to exercise 1@.1?.
L)+E 2:
6arious faults discussed for the a"o'e complaint shall "e applied to the circuit diagram of the
recei'er circuit chosen for assem"ling in practical exercise.
110
%REA)ENCY MO')LATION AN' %M RECEI:ERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. name the alternati'e for amplitude modulation
2. state the ad'antage of ,! o'er -!
3. state the effect of amplitude and fre0uency of modulating signal on the carrier in ,!
4. state the difference "et$een -! and ,! in respect of the side "ands produced
5. state the permissi"le maximum fre0uency s$ing in ,! as per international standards
?. state the term modulation index m in ,!
@. state the allocated ,! "roadcast "and for commercial ,! transmission
;. list the conse0uences of 64, and 74, transmission
A. state and explain the formula for calculating the distance co'ered "y ,! transmission
13. name the t$o methods of de'eloping ,! ,
11. explain through a circuit diagram ,! generation using a 'aricap diode
12. explain through an example the "and$idth re0uirement of ,!
13. name the "locks of a typical ,! recei'er
14. explain the function of limiter circuit in ,! recei'er
15. explain ho$ detection of ,! is different from -!
1?. explain the $orking of a discriminator circuit
1@. explain the ad'antage of a ratio detector o'er discriminator
1;. explain $ith a circuit diagram the $orking of a ratio detector
1A. 5ist a fe$ other methods of detecting ,! signals.
111
%REA)ENCY MO')LATION
,re0uency modulation, or ,!, is an alternati'e to amplitude modulation. ,re0uency
modulation has some ad'antages that make it attracti'e for commercial "roadcasting and
t$o$ay radio $ork. )ne pro"lem $ith -! is its sensiti'ity to noise. 5ightning, automoti'e
ignition, and sparking electric circuits all produce electric interference. +his interference is
spread o'er a $ide fre0uency range. #t is not easy to pre'ent such interference from reaching
detector in an -! recei'er. .ut, an ,! recei'er can "e made totally insensiti'e to such noise
interference. +his noisefree performance of ,! recei'ers has made them popular for se'eral
applications such as commercial radio reception, $ireless communication sets etc.
$!inci&le o %!e*uenc" Mo#ulation /%M1
#n fre0uency modulation the fre0uency of the &, carrier $a'e is 'aried in rhythm $ith the
audio fre0uency oscillations as sho$n in ,ig 1. - 'ariation in fre0uency is a change in the
num"er of cycles per second. 2o, an increase in fre0uency is indicated in ,ig 1 as a
clustering or "unching of the &, oscillations <along the time scale=. 2imilarly a decrease in
fre0uency $ill appear as spreading against the time scale. 4o$ for the fre0uency $ill 'ary < in
other $ords, ho$ thick $ill "e the "unching in the graph=depends upon the amplitude of the
-, oscillation<i.e., loudness of sound=. +his is analogous to the amplitude peak in the case of
amplitude modulation. -lso, the fre0uency of the -, oscillation <i.e., pitch of sound= $ill
determine the num"er of such "unching and spreading per second.
+o sum up, in the case of fre0uency modulation,
1 +he loudness of the sound to "e "roadcast determines the amount of change in the
fre0uency of the &, carrier $a'e <the thickness/density of the "unching in ,ig 1=.
2 +he pitch, i.e., fre0uency of the "roadcast sound determines the num"er of "unching i.e.,
the num"er of fre0uency peaks per second in the modulated $a'e.
Mo#ulation In#e7 m in %!e*uenc" Mo#ulation
#n amplitude modulation <-!=, it is possi"le to 'ary the amplitude of the carrier $a'e <&,=
"et$een 8ero and t$ice its peak 'alue for 133Q modulation% "ut in ,re0uency
modulation<,!=, the 'ariation of the carrier fre0uency "et$een 8ero to t$ice the fre0uency
'alue is neither possi"le nor permissi"le. .y inter national agreement, the limit of fre0uency
112
s$ing has "een fixed at maximum intensity of the "roadcast sound, the carrier fre0uency $ill
'ary $ithin the limit of 153 F1s only <R@5F1/s around the carrier central fre0uency=.
-s in the case of -!, ,re0uency modulated $a'e is also composed of carrier $a'e and side
"ands. 7nlike the simple composition of 2 side fre0uencies "esides the carrier in -! $ith one
pure modulating fre0uency, in ,!, the num"er of side fre0uencies or side "ands for each
modulating -, appears to "e unlimited as sho$n in ,ig 2.
#n ,! although the num"er of side "ands appear to "e unlimited, the strength of the higher
side "ands "ecomes increasingly so fee"le that "eyond a certain num"er the higher
side"ands may "e omitted $ithout impairing the 0uality of the transmitted signal.
+he side "and fre0uencies are:
1st side "and G ,r R fm
2nd side "and G ,r R 2fm
3rd side "and G ,r R 3fm and so on...
(here,
,r is the 1arrier fre0uency <&,=
,m is the !odulating fre0uency <-,=
+he limit is approximately at 1.5 xm max% $here, m max is the maximum 'alue of the
modulation index. !odulation index m denotes the ratio of fre0uency s$ing <d,r= to the
modulating fre0uency <fm=.
+hus,
#f the transmission is to "e high fidelity, all the significant side "ands are to "e retained during
transmission and reception. +herefore the total channel $idth or "and$idth for 4i,i ,!
transmission reception should "e 153 Fc/s x 1.5 G 225 Fc/s.
%M 8!oa#cast 8an#
#n 'ie$ of the large "and$idth occupied "y the ,! transmitters it is not possi"le to range
these transmitters in the !( or e'en 2( "ands. .y international agreement the fre0uency
"and of ;?.5!48 to 133 !48 <3.4m to 3 m= is reser'ed for ,! "roadcasting. .esides the
113
special ,! techni0ue, attention should also "e de'oted to specific 'eryshort$a'e <64,= or
ultra short$a'e <74,= transmission pro"lems.
:.% o! ).% t!ansmission: (ith $a'e lengths smaller than 5 meters, the transmission is
principally "y direct route or "y lineofsight propagation. .ecause of this, the t$o main
conse0uences are,
1= - great part of the radiated energy disappears in the infinite space as "ending "y
ionosphere does not takes place.
2= +he distance of transmission of the transmitter is limited "y the rounding of the earth.
+heoretically it means that reception of ,! signals is possi"le only $hen transmitter and
recei'er aerials can see each other. .ut, practically the distance of ,! transmission is slightly
greater than the theoretical distance. +his means, the communication range for ,!
transmission is generally limited to around 133Fm. +he possi"le distance <d= $hich can "e
"ridged, may "e roughly calculated using the thum" rule formula as follo$s%
(here d G the distance in Fm from transmitter to recei'er.
4 G height of transmitting antenna.
h G height of the recei'ing antenna in meters.
$!inci&le %!e*uenc" Mo#ulation Ci!cuits
+he t$o most popular methods of de'eloping ,re0uency modulated signal are "y,
V#i!ect met-o# in $hich an oscillator is modulated directly "y the audio signal.
Vin#i!ect met-o# in $hich /hase modulation is used to 'ary the carrier to create an ,!
signal. #n this the oscillator used $ill generally "e a crystal controlled oscillator.
L)+E: /hase modulation is another type of modulation in $hich the phase angle of the
carrier is 'aried in accordance $ith the 'ariations in the amplitude of the modulating -,
signal. Lote that phase modulation also creates fre0uency modulation. ,or further details on
phase modulation refer reference "ooks listed at the end of this "ook.
+he simplest method of producing a ,! signal is "y direct method, $herein the modulating
signal 'aries the 'alue of 5 or 1 in an oscillator causing the fre0uency to 'ary. +he "asic
concept is "y ha'ing a capacitor microphone placed directly across the tuning capacitor of a
4artley oscillator. +he 4artley oscillator fre0uency is determined "y the total 5 and 1 in the
tank circuit. (hen the sound $a'es strike the mo'a"le plate of the capacitor microphone, the
capacitance $ill increase or decrease in accordance $ith the loudness of the sound $a'es.
!ore capacitance means less fre0uency% less capacitance means more fre0uency, thus the
output of the oscillator is a fre0uency modulated <,!= $a'e. #n refined systems for producing
,! in'ol'es use of a 'aricap diode <'arector diode= to 'ary the fre0uency of the tank circuit.
,igure 3 sho$s ho$ fre0uency modulation can "e reali8ed.
114
+ransistor J1l and its associated parts make up a series tuned 1olpitts oscillator. 1apacitor
13 and coil 5i ha'e the greatest effect in determining the fre0uency of oscillation. *iode d1 is
a 'aria"le capacitance <'aricap= diode. #t is connected in parallel $ith 13. +his means that as
the capacitance of *1 changes, so $ill the resonant fre0uency of the tank circuit. &esisters &i
and &eform a 'oltage di'ider to "ias the 'aricap diode. 2ome positi'e 'oltage<a portion of
6**= is applied to the cathode of *1 is in re'erse "ias. - 'aricap diode uses its depletion
region as the dielectric. !ore re'erse "ias means a $ider depletion region and less
capacitance. +herefore, as an audio signal goes positi'e, *1 should reduce its capacitance.
+his $ill shift the fre0uency of the oscillator up. - negati'e going audio input $ill reduce the
re'erse "ias across the diode. +his $ill increase its capacitance and shift the oscillator to a
lo$er fre0uency. +hus, the audio signal is modulating the fre0uency of the oscillator. 2uppose
the oscillator fre0uency $as 133 !48<commercial ,! station fre0uency=, and this fre0uency
is "eing modulated $ith a steady 13F48<3.31!48= audio signal, the side"ands produced are
spaced 13F48 apart as sho$n in ,ig 4. +hese side "ands appear a"o'e and "elo$ the
carrier fre0uency as sho$n in ,ig 4. ,rom the fre0uency domain graph sho$n in ,ig 4 it
should "e o"'ious that an ,! signal $ill re0uire more "and$idth than an -! signal.
%M RECEI:ERS
+he "lock diagram for an ,! superheterodyne recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 5.
- typical ,! recei'er "lock diagram is 0uite similar to that of -! recei'er. 4o$e'er, notice
that a limiter stage appears "et$een the #, stage and the detector stage. +his is one $ay an
,! recei'er can reject noise. ,ig ? sho$s $hat happens in a limiter stage.
115
#n the limiter sho$n in ,ig ?, the input signal is 'ery noisy. +he output signal is noisefree. .y
limiting or "y amplitude clipping, all the noise spikes ha'e "een eliminated. 2ome ,!
recei'ers uses t$o stages of limiting to eliminate most noise interference. 5imiting cannot "e
used in an -! recei'er "ecause the amplitude 'ariations carry the information to the detector.
#n ,! reception, the fre0uency 'ariations contain the information. -mplitude clipping in a ,!
recei'er $ill remo'e just the noise "ut does not remo'e the information. *etection in ,! is
more complicated than in -!. 2ince ,! contains se'eral side "ands a"o'e and "elo$ the
carrier, a single nonlinear detector <such as a diode= $ill not demodulate the signal. +o detect
a ,! signal needs a dou"le tuned discriminator circuit as sho$n in ,ig @.
+he discriminator circuit sho$n in ,ig @ can ser'e as an ,! detector. +he discriminator $orks
"y ha'ing t$o resonant points. )ne is a"o'e the carrier fre0uency, and one is "elo$ the
carrier fre0uency. +he fre0uency response cur'es of this discriminator are sho$n in ,ig ;. #n
the fre0uency response cur'es for the discriminator circuit, for represents the correct point on
the cur'es for the carrier. #n a ,! recei'er, the station>s carrier fre0uency $ill "e heterodyned
to f3. +his represents a fre0uency of 13.@ !48 for "roadcast ,! recei'ers. +he heterodyning
process allo$s one discriminator circuit to demodulate
116
any signal o'er the entire commercial ,! "and.
#n the discriminator circuit sho$n in ,ig @, $hen the carrier is unmodulated, *1 and *2 $ill
conduct an e0ual amount. +his is "ecause the circuit is operating $here the fre0uency
response cur'es cross. +he amplitude is e0ual for "oth tuned circuits at this point. +he
current through &1 $ill "e e0ual to the current through &2. #f &1 are e0ual in resistance, the
'oltage drops $ill also "e e0ual. 2ince the t$o 'oltages are seriesopposing, the out put
'oltage $ill "e 8ero. +his means, $hen the carrier is at rest <no modulation=, the discriminator
output is 8ero. 2uppose the carrier shifts higher in fre0uency "ecause of modulation, this $ill
increase the amplitude of the signal in 5212 and decrease the amplitude in 5111. 4ence
there $ill "e more 'oltage across &2 and less across &1. +hus, the output of the
discriminator goes positi'e. )n the other hand $hen the carrier shifts "elo$ f3, the signal is
closer to the resonant point of 5111. !ore 'oltage $ill drop across &1, and less across &2.
4ence, the output goes negati'e.
+he output from the discriminator circuit $ill "e,
V8ero $hen the carrier is at rest,
Vpositi'e $hen the carrier mo'es higher in fre0uency, and
Vnegati'e $hen the carrier mo'es lo$er in fre0uency.
+hus the output of the discriminator is a function of the carrier fre0uency.
Automatic %!e*uenc" cont!ol
+he output of the discriminator can also "e used to correct any drift in the recei'er oscillator
fre0uency. -s sho$n in ,ig 5, ,! detector feeds a signal to the audio amplifier and to. a
stage marked -,1. -,1 stand for automatic fre0uency control. #f the oscillator output
fre0uency happens to change for some reason, then, for $ill not e0ual exactly 13.@ !48.
+here $ill "e a steady *1 output 'oltage from the discriminator. +his *1 'oltage can "e used
as a control 'oltage to change the oscillator fre0uency automatically and set it "ack to 13.@
!48. +he discriminator circuits discussed a"o'e $ork fairly $ell% "ut they are sensiti'e to
amplitude changes. +his is $hy one or t$o limiters are needed for noise free reception. -n
impro'ed method of ,! detection is "y using the ratio detector instead of the discriminator.
&atio detectors are not 'ery sensiti'e to the amplitude of the signal. +his makes it possi"le to
"uild recei'es $ithout limiters and still pro'ide good noise rejection. ,ig A sho$s a typical
ratio detector circuit.
117
+he design of ratio detector is "ased on the idea of di'iding a single 'oltage into a ratio. +his
ratio is e0ual to the ratio of the 'oltages on either side of 52. (ith fre0uency modulation, the
ratio shifts and an audio output signal is a'aila"le at the center tap of 52. 2ince the circuit is
ratiosensiti'e, the input signals amplitude may 'ary o'er a $ide range $ithout causing any
change in output. +his makes detector insensiti'e to amplitude 'ariations such as noise.
+here are 0uite a fe$ other ,! detector circuits used in ,! recei'ers. 2ome of the more
popular ones are,
Vthe 0uadrature detector,
Vthe phaselockedloop detector, and
Vthe pulse$idth detector.
+hese circuits are generally used in conjunction $ith integrated circuits<#1>s=. +hey usually
ha'e the ad'antage of re0uiring no alignment or only one adjustment $hereas alignment for
discriminators and ratio detectors is more timeconsuming.
+he circuit diagram of a simple porta"le ,! recei'er using #1s is sho$n in ,ig 13.
118
A)TOMATIC :OLTA3E STA8ILIBERS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. explain the need for 6oltage le'el sensors
2. state the function of comparators in 'oltage sta"ili8er
3. explain the need for relay dri'ers and their types
4. state the ad'antage of a 2chmitt trigger
5. explain the 4ysteresis effect in relays
?. explain the term cutout in sta"ili8er and their necessity
@. Explain the $orking of an automatic 'oltage sta"ili8er.
119
Electronic 'oltage sta"ili8ers and protection de'ices like o'er'oltage/under'oltage cut outs
uses a 'ariety of electronic circuit such as 'oltage le'el sensors, comparators, relay dri'ers
etc. an understanding of the $orking of these circuit $ill make it easy to understand the
complete circuits and ser'ice the commercial sta"ili8ers
:oltage level senso!s
6oltage sta"ili8ers and cutouts use electronic circuits to detect $hether the line 'oltage is
higher or lo$er than 233 'olts and then operate appropriate relays for correction. *ifferent
methods ha'e "een used to detect the presence of toohigh or toolo$ line 'oltage and
almost all of them depend on the comparison of a fraction of the input 'oltage $ith a fixed
reference 'oltage. 2ince it is easier to compare t$o *1 'oltages rather than t$o -1 'oltages,
the first step in designing a le'el detector is to get a stepped do$n *1 'oltage that is
proportional to the input -1 'oltage. - simple circuit that can do this is sho$n in ,ig 1. #t is
often referred to as a >sensor> circuit.
+he line 'oltage, $hich is to "e sensed, is first stepped do$n "y a transformer then rectified
and filtered to get a *1 'oltage proportional to the -1 input 'oltage. +his *1 'oltage is then
compared $ith a fixed reference 'oltage in a comparator circuit. +he output of the comparator
depends on the difference of the sensor output and the reference output 'oltages.
Com&a!ato!s
2e'eral techni0ues ha'e "een e'ol'ed to compare t$o *1 'oltages. - simple circuit that is
$idely used in commercial e0uipment is sho$n in ,ig 2. #n this circuit, a fraction of the sensor
output 'oltage as decided "y the setting of the potentiometer / is applied to the "ase of an
L/L transistor 'ia a 8ener diode *1 and a small resistor &1. #f 6
#L
is less than 6
8
, the 8ener
diode is re'erse "iased and does not conduct. Lo "ase current therefore flo$s in the "ase
emitter circuit of the transistor and conse0uently its collector current is 8ero "ecause leakage
currents in a silicon transistor are extremely small. #f 6
#L
exceeds 6
8
, *1 conducts and a small
"ase current starts flo$ing. +his produces a large current through the load resistor &
5
in the
collector circuit. +his comparator circuit therefore produces a large current in the load &
5
as
soon as 6
in
exceeds 6
T
&esistor &
1
protects +
1
"y limiting its "ase current to a safe 'alue
under all conditions. +he le'el of input 'oltage at $hich the collector current starts flo$ing can
"e set "y the potentiometer /.
120
,ig 3 sho$s a "asic (heatstone>s "ridge in $hich three fixed resistors &1, &2, &3 and a
'aria"le resistor &4 form the four arms of the "ridge. - close examination $ill sho$ that &1
and &2 form a 'oltage di'ider across the "attery. 2imilarly, &3 and &4 form another 'oltage
di'ider. ,or easy understanding, let us assume that &1 is e0ual to &2. +he 'oltage at point -
is then e0ual to 6/2. #f &3 is also e0ual to &4, the 'oltage at point . $ould also "e e0ual to
6/2. 7nder this condition, the 'oltage difference "et$een points - and . $ill "e 8ero.
4o$e'er, if &4 is less than &3, the 'oltage at point . $ould "e less than 6/2 and point - $ill
"e more positi'e than point .. )n the other hand, if &4 is greater than &3, the *1 'oltage at
point . $ould "e more than that at point - and point . $ill "e no$ positi'e $ith respect to
point -. +hus, the polarity of the output signal "et$een points - and . depends on the
relati'e 'alues of &3 and &4. ,ig 4 sho$s a modified 'ersion of the "asic "ridge in $hich
resistors &1 and &2 form one 'oltage di'ider across the *1 source and resistor &3 and a
8ener diode *1 form another 'oltage di'ides across the same dc source. +he dc 'oltage at
point . is no$ clamped at a fixed 'alue e0ual to the 8ener 'oltage of 8ener diode *1 and is
sho$n as 6
ref
in the figure. +he *1 'oltage at point - can "e changed "y mo'ing the $iper
arm of the potentiometer /. +he polarity of the output signal "et$een points - and . $ould
depend on $hether 6
a
is greater or lesser than 6
ref.
+he output 'oltage $ould "e 8ero if 6
a
is
e0ual to 6
ref
. #n other $ords, the polarity of the output signal tells us $hether 6
a
is more than
or less than 6
ref
.
+he input 'oltage 6
a
$ill also change if there is a change in the *1 supply 'oltage. 5et us
assume that the potentiometer / is set so that 6
a
is e0ual to 6
ref
and the output 'oltage is
8ero. Lo$, if the supply 'oltage 6
#L
happens to rise, 6
a
$ill also rise and the point - $ould go
positi'e $ith respect to point .. +he re'erse $ould happen if 6
#L
happens to fall to a lo$er
'alue. +his circuit can therefore "e used for detecting changes in the input Usupply 'oltage.
)nce set for a 8ero 'oltage reading at a particular 'alue of input 'oltage, it $ould immediately
sho$ $hether there has "een a change in the input supply 'oltage. - practical 'ersion of this
comparator circuit is sho$n in ,ig 5.
121
-s "efore, &1 and &2 form a 'oltage di'ider across the *1 input 'oltage source $hich in this
case, is the output of a sensor circuit of the type sho$n in ,ig 1. &esistor &3 and 8ener diode
*1 clamp the *1 'oltage at the emitter of +1 at a 'alue e0ual to 6
T
+he transistor +1 $ill
therefore conduct only $hen 6
in
exceeds 6
T
O 6
"e
. ,or silicon transistors, 6
"e
is e0ual to 3.?
'olts. &esistor &4 limits the "ase current to a safe 'alue under all conditions. !any 'oltage
regulator circuits use this type of "ridge circuit for input 'oltage le'el sensing. /otentiometer
/ then "ecomes the >set le'el> control.
Rela" #!ive!s
+he outputs of 'oltage le'el detectors are, 'ery often, used to operate relays. - general
purpose 12'olt relay ha'ing a single changeo'er contact has a coil resistance of 233 ohms,
and dra$s ?3 m- from a 12 'olt dc source. #n other $ords, the relay needs 12 x ?3 G @23
milli$atts for its operation. +he same relay mechanism $ith a different coil of ;33 ohms $ill
need 24 'olts and dra$ 33 m-. 2uch a relay can "e operated directly if placed in the collector
circuit of transistor +1 in ,ig5 in place of &
5
. +$o relay dri'ing circuits using silicon npn
transistors are sho$n in ,ig ?.
(hen the input,
dri'e to the "ase of
the dri'er
transistor is
reduced to de
energi8e the relay,
the collector
current falls to 8ero
a"ruptly. +his
sudden s$itching off of the relay current induces a 'ery high "ack emf in the relay coil, $hich
may "e high enough to puncture the collectoremitter junction of the transistor and damage it.
- large capacitor connected in parallel $ith the relay coil as sho$n in ,ig ?" a"sor"s this
transient and protects the transistor. 4o$e'er, a large capacitor in parallel $ith the relay coil
makes the relay operation sluggish. - "etter method is to connect a diode in parallel $ith the
coil as sho$n in ,ig ?a. *uring normal operation, >he diode is re'erse "iased and has no
effect on circuit performance. .ut, $hen the high "ack emf is induced, it has the proper
polarity for the diode to conduct. +he diode therefore conducts hea'ily and a"sor"s all the
transient 'oltage. +he use of a diode in parallel $ith a relay coil is highly recommended.
2ome circuits use a diode for protection and a capacitor also in parallel for slo$ing do$n the
relay operation for some specific applications. - small transistor like .114; or .115; can
operate a small general purpose relay directly. 4o$e'er, if the relay needs more po$er, an
amplifier circuit "ecomes necessary. ,ig @ sho$s t$o npn transistors .114; and 25133
connected as a *arlington pair to dri'e a po$erful relay or a contactor. +he com"ination
$orks like a single transistor $ith 'ery high gain and large current deli'ering capa"ility. ,ig ;
sho$s an npnpnp transistor com"ination that does the same jo".
122
+he collector current of the smaller transistor dri'es the "ase of the "igger transistor directly
and the amplified current can operate a po$erful relay. &esistor &3 limits the "ase current of
+2 to a safe 'alue under all conditions.
#n all the relay dri'er circuits mentioned a"o'e, the relay $ill get energi8ed "y an increase in
input 'oltage. #n some applications, the relay should "e energi8ed $hen the input 'oltage
decreases and get deenergi8ed $hen the input 'oltage increases. +his type of relay
operation can "e o"tained easily "y adding one more transistor to the relay dri'er transistor
of ,ig ?. +he complete circuit is sho$n in ,ig A.
Lormally, $hen transistor +1 is not conducting, +2 is kept fully conducting "y for$ard "ias
current pro'ided "y &2 and the relay remains energi8ed. -n increase in input signal makes
+1 conduct and its collector 'oltage falls to a 'ery lo$ 'alue. +his "ypasses the "ase current
of +2 to ground 'ia +1 and conse0uently +2 stops conducting. +he relay is therefore
released. 6oltage di'ider &3, &4 raises the emitter of +2 a fraction of a 'olt a"o'e the ground
123
le'el to ensure a complete cut off of +2. )ther$ise, a small lefto'er "ias current in +2 may
produce sufficient collector current to keep the relay holding.
+he circuit sho$n in ,ig13 is 'irtually the same as that of ,ig A except that a silicon diode is
used to raise the emitter of +2 "y 3.? 'olts. #n this circuit, +2 $ill stop conducting if the
collector 'oltage falls "elo$ 1.2 'olts. 2ome circuits use the diode "et$een the collector of +1
and "ase of +2 to achie'e the same goal.
Sc-mitt t!igge!
- 2chmitt trigger circuit uses t$o transistors in a directly coupled amplifier circuit. 2nap action
and 4ysteresis are o"tained "y introducing a controlled amount of positi'e <regenerati'e=
feed"ack.
,ig11 sho$s one type of 2chmitt trigger using t$o npn type transistors. +ransistor +1 and +2
form a direct coupled amplifier in $hich the amplified output of +2 is fed "ack to the input of
+1 &2. +his circuit, "ecause of positi'e feed"ack 'ia &2, has t$o sta"le states% one in. $hich
+1 is fully conducting and +2 is fully cut off and another in $hich +1 is fully cut off and +2 is
fully conducting. 6oltage di'ider &4, &5 ensure that +2 is fully cutoff $hen +1 is conducting
<see ,igA=. +he change o'er from one state to another takes place 0uickly "ecause of
positi'e feed"ack. 1apacitor 11, called speedup capacitor, helps in making the change o'er
fast. -nother desira"le feature of this circuit is the hysteresis. 5et us assume that the circuit is
in a state $hen the input signal is sufficient to keep +1 conducting and +2 at cutoff. &elay is
deenergi8ed and the collector 'oltage of +2 is e0ual to supply 'oltage 6cc. #n this state, the
"ase of +1 is recei'ing t$o dri'e signals, one is the input signal and the second is the
feed"ack 'oltage 'ia &2. Lo$, if the input 'oltage is lo$ered, the circuit state $ill not change
"ecause the feed"ack 'oltage $ill continue to hold it in the same state. +1 $ill therefore
continue to conduct until the input 'oltage falls so lo$ that the feed"ack 'oltage is una"le to
hold the relay. (hen this happens, the circuit 0uickly changes state $hen +2 starts
124
conducting and +1 gets cut off. +he 'oltage at the collector of +2 falls to almost 8ero and the
feed"ack 'oltage disappears. Lo$, if the input signal is again increased, &1 and &2 $ill act
as a 'oltage di'ider <taking the collector end of &2 at ground le'el= and only a fraction of the
input 'oltage $ill get applied to the "ase of +1. 4ence, the input 'oltage has to rise to a much
larger 'alue to change the state of the circuit and to deenergi8e the relay. #n short, the circuit
sho$s a hysteresis the amount of $hich depends on the ratio of &1 and &2. Lote that this
circuit has a re'erse action. -n increasing input signal deenergi8es the relay and a
decreasing signal energi8es the relay. ,ig 12 sho$s another type of 2chmitt trigger using a
pair of complementary transistors. -s "efore, +1 and +2 form a direct coupled amplifier in
$hich positi'e feed"ack is pro'ided 'ia &3. 11 is the speed up capacitor. +he "asic
difference in the operation of this circuit is that there is no phase in'ersion. +hat means that
an increasing signal energi8es the relay and a decreasing signal deenergi8es the relay.
+he 'ery high gain and the a'aila"ility of t$o inputs in an operational amplifier, makes it easy
to make a 2chmitt +rigger. )ne circuit using a single rail supply is sho$n in ,ig 13. &esistor
&1 and &2 fix the "ias on the <O= input at 6/2. &3 pro'ides positi'e feed"ack and its 'alue
determines the amount of hysteresis. 11 as "efore, is the speedup capacitor. 2ince the op
amp is used as an in'erting amplifier, an increasing 'oltage gi'es rise to a do$n going output
and 'ice'ersa. +he output is not sufficient to dri'e a relay directly. #t is usually applied to a
relay dri'er for relay operation.
125
Elect!onic cutouts
- >cutout> is a safety de'ice. #t protects costly electrical and electronic e0uipment from line
'oltage fluctuations "y s$itching off the supply $hen the line 'oltage goes toohigh, or falls
toolo$. +he supply to the e0uipment is restored automatically $hen the line 'oltage returns
to its normal 'alue.
Elect!onic &!otection
#t is a $ell kno$n fact that if a higher than normal 'oltage is applied to an electrical or
electronic appliance, the current dra$n "y the appliance may exceed its rated 'alue and "lo$
off the fuse, and e'en "urn out parts of the de'ice. )n the other hand, if a to$er than normal
'oltage is applied to a motor, or to the compressor of a refrigerator, it may not "e a"le to start
the rotor rotating. - stalled motor like this dra$s an excessi'ely large current "ecause of
a"sence of "ack emf, and "urns out 0uickly. -n electronic de'ice that can sense $hether the
line 'oltage is toohigh or toolo$ and then disconnect the supply to the load can pro'ide a
good amount of protection to costly gadgets.
)n#e! voltage cutouts
+he cutouts sho$n in ,ig 14 can "e used as a failsafe under 'oltage cutout "y modifying the
relay contact connections as sho$n in ,ig 15. 6oltages at different points in the 'oltage
di'ider chain &1, /, &2 are sho$n for a condition $hen the line 'oltage is 233 'olts. +he relay
no$ remains energi8ed normally, and feeds po$er to the output socket through its normally
open contacts. )nly $hen the line 'oltage falls "elo$ 1@3 'olts does the relay gets de
energi8ed and cuts off the supply to the output socket. #n the e'ent of this cutout unit failure,
the relay remains deenergi8ed and there $ould "e no po$er in the output socket. +his
condition $ould "e indicated "y a lighted 51 and a dark 52.
126
Ove! voltage / un#e! voltage cut5outs
2ome machines need protection from "oth under 'oltage as $ell as from o'er 'oltage. ,ig
1? sho$s the "lock diagram of an o'er 'oltage/under 'oltage cutout.
+he design consists of t$o independent sensors, a gate and a relay dri'er. )ne sensor
produces an output $hen the line 'oltage goes toohigh and the second sensor produces an
output $hen the line 'oltage falls too lo$. +he t$o sensor outputs are com"ined in an )&
gate. +he output of the )& gate operates a relay or a contactor through a relay dri'er. +he
supply to the load is cutoff immediately as soon as the line input 'oltage goes higher or lo$er
than the t$o preset limits. (hen the line 'oltage returns to a 'alue $ithin the limits, the relay
gets deenergi8ed and the supply to the load is restored. -s can "e seen easily, this cutout is
not a failsafe unit. ,ig 1@ sho$s the "lock diagram of a failsafe o'er'oltage/ under 'oltage
cutout. +he ^)&Z gate has "een replaced "y L)& gate and the load does not recei'e any
po$er until the relay is energi8ed. +he load recei'es po$er only $hen the input 'oltage is
127
neither toohigh nor toolo$.
'ela"e# o&e!ation
5et us consider that a refrigerator is operating directly on mains supply $ithout any protection
de'ice and that the mains supply fails for a fe$ seconds at a time $hen the compressor
motor is running. +he motor comes to a halt 0uickly. Lo$, $hen the supply is restored after a
fe$ seconds, the motor is una"le to start again "ecause of the hea'y "ack pressure
de'eloped "y the gas compressed "y the motor. - stalled motor like this dra$s hea'y current
and "ums out. 4o$e'er, if the supply is restored after a delay of t$o or three minutes, the
gas pressure inside the system gets enough time to attain e0uili"rium and then the motor can
start easily. 4ence, in addition to o'er'oltage and under'oltage protection, refrigerators
re0uire one more type of protection, i.e. delayed turnon e'ery time the po$er is turned off.
Cutouts in stabiliEe!s
6oltage sta"ili8ers ha'e definite upper and lo$er limits "eyond $hich they do not $ork.
+ypically a commercial unit may gi'e a sta"ili8ed output $hen the input 'aries from 1@3 'olts
to 2?3 'olts. .ut in many localities the 'oltage 'ariations do exceed these limits fre0uently.
!any sta"ili8er manufacturers therefore also include an electronic cutout circuitry inside the
sta"ili8er ca"inet. ,or e0uipments like +6, radios, record players etc. a 'ery lo$ 'oltage may
produce an erratic operation "ut $ill not damage the e0uipment. 2ta"ili8ers for such de'ices
may therefore include only an o'er'oltage cutout. 2ta"ili8ers for refrigerators and other
machines $here a lo$ 'oltage can "e harmful should ha'e "oth o'er 'oltage as $ell as
under 'oltage cut outs
Manual stabiliEe!s +it- auto5cut out
- "ig dra$"ack of the manually operated 'oltage sta"ili8ers descri"ed a"o'e is that they
need constant attention. +hey also do not ha'e any means of protection to the load <gadget=
again sudden line 'oltage changes. ,or illustration, let us suppose that the line 'oltage is lo$%
say 1;3 'olts and the sta"ili8er has "een set to gi'e an output of 233 'olts. Lo$, if the line
'oltage returns to its normal 'alue of 233 'olts, the output 'oltage $ill shoot up to 2@5 'olts.
+his can cause an irrepara"le damage to the costly gadget. .etter types of commercially
a'aila"le manual 'oltage sta"ili8ers therefore also contain an o'er 'oltage cutout circuit.
Automatic voltage stabiliEe!s
!anually operated 'oltage sta"ili8ers descri"ed in the pre'ious chapter are, simple and
cheap de'ices "ut they need constant attention. Mou ha'e to keep a good $atch on the meter
128
needle and reset the output 'oltage again and again, e'ery time the output 'oltage changes.
!oreo'er, in case there is a sudden "ig jump in the line 'oltage, the gadget operated 'ia
sta"ili8er may get damaged "efore you react. )f course, an o'er 'oltage protection circuit, if
"uilt inside the sta"ili8er, $ill pre'ent such a casually, "ut an automatic 'oltage sta"ili8er is
much more con'enient to use.
Automatic stabiliEe!s
#n general, automatic 'oltage sta"ili8ers $ork the same $ay as the manual one except that
s$itching is done "y electromagnetic relays. ,ig 1; is a "lock diagram sho$ing the "asic
principle of $orking of automatic 'oltage sta"ili8ers.
#n addition to a tapped transformer, automatic sta"ili8ers ha'e additional electronic circuitry to
sense the changes in the input 'oltage "y comparing them $ith a fixed reference 'oltage and
then energies appropriate relay to s$itch the transformer taps. +he num"er of taps on the
autotransformer depends on the num"er of relays used for s$itching. 2imple units use one
relay only $hile more ad'anced types ha'e t$o or three relays.
129
130
SER:O CONTROLLE' :OLTA3E STA8ILIBERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 2tate the ad'antages of the ser'o sta"ili8ers to that of relay "ased sta"ili8ers
2. Explain the principle of ser'o operation
3. 2tate the type of transformer used in ser'o sta"ili8ers.
131
Se!vo cont!olle# stabiliEe!s
6oltage regulators using relays change output in steps. +hey maintain the output 'oltage
$ithin certain limits, e.g.213243 'olts. +his range, though usa"le for many applications, is
0uite large and this much of 'oltage 'ariation is not accepta"le for some applications, $here
the line 'oltage must "e maintained $ithin tight limits. -lso, in applications like computers, the
interruption of po$er "y relays is not accepta"le. 2er'o controlled 'oltage sta"ili8ers do not
ha'e these dra$ "acks and are therefore used in applications $here uninterrupted highly
sta"le po$er supply is a re0uirement. +his type of sta"ili8er uses a 'ariac dri'en "y a ser'o
motor for 'oltage control.
Se!vo moto!s
- ser'o motor is a small motor capa"le of rotating in either direction. #ts direction of rotation is
controlled "y external circuits. +o ha'e "etter tor0ue, such motors are fitted $ith a set of
speed reduction gears. - *1 motor can "e used as a ser'o motor "ecause its direction of
rotation can "e changed easily "y re'ersing the polarity of the dri'ing 'oltage. -1 ser'o
motors are "asically t$ophase s0uirrel cage induction motors and can "e operated on single
phase supply through split phase capacitors. ,igl sho$s a "asic circuit in $hich the direction
of rotation of motor is re'ersed "y s$itching the phase shift capacitor from one stator $inding
to another "y a singlepole changeo'er s$itch.
.ack.oost control #n ser'o controlled 'oltage sta"ili8ers, the 'ariac is used as an
autotransformer to feed po$er to a "uck"oost transformer as sho$n in ,ig 2 +his "uck"oost
transformer is sometimes also referred to as a >series control> transformer. +he amount of
"uck or "oost depends on the 'alue of the 'oltage applied to the primary of series control
transformer. (hether the induced 'oltage in the secondary $ill "uck or "oost the line 'oltage
depends on the position of the $iper arm $ith respect to tap - on the 'ariac. +o understand
this, let us suppose that the $iper arm . is "elo$ tap - as sho$n in the figure, and that the
'oltage induced in the secondary is such that it "ucks the line 'oltage. +he output 'oltage is
therefore lesser than the line 'oltage "y a certain amount. -s the $iper arm mo'es up
to$ards -, the 'oltage applied to the primary "ecomes lesser and lesser and so does the
amount of "ucking. +he result is that the output 'oltage increases gradually.
132
(hen the $iper arm reaches point -, the input 'oltage to the primary "ecomes 8ero and
there is no 'oltage induced in the secondary. -t this moment, the output 'oltage is e0ual to
the line 'oltage. -s the $iper arm mo'es further up$ards, the amount of 'oltage applied to
the primary starts increasing and so does the induced 'oltage in the secondary. 4o$e'er, the
phase of the ac 'oltage applied to the primary is re'ersed "ecause the $iper arm is no$ on
the other side of point -. +he result is that the 'oltage induced in the secondary starts
"oosting the line 'oltage and the output 'oltage "e comes greater than the line 'oltage. #n
other $ords, the output 'oltage continues to increases as the $iper arm mo'es from the
"ottom of the 'ariac to the top. +hus, $e see that a 'ariac can "e used to "uck or "oost the
line 'oltage "y a continuously adjusta"le amount. 2er'o controlled 'oltage sta"ili8ers use this
"asic principle of operation. +he mo'ement of the $iper arm is controlled "y a ser'o motor
and electronic circuit.
Se!vo cont!olle# stabiliEe!s
+he "lock diagram sho$n in ,ig 3 explains the "asic $orking of a ser'o controlled sta"ili8er.
- 'ariac $ith a tap is connected to a "uck"oost transformer in a $ay similar to that sho$n in
,ig 2. +he output 'oltage is continuously monitored "y electronic circuits to see if it is correct
and $ithin limits. +his is done "y comparing the sensor 'oltage $ith a reference 'oltage. #f
there is a difference, the difference 'oltage is amplified "y an amplifier circuit. +he amplified
output turns the ser'o motor in appropriate direction so as to correct the output and "ring it
"ack to its pre'ious 'alue. +he le'el of the output 'oltage can "e 'aried $ithin certain limits
<say 2136 to 2436= "y 'arying the 'alue of reference 'oltage. +his control is mounted on the
front panel and is marked as >5E6E5> control.
133
-nother control mounted on the front panel is the >2EL2#+#6#+M> control. +his controls the
gain of the amplifier. #f the gain is too large, the hysteresis "ecomes small and the sta"ili8er
"ecomes 'ery sensiti'e. #t tries to make corrections e'en for 'ery small changes in the line
'oltage. +he result is that the motor is constantly mo'ing for$ards and re'erse to sta"ili8e the
output. +his is an unsta"le state and is not desira"le. /ractical circuits are therefore so
adjusted that the motor does not mo'e till the output 'oltage de'iates from its normal 'alue "y
a certain amount. &educing the amplifier gain or increasing the le'el of hysteresis introduces
sta"ility in the system. +hus, re0uirements of sta"ility are opposite to those for sensiti'ity. #n
practice, a good compromise is used to get optimum performance.
,ig 4 sho$s the "asic electrical circuit of a ser'o controlled sta"ili8er. +he 'oltage sensing
and control circuits control the operation of t$o relays. )ne relay turns the ser'o motor
clock$ise and the second relay turns it anticlock$ise. +he relays open $hen the output has
reached its correct 'alue. *uring operation it may happen that the line 'oltage goes too lo$
or too high, and the ser'o motor, in an effort to correct the output, goes on turning the $iper
arm till it reaches the 'ariac end. -n effort to turn it further may result in damage to 'ariac or
to motor. 6ariacs in ser'o controlled sta"ili8ers are therefore fitted $ith >limit s$itches> that cut
off the supply to the motor $hen the $iper arm reaches either end. 5imit s$itches are micro
s$itches of the type sho$n in ,ig 5. +hey are actuated "y cams mounted on the shaft of the
'ariac.
134
CONSTANT :OLTA3E TRANS%ORMER STA8ILIBERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the principle of 16+
2. 2tate the ad'antages of 16+ sta"ili8ers o'er other type of sta"ili8ers
3. 5ist the type of e0uipment $hich re0uires 16+ sta"ili8ers.
135
!agnetic 'oltage sta"ili8ers are solid state magnetic de'ices. +hey are designed to gi'e
constant output 'oltage $hich is unaffected "y changes in the input 'oltage or changes in the
load. +hese 'oltage sta"ili8ers offer many distinct ad'antages o'er other types of sta"ili8ers.
Magnetic stabiliEe!s
1onstant -1 input 'oltage is essential for the effecti'e operation of many electrical de'ices,
"oth of la"oratory and industrial types. 2ta"ili8ers using electromagnetic relays adjust the
output 'oltage in steps. +he po$er supply is interrupted each time the s$itching operation
takes place. #n spite of this dra$"ack, these types of sta"ili8ers ha'e found $idespread
usage in a large 'ariety of noncritical applications "ecause they are comparati'ely cheap,
light in $eight and easy to maintain. 2er'o controlled sta"ili8ers do not interrupt supply and
can keep the output 'oltage sta"ili8ed $ithin narro$ limits. .ut they are "ulky and expensi'e.
+heir sluggish response is not accepta"le in applications $here speed of response is an
important consideration. 2ome examples are #ncandescentlamp light source <photometry=,
printing, color comparators, photoelectric applications, spectrography, 'acuum tu"e
'oltmeters, picture transmission and tele'ision instruments etc. !agnetic 'oltage sta"ili8ers
offer distinct ad'antage in such applications. +hey do not ha'e any mo'ing part and therefore
pro'ide instantaneous correction to line 'oltage and load changes. +heir main dra$"ack is
that they produce $a'eform distortion $hile sta"ili8ers using relays and 6ariacs do not
produce any $a'eform distortion.
!agnetic sta"ili8ers are a'aila"le $ith a po$er handling capa"ility from 256- to 33336-.
2alient features of these de'ices are gi'en "elo$:
,ast regulation action. &esponse time is less than .33 sec.
Lo mo'ing or rene$a"le parts for manual adjustment.
1ompletely automatic continuous regulation.
2elfprotecting against o'erloads.
1urrentlimiting protects e0uipment from excessi'e fault currents.
!agnetic sta"ili8ers are sensiti'e to fre0uency of -1 supply. +hey are designed for one
fre0uency of operation. - unit designed for 53 48 should "e operated on 53 48 and 'ice
'ersa as one 48 change in fre0uency produces 1.5Q change in output 'oltage in the same
direction.
!agnetic sta"ili8ers also produce $a'eform distortion. +he $a'eform changes $ith input
'oltage as $ell as according to change in load. #t is rich in 3
rd
harmonics. 4armonic content is
maximum $hen input 'oltage is highest and there is no load. 7nder these conditions 3rd
harmonics are a"out 23Q. +echnical specifications for a typical sta"ili8er are gi'en "elo$:
#L/7+ 6)5+-9E 1;3 to 253 'olts -1
#L/7+ ,&EJ7EL1M 53 48 only
)7+/7+ 6)5+-9E 243 6 -1 R1Q
$!inci&le o O&e!ation
+he static magnetic regulating transformer is also kno$n as the constant 'oltage transformer
or a ,erro resonant transformer. #t $orks on the principle of magnetic saturation. #n this type
of transformer, the flux in the primary magnetic circuit is accommodated "y unsaturated core
material, as in a con'entional transformer. +he secondary flux, ho$e'er, encounters
saturated iron. +herefore, a change in the primary flux produces far less than a proportionate
change in secondary flux. +hus, the secondary induced 'oltage remains relati'ely
independent of the 'oltage impressed upon the primary $inding.
136
,ig 1 sho$s the magnetic paths to sho$ the $orking of the magnetic transformer. - magnetic
shunt "et$een the t$o $indings ena"les much of the secondary flux to "e decoupled from
the primary $inding. !oreo'er, capacitor 1 causes a large reacti'e current in the secondary
$indings, there"y saturating the secondary magnetic circuit. 2uch saturation increases the
magnetic isolation "et$een the t$o $indings "ecause then more primary flux takes path
through the magnetic shunt. )f course, complete decoupling $ould lea'e the secondary
isolated from its source of energy, $hich is the primary circuit. ,or this reason, and also
"ecause the transition form unsaturated to saturated core region is rather gradual, the
regulating action is less than perfect. 1onsidera"le impro'ement is "rought a"out "y an
additional $inding. +his $inding carries -1 load current and opposes the primary flux. +his,
in essence, constitutes regulation. 4igher secondary 'oltage tends to produce increased -1
load current, "ut this current then causeZs further decoupling action, there"y reducing the
'oltage induced in the secondary. - re'erse action takes place $hen the secondary 'oltage
decreases. +he use of such a transformer also limits dissipation from o'ercurrent or a short
circuit in the load. Excessi'e current demand greatly reduces the mutual flux "et$een the
primary and secondary $indings, and the secondary 'oltage rapidly falls to 8ero. +he
secondary capacitor tries to "ring the secondary to near resonance. 4ence, the secondary
dra$s a lot of reacti'e current. -lso, the secondary 'oltage is higher than indicated "y
secondaryprimary turns ratio "ecause of the increased secondary flux caused "y the
capacitor current. - typical ,erro resonant transformer $ill pro'ide a tentoone impro'ement
o'er the 'ariations in ra$ po$erline 'oltage. +hey also produce surprisingly good load
regulation, R2Q "eing typical. )n the other hand, the ,erro resonant transformer is
considera"ly larger and hea'ier than the con'entional transformer of the same po$er
capacity. +heir response time is slo$ <2 to 5 cycles of ac fre0uency=. +hey also tend to "e
sensiti'e to supply line fre0uency, "ut for most applications, that is pro"a"ly not of
significance. +hey deli'er a $a'eform that is considera"le departure from a sine $a'e, $ith a
general tendency to approach a s0uare $a'e. -ctually, the harmonics of such a $a'eform
yield readily to filtering. -t the same time, rectifying elements recei'e less strain from peak
'oltages than $hen connected to a sine $a'e source.
137
138
139
)NINTERR)$TE' $O,ER S)$$LY /)$S1
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the necessity of an 7/2
2. 5ist the 'arious "locks of an 7/2 and their functions
3. 5ist different types of 7/2
4. Explain the different types of s$itching circuits used in an 7/2
5. Explain the relation ship "et$een the "attery and the 7/2 "ackup time.
140
+he malfunctions in electronic e0uipment and sophisticated electronic control systems and
circuits can "e directly attri"uted to po$er line distur"ances and such machines must "e
protected against any changes in 'oltage of the -1 supply due to sags, surges, spikes,
transients, &,#, fre0uency 'ariations short interruption, "ro$n outs and "lack outs as sho$n
in ,ig 1. - dedicated line is not solution for a"o'e mentioned pro"lems as it cannot pro'ide
protection from any externally generated interference. +he only realistic and dependa"le
solution for long time protection to any systems is to install a po$er conditioning system.
)ninte!!u&tible &o+e! su&&lies
7ninterrupti"le po$er supply systems are also called as stand "y po$er supplies, "ecause
they are commonly used as stand "y sources for critical loads and in applications $here
normal -1 supplies are not a'aila"le.
7/2s are classified as follo$s
),, line 7/2.
)L line 7/2.
#n the case of off line, 7/2 is directly connected to the mains as long as the mains are on.
(hen the mains fail, a relay s$itches the load to the "atteries $hich in'ert the po$er and
supply the load. (hen the po$er in on, since the load is directly connected to the mains, all
the fluctuations felt in the main supply are conse0uently passed on to the load. .y "ulk/"oast
transformer, in this circuit, the 'oltage can "e regulated O/ 12Q of the set 'oltage. - )ffline
7/2 essentially single con'ersion de'ice in $hich the s$itch o'er time from the mains to the
"attery are of the order of ;13 milliseconds. #n a online 7/2 systems, the load is al$ays
connected through the in'erter and is isolated from the mains. +he load is al$ays fed from
the in'erter and recei'es po$er all the time. +he s$itch o'er time from mains to "attery is
8ero. +hese machines are essentially dou"le con'ersion machines $here -1 is con'erted to
*1 and *1 "ack to -1. +he output $a'e is generally s0uare $a'e. -n uninterrupti"le po$er
supply <7/2= con'erts the -1 !ains supply to a pure *1 6oltage using a closed loop high
accuracy electronic circuitry, there"y a'oiding spikes and fluctuations in the fre0uency. +he
*1 'oltage is in'erted to -1 'oltage $ith 'ery high efficiency. +he output $a'e form is pure
sinusoidal in nature. +he *1 /o$er /ack is supported $ith a set of floating "atteries $hich
$ill take o'er the in'erter $ith an a"solute 8ero second cross o'er. +he general "lock
diagram of an 7/2 is sho$n in ,ig 2.
141
8loc@ #iag!am o )$S
7/2 are highly relia"le, "ecause they pro'ide the ultimate po$er line condition and protect
electronic e0uipment from all line 'oltage distur"ances such as fre0uency 'ariation, drop outs
and total po$er failure. +oday 7/2 is an essential re0uirement in application such as E*/
centers, 4ospitals, .anks, #nsurance stock exchanges etc, $here 133Q po$er supply
efficiency is a"solutely essential. - detailed "lock diagram and its function is gi'en in ,ig 3.
'esc!i&tion
*escription of the circuits $ithin each "lock is as follo$s:
$,M cont!olle! /IC S32I<IA1
#t can operate o'er a range of 'oltages from ;6 to 356. #t pro'ides as internally trimmed
reference of O5.1 6 R1Q at its /in 1? $hich is capa"le of sourcing 23m- maximum current.
+he follo$ing circuits are "uiltin circuits of this /(! 1ontroller
1. )scillator
2. /(! 1omparator
3. ,E+ *ri'er
4. Error -mplifier
+he oscillator operates at fre0uencies ranging from 133 48 to 433 F48. ,or 5348 output the
142
oscillator fre0uency should "e 133 48. )utputs are positi'e pulses $ith 'aria"le duty cycle
$ith a dead time controlla"le. #n shut do$n state "oth outputs from the controller drop to near
ground le'el ensuring complete s$itching off of the !)2,E+ "ased po$er amplifier stage.
+he error amplifier pro'ides an open loop *1 gain of @5 d"s typically. ,or positi'e error
'oltage, the reference input is connected to the nonin'erting and error 'oltage sample to the
in'erting input pins of the error amplifier for pulse $idth modulation. +he reference input le'el
could "e selected near 2.5 'olts. +he error 'oltage may then "e adjusted to o"tain
approximately 4; percent pulse $idth $hen the output is a round the nominal 'oltage. -ny
increase in error 'oltage $ound then result in. corresponding decrease in pulse $idth and
'ice 'ersa.
$o+e! am&liie! inve!te! section
+he po$er amplifier section has t$o sets of three po$er !)2,E+s connected is parallel for
/ush pull )peration. -n integral protecti'e diode is connected across source and drain of
each !)2,E+. +he po$er transformer $ith integral charging $inding is designed to deli'er
2336 -1 $ith effecti'e primary 'oltage at 226. +he charger $indings are calculated $ith
2336 input in main secondary to pro'ide a maximum of 346 -1 at 5-. +he E!#/&!# filter is
used to remo'e the harmonics from the output of in'erter and gi'es the pure 'oltage $a'e. -
maintenance free "attery is used to gi'e *1 supply to in'erter circuit. Lormally O246 "attery
is used.
Mains sam&ling ci!cuit
+he mains supply to the circuit is connected from a 3/in plug s$itch. +he supply is routed to
the mains sampling circuit comprising optocoupler, transistor, relay and associated
components.
Cu!!ent sam&ling ci!cuit
+he current transformer is connected in series $ith the secondary of output transformer and
load. +his current transformer produces approximately 4 'olts -1 outputs of primary current
of 3 amperes. +his circuit is used to indicate the o'erload condition. #f load current exceeds
2-, it indicates o'er load condition.
Tem&e!atu!e monito! ci!cuit
+his circuit has a comparator and a transistor. (hen temperature exceeds a permissi"le limit
output of comparator $ill go high. +he comparator output is gi'en to "ase of the transistor.
+hen therefore the transistor $ill get for$ard "iased and o'er temperature 5E* $ill light up.
8atte!" monito! ci!cuit
+his circuit monitors the "attery 'oltage. 4ere "ar/dot display #1 5!3A14 is used in dotmode
to display the "attery 'oltage and also to operate the circuit for lo$ and o'er charged
condition of "attery.
E!!o! sam&ling ci!cuit
(hen mains are a"sent or $hen mains 'oltage is 'ery lo$, relay is in deenergi8ed state. +he
-1 output is routed to transformers in the error sampling circuit as sho$n in the ,ig 1.
%eatu!es
1. -utomatic change o'er occurs from mains to in'erter operation on mains failure.
2. - single transformer is used to cater for in'erter output and "attery charger. +he
charger portion of the secondary $inding is disconnected from the charger in case of
143
mains failure and also $hen the "attery tends to reach the o'ercharged condition.
3. +he error 'oltage is de'eloped from the -1 output $hen in'erter is in operation.
4. -utomatic shut off of the in'erter occurs $hen any of the follo$ing conditions are
present.
i. !ains supply is a'aila"le.
ii .attery 'oltage is "elo$ a minimum le'el.
iii. +emperature exceeds specified limit.
i'. -n o'erload occurs.
'. !anual shutoff s$itch is operated.
5. 5E* indicators are included to indicated the follo$ing:
i. (hether mains is a'aila"le <or= in'erter is on.
ii. )'er load condition.
#ii. )'er temperature condition.
i'. .attery 'oltage le'el including lo$ and o'ercharged condition.
?. #n addition to 5E* indications an auto $arning is included for lo$ "attery, o'erload and
o'er temperature conditions. +he output 'oltage $a'eforms are sho$n in ,ig 4.
144
145
'I3ITAL IC %AMILIES AN' T.EIR O$ERATIONAL
C.ARACTERISTICS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. explain the "asic terms related to digital #1 gates
2. recogni8e the different types of packages of #1<s= used in the digital #1
3. list different le'els of integration used in fa"rication of digital #1
4. differentiate logic families and their characteristics
5. explain safety precaution to "e adopted $hile handling 1!)2 #1<s=
?. compare the ++5 and 1!)2 families
@. Explain digital #1 num"ering system.
146
INTRO')CTION
- digital system is a com"ination of de'ices designed to /rocess information that are
represented in digital form. Example of a fe$ most popular digital systems are,
*igital computers
1alculators
*igital -udio and 'ideo E0uipments
+elephone system, etc__
*igital +elephony is pro"a"ly the $orld>s largest digital system. #n electronic circuits, signals
are represented in 'oltage or current. #n these circuits, the signal representation $ill ha'e a
num"er of 'oltage or current le'els.
#n such analog signals, the transition from one le'el to another is usually smooth rather than
sudden and the transition "et$een them is also smooth rather than sudden. *igital signals on
the other hand can ha'e only t$o discrete states. +hese states can "e called as,
ON state: A state at $hich a predefined 'oltage is present. ,or example, the le'el could
"e, O5 6olts, O136olts and it is also represented as high, one, etc.
O%% state: - state at $hich a predefined 'oltage is other than the )L state 'oltage is
present. ,or example, the le'el could "e, 3 6olts, 5 6olts and it is also represented as
lo$, 8ero etc.,
+he discrete le'els in digital signals are technically referred to as logic le'els. 9enerally, the
)L state descri"ed a"o'e is referred as the 5)9#1 1 state and the ),, state as the 5)9#1
3 state. #t is 'ery essential to note that, in digital signal representation, no state exists in
"et$een the logic3 and logic1 state. ,or example, if $e say 5ogic) corresponds to 3 'olts
and 5ogic1 corresponds to 1 'olt. #n such a digital system, 'oltage le'els of 2', 3', 4' etc.,
ha'e no meaning <further details are discussed in lessons that follo$s=. .ecause the
transition time "et$een )L to ),, state or 'ice 'ersa is a"rupt in digital signals, analysis of
digital systems 'aries from that of pure analog systems such as amplifiers etc., 1ompared to
analog circuits, digital circuits contains less num"er of discrete components such as resistors,
capacitors etc., +his is mainly for the reason that the #ntegrated circuit<#1= technology has
ad'anced so much, millions of components can "e prefa"ricated in a single #1. !ost digital
circuits are made of such 652# <'ery large scale #ntegration= #1 as its main circuit component
$ith a fe$ decoupling capacitor for supplying clean *1 'oltage. #t is important to note that
any analog signal can "e con'erted to a digital signal <in the form 1s or )s=. Example gi'en
"elo$ gi'es a clue a"out ho$ analog signals can "e represented as digital signals,
-L-5)9 6)5+-9E *#9#+-5 6-57E
3 'olt 3333
1 'olt 3331
2 'olt 3313
3 'olt 3311
4 'olt 3133
5 'olt 3131
? 'olt 3113
@ 'olt 3111
; 'olt 1333
A 'olt 1331
147
13 'olt 1313
*etails of ho$ this con'ersion is done are discussed in further lessons.
*igital systems offer the follo$ing ad'antages o'er analog systems,
Easier to design
#nformation storage is easy
-ccuracy and precision are greater
/rogramma"le
1ircuitry can "e fa"ricated on #1 chips more easily
4igh speed functions
+he operations carried out using digital signals are called 5ogic operations. Example of 5ogic
operation is gi'en "elo$%
-ssuming there are t$o inputs and if the #nputs are,
-the circuit output should be Logic-1 if atleast any one of the two inputs is Logic-1.
- circuit that performs such a logical operation is called as a OR gate.
The circuit output should be Logic-1 only when both the inputs are Logic Vs.
- circuit that performs such a logical operation is called as a AN' gate.
The circuit output should be inversed of the input. If the input is Logic-1, then the
output should be Logic- and vice-versa. - circuit that performs such a logical
operation is called as a NOT gate.
E'ery logic operation, e'en the most extensi'e and the most complicated can "e reduced to
com"inations of the a"o'e said three "asic logic functions. .y com"ining these three
operations, se'eral other functions such L-L*, L)& and so on <discussed in further
paragraphs=. +hese "asic functional circuits are called 9ates, such as )& gate, -L* gate
and L)+ gate. +he practical implementation of logic operations is effected "y logic circuits. #n
the meantime, a large num"er of circuit families ha'e "een produced in integrated circuit
technology. +he starting point of standard de'elopment $as the ++5 <+ransistor+ransistor
5ogic= family <earlier to it $as the &+5 and *+5 families=, from $hich se'eral other families
$ith impro'ed properties ha'e "een deri'ed. +he ++5 family of gates has defined 'oltage
le'els and permissi"le tolerances. 2ome of the important terminologies associated $ith digital
#1s are gi'en "elo$%
TERMINOLO3Y O% 'I3ITAL IC9S
Satu!ate# logic gate
- form of logic gate in $hich one output state is the saturation 'oltage of a transistor.
!"ample
&esistor +ransistor 5ogic <&+5= ,*iode +ransistor 5ogic <*+5= and +ransistor +ransistor 5ogic
<++5=.
)nsatu!ate# logic o! cu!!ent mo#e logic gate.
- form of logic $ith transistors outside the saturated region.
!"ample
1urrent !ode 5ogic <1!5= and Emitter 1oupled 5ogic. +his has ultrafast s$itching speed
and lo$ logic s$ing.
O&e!ating voltages
+he 'arious operating 'oltages of a logic gate can "e understood $ith the help of the transfer
characteristic of the gate as sho$n in ,ig 1.
148
6)4 +he minimum 'oltage $hich $ill "e a'aila"le at a gate output $hen the output is
supposed to "e at logic >1>.
6#4 +he minimum gate input 'oltage $hich $ill unam"iguously "e accepted "y the gate as
logic >1>.
6)5 +he maximum 'oltage $hich $ill appear at a gate output $hen the output is supposed
to "e at logic >3>.
6#5 +he maximum gate input 'oltage $hich $ill unam"iguously "e accepted "y the gate as
logic >3>.
5ogic s$ing: +he difference "et$een the t$o output 'oltages <6)4 6)5= is kno$n as the
logic s$ing of the circuit. +hat is,
logic s$ing G 6)4 ` 6)5
Noise ma!gin
+he amount of 'oltage of extraneous signal $hich can "e tolerated "efore an output 'oltage
of gate de'iates from the allo$a"le logic 'oltage le'els.
+he different noise margins of a logic gate can "e understood $ith the help of logic le'el
diagram at ,ig 2.
Lo+ Level noise Ma!gin
+he difference <6#5 6)5= is lo$ le'el noise margin <*)= *) G 6#5 6)5
.ig- level noise ma!gin
+he difference <6)4 6#4= is high le'el noise margin <*1= *1 G 6)4 6#4
149
T!ansition +i#t-:
,rom ,ig 2, transition $idth G 6#4 6#5
#t can "e seen that an increased noise margin capa"ility is o"tained as either 6)4 or 6)5
mo'e a$ay from each other or as 6#4 and 6#5 mo'e to$ard each other. (ith a larger logic
s$ing or a narro$er transition $idth, the noise margins $ill impro'e.
Noise immunit"
2tray electric and magnetic fields can induce 'oltages on the connecting $ires "et$een logic
circuits. +hese un$anted signals are kno$n as noise and they may cause the 'oltage at the
input to a logic circuit to drop "elo$ 6#4 <min= or rise a"o'e 6#5 <max=, $hich may lead to
unpredicta"le operation. +he noise immunity of a logic circuit refers to the circuitZs a"ility to
tolerate noise $ithout causing un$anted changes in the output 'oltage.
%an5out
+he num"er of loads connected to a gate is kno$n as fan out of the gate. +he num"er of
load gates need not "e a limiting num"er of load gates need not "e a limiting num"er. #t is
also kno$n as loading factor. ,or example, a logic gate that is specified to ha'e a fanout of
13 can dri'e 13 standard logic inputs. #f this num"er is exceeded, the output logicle'el
'oltages cannot "e guaranteed.
T"&es o IC &ac@age
+he #1s come in a $ide 'ariety of package types. +he factors $hich determine the type of
package are
-mount of circuitry contained in the #1
Lum"er of external connections that need to "e made to it.
4umidity of the en'ironment, am"ient temperature at $hich the #1 is to operate
!ethod of mounting on the /1..
'I$ >'ual in line &ac@age?
+he external connecting pins are in parallel ro$s along the t$o long edges of the package as
sho$n in ,ig 3. #n *#/ #1s, num"er of pins 'aries from 4 to ?4 depending on the internal
circuitry. ,or lo$ temperature and lo$ humidity, epoxy plastic packages are used. ,or high
temperature or for de'ices that dissipate large amount of po$er, ceramic packages are used.
Ce!amic lat &ac@age
+his type of #1 packages are hermetically sealed as sho$n in ,ig 4, $hich means that they
are totally immune to the effects of humidity. +hese packages are often used in military
150
e0uipments that they must "e a"le to $ithstand harsh en'ironments. /ins are counted
around the package from notch or dot. +hese packages are usually mounted in high 0uality
sockets on the circuit "oard.
Su!ace mount &ac@age
+his popular package is similar to the standard 'I$ except that it is smaller and, as the name
implies, its pins are constructed so that it can "e soldered directly to metal pads on the /1..
)ne type of 2!+ package called small out line #1 is sho$n in ,ig 5a. 2ince surface mount
packages are soldered on one surface of the circuit "oard, holes don>t ha'e to "e drilled on
the /1.. 2urface mount de'ices ha'e further ad'antages, that they are more easily handled
"y e0uipment, $hich automatically mounts components in the correct position on circuit
"oards during manufacturing. +he /511 </lastic 5aded chip carrier= type package is sho$n
in ,ig 5". -nother 'ariety of 2!+ package is kno$n as ,lat pack is sho$n in ,ig 5c.
Ce!amic c-i& ca!!ie! &ac@age
+hese chips are intended to "e clamped into a socket as sho$n in ,ig ? so that the pads
press against contacts $hich are connected to /.1.. signal lines pin 133 this package is to
the right of the notched corner.
151
$in 3!i# a!!a" $ac@age
+hese #1s are used for 652# digital circuits such microprocessor. +he num"er of pins in the
array depends on the complexity of the internal circuit. +he four corner pin positions are
usually left $ithout pins. 1ommon array si8es are 13 x 13, 13 x 13 and 14 x 14, large #1s
such as these are put in sockets so they can easily "e replaced if the de'ice fails.
SI0No0 Com&le7it" Numbe! o
3ates
A&&lication
1 2mallscale integration <22#= ,e$er than 12 .asic gates
2 !ediumscale integration <!2#= 12 to AA ,lipflops, regiater etc.
3 5argescale integration <52#= 133 to AAAA !emories, microprocessor
4 6ery largescale integration
<652#=
13,333 to AA,AAA do
5 7ltra largescale integration
<752#=
133,333 or more do
Logic %amil"
*igital #1s are classified not only "y their complexity, logical operation, speed of operation "ut
also "y the specific circuit technology to $hich they "elong. +he circuit technology is referred
to as a digital logic family. Each logic family has its o$n "asic electronic circuit upon $hich
more complex digital circuit and components are de'eloped. +he "asic circuit in each
technology is L-L*, L)& or an in'erter gate. +he electronic components, and material used
in the construction of the "asic circuit are usually used as the name of the technology. +he
'arious logic families of #1s used in electronic circuit are "riefly discussed "elo$.
T0T0L Logic %amil"
+he $ord +.+.5 is expanded as +ransistor+ransistor 5ogic. #n this family #1s are "uilt $ith
transistors. !ost standard +.+.5 #1s re0uire a po$er supply 'oltage "et$een O4.@56 and
O5.256 to operate properly. +he #1<s= of standard +.+.5 family are identified "y num"ers that
start $ith @4 or for military specification de'ices 54% t$o or three digits after the @4 or 54 are
used to identify the logic functions performed "y the de'ice. 2ome of the @4 series ++5 #1
num"ers $ith their functions gi'en at -ppendix >*>.
+he +.+.5 logic family consists of se'eral su" families as sho$n in logic family tree. +he
difference "et$een the 'arious +.+.5 series is in their electrical characteristics, such as po$er
dissipation, propagation delay and s$itching speed. +hey do not differ in the pin assignment
152
or logic operation performed "y the internal circuits.
+he most popular @433 series is a line of standard ++5 chips. +his "ipolar family contains
'ariety of compati"le 22# and !2# de'ices. )ne $ay to recogni8e ++5 design is the multiple
emitter input transistors and the totem pole output transistors. +he standard ++5 chip has a
po$er dissipation of a"out 13m$/gate and a propagation delay of around 1)ns. +he series
@4533 is a schottky 'ersion ha'ing a schottky diode in parallel $ith collector"ase terminals.
#n this, transistors are pre'ented from saturating there"y propagation delay is reduced
typically to 3ns. .y increasing internal resistances and including schottky diodes, lo$ po$er
schottky diodes num"ered from @45233 are manufactured limiting the po$er dissipation to
Noise
Ma!gi
n
.CMO
S
/:1
ST'
TTL
/:1
LS
TTL
/:1
S
TTL
/:1
AS
TTL
/:1
6L4
6L5
1.4 3.A 3.4
3.4
3.@
3.4
3.@
3.4
3.@
3.4
2m$ per gate lo$ po$er schottky TTL is the most $idely used of the ++5 types. #n this family
of de'ices, a floating input is e0ui'alent to a high input. #n electrically noise en'ironment,
floating inputs may pick up enough noise 'oltage to produce un$anted changes in the output
stages and hence inputs should not kept "e floating in ++5 family. - modified ++5 design
namely three state TTL allo$s us to connect outputs directly. Earlier computers used open
collector de'ices $ith their "ases "ut the passi'e pullup limited the operating speed. +hese
ne$er de'ices are much faster and ha'e a control input that can turn off the de'ices. (hen
this happens the output floats and presents high impedance to $hether it is connected to and
hence is $idely used for connecting to "ases.
E0C0L
Emittercoupled logic circuits pro'ide the highest speed $ith propagation delay typically of
5ns. +he most common E15 #1s are designated as the 13333 series. E.1.5 is used in
systems such as super computers and signal processors $here high speed is essential. +he
E15 family #1 use is restricted to fe$ applications "ecause of the follo$ing reasons.
+he gates in #1s dissipate relati'ely large amounts of po$er.
Leeds extra circuitry for gates to operate
+he `'e po$er supply 'oltage and logic le'els make E15 gates difficult to interface
$ith other logic family mem"ers.
MOS
+he metal oxide semiconductor is unipolar transistor that depends upon the flo$ of only one
type of carrier, $hich may "e either electrons or holes. - pchannel !)2 is referred to as
/!)2 and an Lchannel as L!)2. L!)2 is the one that is commonly used in circuits $ith
only one type of !)2 transistor. !)2 technology allo$s a 'ery large num"er of circuits to "e
"uilt in a single #1. #t is this technology $hich has made possi"le the microprocessors,
memories and other 52# de'ices $hich are used to "uild microcomputers.
COM$ARISION O% TY$ICAL NOISE MAR3IN
'igital I0= numbe!ing s"stem
Lum"er and letters on #1 packages identify the logic family and the logic function of a de'ice.
#n addition to these num"ers and letters, an #1 may ha'e num"ers and letter $hich indicate
153
manufacturers name, the factory $here the de'ice $as manufactured, the year and month
the de'ice manufactured, the package type and a code $hich indicates ho$ thoroughly the
de'ice $as tested.
Ex: @441+))L
@4 41+ 33 L
YYY YYY Y
5etter codes for common package type
L G /lastic dip
] G 1eramic dip
* G 9lass/metal dip
( G ,lat pack
Manuactu!e! co#e
Co#e Manuactu!e!
-! -d'anced micro de'ice
1* 9E/&1-
*! Lational semiconductor
, ,air child
9* 9old star
4 4arris
4* 4itachi
#! #ntersil
F2 2amsung
5& 2harp
! 292
!1 !otorola
!! !onolithic memories
!L /anasonic
L 2ignetics
/ #ntel
2L +exas instruments
2/ 2/#
72 2prague
+1 +oshi"a
154
155
N)M8ER SYSTEMS4 NOT 3ATE CIRC)ITS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. *ifferentiate "et$een different num"er systems like decimal, octal, "inary and
hexadecimal and con'ersion "et$een them and different types of codes
2. Explain L)+ gate using transistor
3. Explain the characteristics of ++5 L)+ gate #1 @434, list commercially a'aila"le L)+
gate #1
4. Explain logic pro"e "ased on 1!)2 L)+ gate #1.
156
INTRO')CTION
(hen $e hear the $ord >num"er> immediately $e recall the decimal digits 3,1,2....A and their
com"inations. !odern computers do not process decimal num"ers. #nstead, they $ork $ith
"inary num"ers $hich use the digits >3> and >1> only. +he "inary num"er system and digital
codes are fundamental to digital electronics. .ut people do not like $orking $ith "inary
num"ers "ecause they are 'ery long $hen representing larger decimal 0uantities. +herefore
digital codes like octal, hexadecimal and "inary coded decimal are $idely used to compress
long strings of "inary num"ers.
.inary num"er systems consist of ; s and Os. 4ence this num"er system is $ell suited for
adopting it to the digital electronics.
+he decimal num"er system is the most commonly used num"er system in the $orld. #t uses
13 different characters to sho$ the 'alues of num"ers. .ecause this num"er system uses 13
different characters it is called "ase13 system. +he "ase of a num"er system tells you ho$
many different characters are used. +he mathematical term for the "ase of a num"er system
is radix.
+he 13 characters used in the decimal num"er systems are 3,1,2,3,4,5,?,@,;,A.
$ositional notation an# +eig-tage
- decimal integer 'alue can "e expressed in units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. ,or
example decimal num"er 1A?@ can "e $ritten as 1A?@ G 1333 O A33 O ?3 O @. #n po$ers of
13, this "ecomes
+his decimal num"er system is an example of positional notation. Each digit position has a
$eightage. +he positional $eightage for each digit 'aries in the se0uence 13E, 13>, 132, 133
etc starting from the least significant digit.
+he sum of the digits multiplied "y their $eightage gi'es the total amount "eing represented
as sho$n a"o'e.
#n a similar $ay, "inary num"er can "e $ritten in terms of $eightage.
+o get the decimal e0ui'alent, then the positional $eightage should "e $ritten as follo$s.
-ny "inary num"er can "e con'erted into decimal num"er "y the a"o'e said positional
157
$eightage method.
'ecimal to 8ina!" conve!sion
*i'ide the gi'en decimal num"er "y 2 as sho$n "elo$ and note do$n the remainder till you
get the 0uotient 8ero.
+he remainder generated "y each di'ision from the "inary num"er. +he first remainder
"ecomes the 52. and the last remainder "ecomes the !2. of "inary num"er.
Counting bina!" numbe!
+o understand ho$ to count $ith "inary num"ers, let us see ho$ an odometer <Fm indicator
of a car= counts $ith decimal num"ers, +he odometer of a ne$ car starts $ith the reading
3333. -fter tra'eling 1 km, reading "ecomes 3331. 2uccessi'e km produces 3332, 3333 and
so on up to 333A , -t the end of 13th km, the units $heel turns "ack from A to 3, a ta" on this
$heel forces the tens $heel to ad'ance "y 1. +hat is $hy the num"er changed from 333A to
3313. +hat is, the units $heel is reset to 3 and sent a carry to the tens $heel. 5et us call this
familiar action as reset and carry. +he other $heels of odometer also reset and carry. ,or
instance, after co'ering AAAkm, the odometer sho$s 3AAA. -fter the next km, the unit $heel
resets and carries, the tens $heel resets and carries, the hundreds $heel resets and carries
and the thousands $heel ad'ances "y 1 to get the reading 31333.
8ina!" o#omete!
6isuali8e a "inary odometer, a de'ice $hose $heels ha'e only t$o digits 3 and 1. (hen each
$heel turns, it displays 3 then 1 and then "ack to 3 and the cycle repeats. - four digit "inary
odometer starts $ith 3333. -fter 1 km, it indicates 3331. +he next km forces the units $heel
to reset and sends carry. 2o the num"er changes to 3313. +he third km results in 3311. -fter
4km, the units $heel resets and sends carry, the second $heel resets and sends carry and
the third $heel ad'ances "y 1. 4ence it indicates 3133. +a"le "elo$ sho$s all the "inary
num"ers from 3333 to 1111 e0ui'alent to decimal 3 to 15.
158
*ecimal .inary
3 3333
1 3331
2 3313
3 3311
4 3133
5 3131
? 3113
@ 3111
; 1333
A 1331
13 1313
11 1311
12 1133
13 1131
14 1113
15 1111
A##ition o 8ina!" Numbe!s
S)M CARRY
3 O 3 G 3 3
3 O 1 G 1 3
1 O 3 G 1 3
1 O 1 G 3 1 <1 plus 1 is e0ual to 3, $ith carry 1=.
.e7a#ecimal numbe! s"stem:
#n hexadecimal system there are 1? characters. +hey are 3,1,2,3,4,5,?,@,;,A, -, ., 1, *, E, ,
$here -G13, .G11, 1G12, *G13, EG14, ,G15 in decimal. #n this system, the "ase is 1?. +his
system is mainly used to de'elop programmes for computers.
'ecimal to -e7a#ecimal conve!sions
159
+he con'ersion of decimal to hexadecimal is similar to "inary con'ersion. )nly difference is
that di'ides the decimal num"er successi'ely "y 1?, and note do$n the remainder.
.e7a#ecimal to 'ecimal
+his con'ersion can "e done "y putting it into the positional notation.
OCTAL N)M8ER
+he octal num"er system pro'ides a con'enient $ay to express "inary num"ers. #t is used
less fre0uently compared to hexadecimal in conjunction $ith computers and microprocessors
to express "inary 0uantities for input and output purposes. +he octal num"er system is
compared of digit sym"ols such as right sym"ols such as 3, 1,2,3,4,5,?,@.
+o distinguish octal num"ers from other num"er systems su"script ; is used as follo$s:
Octal to 'ecimal conve!sion
-s in other num"er systems, each digit should "e multiplied "y its positional $eightage and
added to get decimal e0ui'alent.
160
'ecimal to octal conve!sion
- method of con'erting a decimal num"er to an octal num"er is the repeated di'ision "y ;,
each successi'e di'ision "y ; yields a remainder that "ecomes a digit in the e0ui'alent octal
num"er. +he first remainder generated is the least significant digit <52*=.
Octal to bina!"
Each octal digit can "e represented "y a 3"it "inary num"er, "ecause of this it is 'ery easy
to con'ert from octal to "inary. Each octal digit is represented "y three "its as sho$n in the
ta"le.
+o con'ert each octal num"er to a "inary, simply replace each octal digits $ith the
corresponding "inary "its.
161
8ina!" to octal
1on'ersion of a "inary num"er to an octal num"er is the re'erse of the octalto"inary
con'ersion. +he procedure is as follo$s.
1. 2tart $ith the right most group of three "its and mo'ing from right to left, con'ert each
3"it group to the e0ui'alent octal digit.
2. #f there are not three "its a'aila"le for the left most group, add either one or t$o 8ero>s
to make complete group. +hese leading 8ero>s $ill not affect the 'alue of the "inary
num"er.
8C' /8ina!" Co#e# 'ecimal1
.inary 1oded *ecimal <.1*= is a $ay to express each of the decimal digits $ith a "inary
code, since there are only ten code groups in the .1* system, it is 'ery easy to con'ert
"et$een decimal and .1*. .ecause decimal system is used for read and $rite, .1* code
pro'ides an excellent interface to "inary systems. Examples of such interfaces are keypad
inputs and digital readouts.
NG<; co#e
+he ;421 code is a type of "inary coded decimal <.1*=, "inary coded decimal means that
each decimal digit, 3 through A is represented "y a "inary code of four "its. +he designation
;421 indicates the "inary $eights of the four "its #$%, 22, 2>, 2E=. +he ease of con'ersion
"et$een ;421 code num"ers and the familiar decimal num"ers in the main ad'antage of this
code. -ll you ha'e to remem"er are the ten "inary com"inations that represents the ten
decimal digits as sho$n in +a"le.
+he ;421 code is the predominant .1* code, and $hen $e refer to .1*, $e al$ays mean
the ;421 code unless other$ise stated.
Invali# co#e
Mou should reali8e that $ith four "its, sixteen num"ers <3333 through 1111= can "e
represented, "ut in the ;421 code only ten of these are used. +he six code com"inations that
are not used 1313, 1311, 1133, 1131, 1113 and 1111 are in'alid in the ;421 .1* code. +o
express any decimal num"er in .1*, simply replace each decimal digit $ith the approximate
4"it "inary code.
!"ample
162
+here are many speciali8ed codes used in digital system other than .1* code. 2ome codes
are strictly numeric, like .1* and others are alphanumeric $hich are used to represent
num"ers, letters, sym"ols and instructions.
+he commonly used codes other than .1* codes are
1. 9ray code
2. Excess 3 code
3. -21## code -merican, 2tandard code for #nformation interchange
4. -lphanumeric code
Inve!te!s /NOT 3ate1
-n in'erter is a gate $ith only one input signal and one output signal. +he output state is
al$ays the opposite of the input state. 5ogic sym"ol is sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he circuit "elo$ sho$s the transistor in'erter circuit. +he circuit is a common emitter
amplifier $hich $orks in saturation or in cut off region depending upon the input 'oltage.
(hen 6
in
is in lo$ le'el, say less than the transistor cut in 'oltage 3.?6 in silicon type, the
transistor goes to cut off condition and the collector current is 8ero. +herefore, 6
out
G O56
$hich is taken as high logic le'el. )n the other hand, $hen 6
in
is in high le'el, the transistor
saturates and 6
out
G6
sat
G 3.36 i.e. lo$ le'el.
+he ta"le summari8es the operation
6
in
6
out
5o$ <3= 4igh <1=
4igh <1= 5o$ <3=
+he logic expression for the in'erter is as follo$s: #f the input 'aria"le is >-> and the output
'aria"le is called M, then the output
163
OR AN' NOR 3ATE CIRC)ITS

Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to:
1. explain )& gate using diode and its truth ta"le
2. explain +.+.5 )& gate #1 @432
3. Explain L)& gate and its truth ta"le.
164
OR 3ATE
+he output of an )& $ill "e in 1 state if one or more of the inputs is in 1 state. )nly $hen all
the inputs are in 3state, the output $ill go to 3state. ,ig 1 sho$s the schematic 2ym"ol of
an )& 9ate:
+he .oolean expression for )& gate is MG-O..
+he e0uation is to "e read as M e0uals - )&ed .. +$o input truth ta"le gi'en "elo$ is
e0ui'alent to the definition of the )& operation.
+ruth ta"le for )& gate
Elect!ical e*uivalent ci!cuit
+he ,ig 2<a= sho$s the electrical e0ui'alent circuit of an )& gate. #t is e'ident that if any one
of the s$itch is closed, there $ill "e output.
< in5&ut OR gate using #io#e
+he ,ig 2<"= sho$s one $ay to "uild a 2input )& gate, using diodes. +he inputs are la"eled
as - and ., $hile the output is M.
-ssume logic 3 G )6 <lo$=
logic 1 G O56 <high=
2ince this is a 2 input )& gate, there are only four possi"le cases,
&ase 1' - is lo$ and . is lo$. (ith "oth the input 'oltage lo$, "oth the diodes are not
165
conducting. +herefore the output M is in lo$ le'el.
&ase $' - is lo$ and . is high, +he high . input 'oltage <O56= for$ard "iases the lo$er diode,
producing an output 'oltage that is ideally O56 <actually O4.36 taking the diode 'oltage drop
3.@6 into consideration=. +hat is, the output is in high le'el. *uring this condition, the diode
connected to input - is under re'erse "ias or ),, condition.
&ase %' - is high and . is lo$, the condition is similar to case 2. #nput - diode is )L and #nput
. diode is ),, and M is in high le'el.
&ase (' - is high, . is high. (ith "oth the inputs at O56, "oth diodes are for$ard "iased,
since the input 'oltages are in parallel, the output 'oltage is O56 ideally HO4.36 to a second
approximationI. +hat is, the output Mis in high le'el.
)& gates are a'aila"le in the #1 form. #1@432 is a +.+.5 )& gate #1 ha'ing 4 )& gates inside
it. ,or pin diagram refer -ppendix >*>.
Sim&le a&&lication o OR gate Int!usion #etection
2implified portion of an intrusion detection and alarm system is t$o $indo$s and a door. +he
sensors are magnetic s$itches that produce a high <1= output $hen $indo$s and doors are
opened and a lo$ <3= output $hen closed. -s long as the $indo$s and the door are secured,
the s$itches are closed and all three of the )& gate inputs are in lo$ <3=. (hen one of the
$indo$s or the door is opened, a high <1= output is produced on that input of the )& gate and
the gate output goes high. #t then acti'ities an alarm circuit to $arn of the intrusion.
#n the ,ig 3 the output y of the circuit e0uals the complement of - )& ., "ecause the circuit is
an )& gate follo$ed "y a L)+ gate. +o o"tain high output H5ogic1I, "oth the inputs should
"e tied to lo$ input H5ogic3I. ,or the rest of the other three possi"ilities, output $ill "e 8ero,
the com"ination of this )& and L)+ gate is called as L)& gate
(e can define a L)& gate as follo$s:
+he output of a L)& gate is 3, e'en if one of the inputs is in logic1. )nly $hen "oth the
inputs are in logic3, the output is in logic1.
#@432 is a +.+.5 L)& gate #1. #t contains 4 L)& gates. ,or pin details, refer data "ook.
166
167
8ASIC %LI$5%LO$S AN' M)LTI:I8RATOR CIRC)ITS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain flip flop and its function
2. Explain &2 flip flop circuit "ased on L)& gate
3. Explain asta"le multi'i"rator using L)& gate.
168
%li& lo&
+he gates studied so far are the digital circuits $hose outputs are dependent entirely on the
inputs. 4o$e'er, there are re0uirements for a digital de'ice or circuit $hose output $ill
remain unchanged, once set, e'en if there is a change in input. - flip flop is one such circuit.
-ny de'ice or circuit that has t$o sta"le states is said to "e "ista"le. ,or example, a toggle
s$itch has t$o sta"le statuses. *epending on position of the handle it is either open or
closed. 2imilarly flipflop is a t$ostate circuit that can remain in either )L or ),, state
indefinitely. +his circuit is also called as "ista"le multi'i"rator. +he flip flop also has memory
since its output $ill remain as set until something is done to change it.
R5S0Latc- >Reset5set latc-?
+he simplest form of flipflop kno$n as &2 latch constructed using t$o cross coupled L)&
gates, is sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he a"o'e latch circuit is a digital circuit 'ersion of "ista"lemulti'i"rator. 4ere also feed"ack
techni0ue is used. 3// of one L)& gate is connected to one of the inputs of the other L)&
gate. +his is called also as single "it memory element "ecause of its latching characteristics.
+ruth ta"le of L)& latch
5o$ state & and a lo$ state 2 gi'e us the inacti'e state. Lo change occurs in the Joutput.
5o$ state & and high state 2 represent the set state and J "ecomes logic1. (hile a high
state & and a lo$ state 2 gi'e the reset state i.e J "ecomes logic 3. ,inally, a high & and a
high 2 does not produce any predicta"le state and therefore must "e a'oided.
Timing #iag!am
169
+he ,ig 2 sho$s a timing diagram of the L)& latch. #t sho$s ho$ the input signals interact to
produce the output signal. -s you see the J output goes high $hen 2 goes high. J remains
high e'en after 2 goes lo$ as long as & remains lo$. J returns to lo$ $hen & goes high, and
stays lo$ e'en after & returns to lo$.
Astable multivib!ato! using NOR gates
+he circuit in ,ig 3 is an asta"le multi'i"rator using L)& gates. +he circuit is 0uite similar to
the transistori8ed asta"le multi'i"rator circuit. 4ere t$o L)& gates ha'e "een used in place
of transistors. ,eed"ack signals to the gates are fed through capacitors. +hese capacitors 11
and 12 and resistors &1 and &2 decide the )L time and ),, time of the $a'eform. +o get
4mmetrical s0uare $a'eform, the 'alues &1 G &2, and 11 G 12 must "e maintained. #f the
resistor and capacitors are not e0ual then the )-/ $ill not "e symmetrical.
+he duty cycle can "e 'aried "y selecting the &1 'alue.
170
171
AN' an# NAN' 3ATE CIRC)ITS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain -L* gate using diodes and its truth ta"le
2. Explain L-L* gate and its truth ta"le
3. Explain -L* gate application
4. Explain logic pulser using L-L* gates.
172
AN' gates
+he -L* gate has t$o or more inputs "ut only one output. -ll input signals must "e held high
to get a high output. E'en if one of the inputs is lo$, the output "ecomes lo$. -L* gate
sym"ols for 2 input and 3 input gates are sho$n in ,ig 1a and 1 ".
+ruth +a"le
,or 2 input and gate
,or 3 input and gate
Elect!ical e*uivalent ci!cuit o an AN' gate
+he output is a'aila"le only $hen "oth the s$itches are closed. #1@43; is a +.+.5 0uad -L*
gate #1. <&efer data "ook for pin diagram=. +he electrical e0ui'alent of -L* gate and -L*
gate using diodes are sho$n in ,ig 2a and 2".
T+o in&ut AN' gate using #io#e
;
st
con#ition -G), .G), MG3 as sho$n in ,ig 3.
173
*uring the a"o'e condition #// - and . are connected to ground to make logic lo$ inputs.
*uring this condition, "oth the diodes conduct, and pull the 3// M to logic3.
<
n#
con#ition -G), .G1, MG3 as sho$n in ,ig 4.
#n the 2
nd
condition sho$n in the figure a"o'e, diode *1 is connected logic3 input and diode
*2 is connected to O56 H5ogic highI. *iode *1 is in for$ard "ias and conducts. *iode *2 is
ha'ing e0ual potential <O56= at anode and cathode. 2o the potential difference "et$een
anode and cathode is 3. 4ence diode *2 does not conduct. +he output M is pulled do$n to
logic 8ero, since *1 is conducting.
2
!#
con#ition -G1, .G3, MG3 as sho$n in ,ig 5.
+he 3
rd
condition is similar to the ## condition. *2 is for$ard "iased. *1 is re'erse "iased.
4ence output M is pulled to logic3.
G
t-
con#ition -G1, .G1, MG1 as sho$n in ,ig ?.
#n this condition "oth the diodes are re'erse "iased. 2o "oth the diodes act as open circuit.
+herefore output y is O56 i.e. y is in logic1 condition.
AN' gate as an Enable/In-ibit #evice
- common application of the -L* gate is to ena"le <i.e. to allo$= the passage of a signal
<pulse $a'eform= from one point to another at certain times and to inhi"it <pre'ent= the
passage at other times.
174
#n ,ig @a -L* gate controls the passage of a signal <$a'eform -= to a digital counter. +he
purpose of this circuit is to measure the fre0uency of $a'eform >->. +he ena"le pulse has a
$idth of precisely 1 second. (hen the ena"le pulse applied at . is high, $a'eform - passes
through the gate to the counter, and $hen the ena"led pulse is lo$, the signal is pre'ented
<inhi"ited= from passing through. &efer ,ig @" for the $a'eforms of the a"o'e process.
*uring the 1 second inter'al of the ena"led pulse, a certain num"er of pulses in $a'eform -
pass through the -L* gate to the counter. +he num"er of pulses counted "y the counter is
e0ual to the fre0uency of the $a'eform -. ,or example, if 1333 pulses pass through the gate
in the 1 second inter'al of the ena"led pulse, there are 1333 pulses/sec. +hat is, fre0uency is
133348.
NAN' gate
-n -L* gate follo$ed "y a L)+ gate forms the L-L* gate as sho$n in ,ig ;a. #n this gate
to get a lo$ output <logicG3=, all the inputs must "e in high state and to get high output state,
any one of the inputs or "oth inputs must "e in lo$ state. ,ig ;" is the standard sym"ol for a
L-L* gate. +he in'erter triangle has "een deleted and the "u""le is mo'ed to the -L*gate
output.
+ruth ta"le for L-L* gate
$ulse# o&e!ation
175
)utput $a'eform M is lo$ only for the time inter'als $hen "oth inputs - and . are high as
sho$n in the timing diagram ,ig A.
Logic &ulse!
+he ,ig 13 sho$s the circuit diagram of logic pulser, the circuit essentially consists of L-L*
gates connected di"ouncer circuit and its output is dou"le in'erted. +he 5E* indicates,
pulses )L or ),, status. (hen s$itch 21 is not pressed, <),, position= . input of L-L*
gate Lo.2 is grounded, hence its output M is forced to go logic 4#94. +his 4#94 output is
feed"ack to L-L* gate 1, - input of L-L* gate 1 is also held 4#94 through, &1 resistor
<;23N= and thus the output of L-L* gate16is at lo$. +his logic lo$ output keeps 5E* in
),, condition and this logic lo$ is again dou"le in'erted at the logic pulser tip through L-L*
gate 3 and 4 to get logic lo$ le'el at pulser tip. (hen 21 is pressed to )L, - input of L-L*
gate is forced to go logiclo$. 4ence the output of this L-L* gate is forced to go logic4#94.
+herefore the output is at logic1, so 5E* glo$s and a logic4#94 appears at pro"e tip. -lso
note that $ith 4#94 at M output, the inputs of L-L* gate 2 are also at logic4#94 and the
output of L-L* gate2 is forced to go lo$. -s long as s$itch 21 is at )L position the pro"e
tip is 4#94. (hen it is released it springs "ack to ),, position, and the output returns to a
logic5)( condition.
T-e above &ictu!e s-o+s T.E LO3IC $)LSER
176
177
EFOR an# EFNOR 3ATE CIRC)ITS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the "asic Y)& gate and its truth ta"le
2. Explain 4 input EY)& gate circuit
3. Explain terms e'en parity and odd parity
4. Explain "asic EYL)& gate and its truth ta"le.
EF5OR gate E7clusive5OR gate
178
Exclusi'e )& gate is actually formed "y a com"ination of other gates already discussed.
4o$e'er, "ecause of their fundamental importance in many applications, these gates are
treated as "asic logic elements $ith their o$n uni0ue sym"ols.
-n )& gate recogni8es $ords $ith one or more l>s. +he Exclusi'e)& gate is different% it
recogni8es only $ords that ha'e an add num"er of 1>s.
2tandard sym"ols for Exclusi'e)& <Y)& for short= gate sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he EY)& gate has only t$o inputs unlike the other gates, it ne'er has more than t$o
inputs.
7sing 2input EY)& gates as "uilding "locks, an EY )& gate $ith more than t$o inputs can
"e "uilt.
179
+o summari8es the action "y referring truth ta"le of 4 input Y)& gate, each input $ord $ith
an odd num"er of l>s produces a logic 4#94<1= output and for $ords $ith an e'en num"er of
1>s it produces logic5o$<3= output. .ecause of this reason the EY)& gate is used for parity
check, #1 @4;? is a 0uad 2 input EY)& gate $hich is a'aila"le "oth in ++5 and 1!)2
family.
$a!it"
Lum"er of 1>s in a "inary $ord. E'en parity means an n "it input has e'en num"er of 1s. ,or
instance, 113311 ha'e e'en parity "ecause it contains four 1s. )dd parity means an n"it
input has an odd no. of 1s. ,or example, 113331 ha'e odd parity "ecause it contains three
1s.
$a!it" c-ec@e!
Exclusi'e)& gates are ideal for checking the parity of a "inary num"er "ecause they
produce an output 1 $hen the input has an odd no. of 1s. +herefore an e'en parity input to
an Exclusi'e)& gate produces a lo$ output, $hile an odd parity input produce a high output.
180
E7clusive5NOR gate
T!ut- Table
+he standard sym"ols for the EYL)& <YL)&= gate are sho$n in ,ig 3. 5ike the Y)& gate,
YL)& has only t$o inputs. +he "u""le on the output of the YL)& sym"ol indicates that its
output is opposite that of the Y)& gate.
#n an exclusi'eL)& gate operation, U)utput M is 5)(> if input - is 5)( and input . is 4#94
or if - is 4#94 and . is 5)(, M is 4#94 if - and . are "oth 4#94 or "oth 5)(.
EF5OR gate as a t+o5bit a##e!
-n examination of the truth ta"le for Y)& gate $ill sho$ you that its output is the "inary sum
of the t$o input "its. #n the case $here the inputs are "oth 1>s, the output is the sum 3, "ut
$ithout the carry of 1.
!)*+ gate using discrete gates
,ig 4 sho$s the construction of EY)& gate using discrete gates. +he upper -L* gate gi'es
the output -. <since in'erted - input gi'en to -L* gate= and the lo$er -L* gate gi'es the
output -. <#n'erted . input gi'en to -L* gate=. .oth outputs of -L* gates after )&ing
results - ..
,rom the $a'eforms sho$n in ,ig 5 it is o"ser'ed that the Ex)& gate output $ill go 4#94
only $hen its inputs are at different le'els.
181
A&&lication:
EY)& gate can "e used as a controlled in'erter. )ne of its inputs can "e used to control
$hether the signal at the other input $ill "e in'erted or not. +his property $ill "e useful in
certain application.
182
183
LATC. CIRC)ITS AN' A$$LICATIONS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain L)& latch and L-L* latch using discrete gates
2. Explain the concepts of clocked flip flops
3. *iscuss the effect of "ouncing and de"ounce circuits
4. Explain * flipflop and its truth ta"le
5. 1locked * flipflop and its truth ta"le
?. Explain the difference "et$een edge triggering and le'el triggering and types of edge
trigger
@. (rite logic diagram for the gi'en .oolean e0uations
;. 2implify the logic diagram using .oolean alge"ra.
184
- flipflop is a digital circuit that has t$o sta"le states. #t remains in one of these states until
triggered into the other.
,lipflops are used to store "inary information. *igital memory circuits that can store "its of
data are essential parts of any computer system.
RS li& lo&s
+he most "asic type of flip flop is the reset/set type, hence it is kno$n as &2 flip flop.
+he "asic &2 flipflop can "e constructed from either t$o L)& gates or t$o L-L* gates.
+he circuit sym"ols are sho$n in ,ig 1. ,ig 1a sho$s &2,/, $ith acti'e 4#94 inputs. ,ig 1 "
sho$s &2,/, $ith acti'e 5)( inputs. +he L)& gate latch and L-L* gate latch "oth are
sho$n in ,ig 2 and ,ig 3 respecti'ely.
185
NOR latc-
,rom ,ig 2, the t$o L)& gates are crosscoupled so that out of one L)& gate is connected
to other L)& gate input and 'ice 'ersa.
186
+he L)& latch output are la"eled as J and J. +he outputs $ill al$ays "e the in'erse of each
other. ,rom the truth ta"le of L)& latch, it can "e summari8ed as follo$s.
Con#ition ;
&G3 2G), this condition produce the inacti'e state. )utput >J> $ill remain $ith no change.
Con#ition <
&G3 2G1, this condition cause to go to the JG1 state $here it al$ays remain after & returns
high. +his is kno$n as setting the latch.
Con#ition 2
&G1 2G), this condition cause to go to the JG3 state $here the output remain e'en after 2
returns 4#94. +his is called resetting the latch.
Con#ition G
&G1 2G1, this condition produce a race condition. +herefore a'oid &G1 and 2G1 condition
$hile using a L)& latch.
NAN' latc-
,rom the L-L* gate latch as sho$n in ,ig 2, +he t$o L-L* gates are crosscoupled so that
output of one L-L* is connected to other L-L* gate input and 'ice 'ersa. +he L-L* latch
outputs are la"elled as J and. J. +hese outputs $ill al$ays "e the in'erse of each other.
,rom the truth ta"le, it can "e summari8ed as follo$s.
Con#ition ;
&G3, 2G). +his condition produces am"iguous results. #t should not "e used.
Con#ition <
&G3, 2G1. +his condition cause the output to go the JG1 state $here it $ill remain after &
returns high. +his is kno$n as setting the latch.
Con#ition 2
&G1, 2G). +his condition cause the output to go the JG3 state, $here the output $ill remain
e'en after 2 returns 4#94. +his is called clearing or resetting the latch.
Con#ition G
&G1, 2G1. +his condition is the normal resting state and it has no effect on the output state.
+he J and J outputs $ill remain in $hate'er state they $ere prior to this input condition.
Cloc@e# RS li&5lo&
#t is possi"le to stro"e or clock the flipflop in order to store information <set it or reset it= at
any time, and then hold the stored information for any desired period of time. +his flipflop is
called a clocked &2 flipflop and is sho$n in ,ig 4a and the circuit sym"ol in 4".
T!ut- Table
187
,or the flipflop to operate properly there must "e a transition form lo$ to high on the clock
input, $hile clock is high, the information on & and 2 causes the latch to set or reset. +hen
$hen clock transitions "ack to lo$, this information is retained in the latch. (hen this high to
lo$ transition occurred "oth & and 2 inputs $ere lo$ <3= and thus there $as no change of
state.
'5li&5lo&
+he &2 flipflop has t$o data inputs, & and 2. +o store a high "it, you need a high 2 and to
store a lo$ "it, you need a high &. 9eneration of t$o signals to dri'e a flip flop is a
disad'antage in many applications. ,urther more the &2 flipflop is suscepti"le to a race
condition. (e $ill modify the design to eliminate the possi"ility of a race condition, to
o'ercome the a"o'e disad'antage, &.2 flip is slightly modified as sho$n in ,ig 5 to ha'e a
single input called *flipflop.
Contact bounce ci!cuit
-ny mechanical s$itching de'ice consists of a mo'ing contact arm restrained "y some sort of
spring system. -s a result $hen the arm is mo'ed form one sta"le position to the other, the
arm "ounces as much as hard "all "ounces $hen dropped on a hard surface. +he num"er of
"ounces that occurs and the period of the "ounce differ for each s$itching de'ice.
#n digital system there $ill "e occasions to use mechanical contacts for the purpose of
con'eying an electrical signal, for example the key"oard of computer. #n each case the intent
is to apply a high logic le'el usually HO56 dcI or a lo$ logic le'el <3 'olts *1=.
188
-s sho$n in the ,ig ? a"o'e, $hen the 2/2+ s$itch is open, the 'oltage at point >-> is O56
*1 $hen the s$itch is closed the 'oltage at point >-> is 3 'olts.
#deally the 'oltage $a'eform at >-> should appear as sho$n in the $a'eform ?" as the s$itch
is mo'ed from open to closed, or 'ice'ersa. #n actuality, the $a'eform at point >-> $ill appear
more or less as sho$n in $a'eform<1=, as a result of contact "ounce. Lotice carefully that in
this particular instance, e'en though actual physical contact "ounce occurs each time the
s$itch is opened or closed, contact "ounce appears in the 'oltage le'el at point >-> only $hen
the s$itch is closed. #f the 'oltage at point >-> is applied to the input of a circuit, the circuit $ill
respond properly $hen the s$itch is opened, since no contact "ounce occurs. 4o$e'er $hen
the s$itch is closed, the circuit $ill respond as if multiple signals $ere applied, rather than the
singles$itch closer intended. &2 5atch is often used as s$itch de"ouncers, $hene'er a
s$itch is thro$n from open to the closed position.
8ounce less s+itc-
,loating +.+.5 inputs are e0ui'alent to high inputs. (ith the s$itch in the start position, /in 1
is lo$ and pin 5 is high therefore JZ <pin no.3= is high and J <pin no.?= is lo$. (hen the s$itch
is thro$n to the clear position, pin no.1 goes high, as sho$n in ,ig @. .ecause of contact
"ounce, pin 5 goes alternately lo$ and high for a fe$ milliseconds "efore sets in the lo$
state. +he first time pin 5 goes lo$, the latch sets, J goes high and JZ going lo$. 2u"se0uent
"ounces ha'e no effect on J and J "ecause the latch stays set.
(hen the s$itch is thro$n "ack to start, pin 1 "ounces lo$ and high for a $hile. +he first time
pin 1 goes lo$, J goes to lo$ and JZ going high, later "ounces ha'e no effect on J and J.
+he ,ig ; sho$s one $ay to "uild a *, latch "ecause of the in'erter data"it >*> dri'es the >2>
input of a L-L* latch and the complement of *, dri'es the >&> input. +herefore a high >*> sets
the flipflop, lo$ >*> resets the flipflop. !ost important thing is no race condition.
T!ut- table o! '5latc-
189
Cloc@e# ' %li&5%lo&
+he ,ig ;a sho$s the le'el clocked * type flipflop. - lo$ clock disa"les the input gates and
pre'ents the latch from changing states, in other $ords, $hile clock is lo$, the latch is in the
inacti'e state * controls the output, - high * sets the latch, $hile a lo$ * resets it.
T!ut- table o! level cloc@e# ' li&s lo&
+he truth ta"le summari8es the operation >Y> represents a don>t care condition, it stands for
either 3 or 1, $hile clock is lo$ the output can>t change, no matter $hat >*> is, $hen clock is
high, the output e0uals the input. J G *.
E#ge t!igge!ing ve!sus level cloc@ing
(hen a circuit is edge triggered, the output can change only on the rising or falling edge of
the clock. Edge triggered * ,/, using discrete gate is sho$n in ,ig Aa and the circuit sym"ol
is sho$n in ,ig A". (hen the circuit is le'el clocked, the output can change $hile the clock is
high or lo$. (ith the edge triggering, the output can change only at one instant during the
clock cycle. (ith le'el clocking, the output can change during the entire period the le'el of
the clock is maintained.
E#ge t!igge!e# '5li&5lo&s
.oolean alge"ra is con'enient and systematic $ay of expressing and analy8ing the operation
of logic circuits.
T!ut- table o! E#ge t!igge!e# '5%li&5lo&
190
:a!iable
- 'aria"le is a sym"ol <usually an #talic uppercase letter= used to represent a logical 0uantity.
-ny single 'aria"le can ha'e a 1 or 3 'alue.
Ex: -,.,1,* or Y,M,T etc
Com&lements
+he complement is the in'erse of a 'aria"le and is indicated "y a "ar o'er the 'aria"le.
Ex: +he complement of - is ik , the complement of - is read as U- "arU.
Lite!al
- literal is a 'aria"le or the complement of a 'aria"le.
8oolean a##ition
3 O 3 G 3
3 O 1 G 1
1 O 3 G 1
1 O 1 G 3 $ith carry 1
#n .oolean alge"ra, a sum term is a sum of literals. #n logic circuits, a sum term is produced
"y an )& operation $ith L) -L* operation in'ol'ed.
Ex: -O., -O.Z, - ^O .
- sum term is e0ual to 1 $hen one or more of the literals in the term are 1. - sum term is
e0ual to 3 if and only if each of the literal is 3.
8oolean multi&lication
.oolean multiplication is e0ui'alent to the -L* operation and the "asic rules are as follo$s.
3.3 G 3
1.3 G 3
3.1 G 3
1.1 G 1
191
#n .oolean alge"ra a product term is the product of literals. #n logic circuits a product term is
produced "y an -L* operation $ith L) )& operations in'ol'ed. - product term is e0ual to 1
if and only if each of the literals in the term is one <1=. - product term is e0ual to 3 $hen one
or more of the literal are 3.
La+s o 8oolean algeb!a
Commutatie la!
+he commutati'e la$ for addition for t$o 'aria"les is $ritten alge"raically - O . G . O - as
sho$n in ,ig 13.

+he commutati'e la$ for t$o 'aria"le multiplication is -. G .- as sho$n in ,ig 11.
+his la$ states that the order in $hich the 'aria"les are )&ed/-L*ed makes no difference.
Associative la+
+he associati'e la$ of addition is $ritten alge"raically as follo$s for three 'aria"les as sho$n
in ,ig 12.
-O<.O1= G <-O.=O1
+he associati'e la$ of multiplication is $ritten as follo$s for three 'aria"les.
-<.1= G <-.=1
+his la$ states that it makes no difference in $hat order the 'aria"les are grouped $hen
)&ing/-L*ing more than t$o 'aria"les.
'ist!ibutive la+
+he distri"uti'e la$ is $ritten for three 'aria"les as follo$s.
-<.O1= G -. O -1
+his la$ states that )&ing t$o or more 'aria"les and -L*ing the result $ith a single 'aria"le
is e0ui'alent to -L*ing the single 'aria"le $ith each of the t$o or more 'aria"les and then
)&ing the products as sho$n in ,ig 14. +he distri"uti'e la$ also express the process of
factoring in $hich the common 'aria"le >-> is factored out of the product terms.
Ex: -. O -1 G -<.O1=
192
8oolean Algeb!a Rules
'e5Mo!gans t-eo!em
;st t-eo!em
+he complement of a product of 'aria"les is e0ual to the sum of the complements of the
'aria"les.
+he complement of t$o or more 'aria"les -L*ed is e0ui'alent to the )& of the complements
of the indi'idual 'aria"les. +he related figure is sho$n in ,ig 15.
<
n#
t-eo!em
+he complement of a sum of 'aria"les is e0ual to the product of the complements of the
'aria"les.
+he complement of t$o ore more 'aria"les )&ed is e0ui'alent to the -L* of the
complements of the indi'idual 'aria"les as sho$n in ,ig 1?.
Sim&li" t-e e*uation using 'e5Mo!gan9s t-eo!em O
193
$!ove t-at /AP81 /APC1 6 A P 8C
542 G <-O.= <-O1=
G -- O -. O -1 O .1
G - O -1 O -. O .1
G -<1O1= O -. O .1
G - O -. O .1
G -<1O.= O .1
G - O .1
Sim&liication o logic ci!cuit using 8oolean E*uation
194
Circuit before simplifcation is sho$n in ,ig 1@a. 1ircuit after simplification is sho$n in ,ig
1@".
+he a"o'e logic diagram and corresponding .oolean e0uations sho$ ho$ one can use
.oolean alge"ra for simplification of logic circuits for the desired logic output. ,rom the a"o'e
example it is pro'ed that ho$ the logic circuit gates can "e reduced for the same set of output
result, using .oolean alge"ra. +he reduced logic circuit consumes less po$er and
propagation delay time is also reduced, in other $ords the speed of the circuit increases.
E7am&le
5ogic diagram for the gi'en e0uation is sho$n in ,ig 1;.
5ogic diagram for the simplified e0uation is sho$n in ,ig 1A
195
)nive!sal &!o&e!t" o NOR gate an# NAN' gate
+he uni'ersality of the L-L* or L)& gate means that it can "e used as an in'erter and that
com"ination of L-L*/ L)& gate alone can "e used to implement the all other remaining
gates. <such as -L*, )&, EY)&, EYL)&=

L-L* gate as a uni'ersal logic element is sho$n in ,ig 23a to ,ig 23f.
2imilarly L)& gate as uni'ersal logic gate as sho$n in ,ig 21a to 21f.
196
197
(0M %LI$5%LO$
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain construction of ].F flipflop using L-L* gates
2. Explain the function of /reset and clear inputs
3. Explain $hat is meant "y acti'e lo$ and acti'e high.
4. Explain the $orking function of ].F master sla'e flipflop
5. Explain fre0uency di'ision using flip flops.
198
199
+he ,ig 1 sho$s one $ay to "uild a ].F flipflop. +he 'aria"les ] and F are called control
inputs. -n &.3 circuit $ith a short time constant, con'erts the rectangular clock pulse to
narro$ spikes. .ecause of the dou"le in'ersion through the L-L* gates, the circuit is O'e
edge triggered. #n other $ords, the input gates are ena"led only on the rising edge of the
clock as sho$n in truth ta"le.
Reset
(hen ] is lo$ and F is high the upper output gate is disa"led. 2o there is no $ay to set the
flip flop. +he only possi"ility is reset. (hen J is high, the lo$er gate passes a reset trigger as
soon as the O'e clock edge arri'es. +his forces J to "ecome lo$. +herefore ]G3 and kG1
means that a rising clock edge resets the flipflop.
Set
(hen ] is high and F is lo$, the lo$er output gate is disa"led. 2o it is impossi"le to reset the
flipflop. .ut flip flop can "e set, $hen J is lo$, J is high, the gate 1 passes a set trigger on
the positi'e clock edge. +his dri'es J into the high state. +hat is ]G1 and FG3 means that the
next positi'e clock edge sets the flip flop.
Toggle
(hen ] and F are "oth high, it is possi"le to set or reset the flip flop depending on the current
state of the output if
is high, the lo$er gate passes a reset trigger on the next positi'e clock edge on the other
hand. (hen J is lo$ the upper gate passes a set trigger on the next positi'e clock edge.
Either $ay J changes to the complement of the last state. +herefore ]G1 and FG1 means that
the flipflop $ill toggle on the next positi'e clock edge. +o summari8e the operation of the
].F.flipflop, the circuit is inacti'e $hen the clock is lo$, high or on its 'e edge. 5ike$ise the
circuit is inacti'e $hen ] and F are "oth lo$. )utput changes occur only on the rising edge of
the clock as indicated "y the last three entries of the ta"le. +he o/p either resets, sets or
toggles.
Racing
+oggling more than once during a clock cycle is called &acing. -ssume that the circuit is le'el
clocked. #n other $ords, assume that &1 circuit has "een remo'ed and run the clock straight,
into the gates, $ith a high ], high F and high clock, the output toggles. Le$ outputs are then
fed "ack to the input gates. -fter t$o propagation times <input and output gates=, the output
toggles again. -nd once more ne$ outputs return to the input gates. #n this $ay the output
can toggle repeatedly as long as the clock is high. +o o'ercome this racing pro"lem, ].F
master sla'e flip flop has "een de'eloped.
condition therefore, /& and 15& are normally kept at a high 'oltage $hen inacti'e. +o clear,
the flip flop make clear lo$, to preset the ,/, make preset lo$.
Clea!
(hen po$er is first applied, flipflops come up in random states. +o get some computers
started, an operator has to push a master reset "utton, this sends a clear <reset= signal to all
flipflops, normally clear signal $ill "e acti'e lo$, <i.e.= logic 8ero should "e applied for clear
the output. (hen clear is applied to gate4 as sho$n in ,ig la then the J $ill "e forced to
5ogic3, then automatically 3U $ill go to logic1 condition. +his signal, ] and F signals ha'e no
control o'er output J, $hen clear is set.
$!e5set
5ike clear preset is an acti'e lo$ input. +his input also independent of 15F, ] \ F inputs.
(hen preset is made logic3, the output J is set to logic one. #t is necessary in some digital
system to preset the output "efore the system actually runs.
200
Maste! Slave %li&5lo&
+he ,ig 2 sho$s the ].F.!aster 2la'e ,lipflop. #t pro'ides another $ay to a'oid racing. -
master sla'e flip flop is a com"ination of t$o clocked flipflops connected in cascade. !aster
flipflop is positi'e edge triggered% sla'e flipflop is negati'e edgetriggered flipflop.
V(hile the clock is high, the master is acti'e and the sla'e is inacti'e.
V(hile the clock is lo$, the master is inacti'e and the sla'e is acti'e.
+he ].F master sla'e flipflop is used as the main counting de'ice. +he popular #1
5452/@452@? is a dual ]F master sla'e flipflop. 5ook at the 2ummari8ed truth ta"le of ].F
master sla'e flipflop. - lo$ /& and 5)(15& produce a race condition therefore% /& and
15& are normally kept at a high 'oltage $hen inacti'e. +o clear, the flip flop make clear lo$,
to preset the ,/, make preset lo$.
T!ut- table o! &ositive e#ge t!igge!e# (M li& lo&
5o$ ] \ 5o$ F produces an inacti'e state regardless of $hat the clock is doing. #f F goes
high "y itself, the next clock pulse resets the flipflop. #f ] goes high "y itself, the next clock
pulse sets the flipflop $hen ] \ F are "oth high, each clock pulse toggle the state of flip flop.
%!e*uenc" #ivision using li& lo&s
,lipflops are used as fre0uency di'iders of a periodic $a'eform. (hen a pulse $a'eform is
201
applied to the clock input of a ].F flipflop $hich is $ired for toggle operation, pro'ides s0uare
$a'e output $ith one half the fre0uency of the clock input. +hus a single flipflop can "e used
for di'ide "y 2 operations as illustrated in ,ig 3. +he flipflop changes state on each
triggering clock edge. +his results in an output $hich is at half the fre0uency of the clock
$a'eform. ,urther di'ision of clock fre0uency can "e achie'ed "y using the output of one flip
flop as the clock input to a second flipflop as sho$n in ,ig 3. +he fre0uency of the J- output
is di'ided "y 2 "y flipflop .. +he J. output is therefore, one fourth the fre0uency of the
original clock input. .y connecting flipflops in this $ay, a fre0uency di'ision of 2
n
is achie'ed,
$here n is the num"er of flipflops. ,or example, three flipflops di'ide the clock fre0uency "y
2
3
G ;. ,our flipflops di'ide the clock fre0uency "y 2
4
G 1?% and so on.
202
203
CO)NTER CIRC)ITS
Objectives:
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain "asic types of counters
2. Explain the circuit of a ripple counter
3. Explain a do$n counter using ]F flip flops
4. Explain synchronous and asynchronous decade counters
5. Explain module 13 and module 12 counter circuits.
204
Counte!
- counter is one of the most useful and 'ersatile su"systems in a digital system. - counter
dri'en "y a clock can "e used to count the num"er of clock cycles. 2ince the clock pulses
occur at kno$n inter'als, the counter can "e used as an instrument for measuring time and
therefore period or fre0uency.
,asically there are two types of counters
1. 2ynchronous counter
2. -synchronous counter
S"nc-!onous counte!
#n this counter e'ery flipflop is triggered "y the clock parallely <synchronously= and thus
settling time is simply e0ual to the delay time of a single flipflop. +he increase in speed is
usually o"tained at the price of increased hard$are.
As"nc-!onous counte!
-synchronous counters are simple and straight for$ard in operation and construction and
usually re0uire a minimum of hard$are, ho$e'er ha'e a speed limitation. Each flipflop is
triggered "y the pre'ious flipflop, Hi.e., clock is applied seriallyI and thus the counter has a
cumulati'e settling time. 1ounters such as these are also called as serial counters or ripple
counters. 2erial and parallel counters are used in com"ination to compromise "et$een speed
of operation and hard$are count. 2erial, parallel or com"ination counters can "e designed
such that each clock pulse ad'ances the contents of the counter "y one, it is then operating
in a countup mode. +he opposite is also possi"le% the counter then operates in the count
do$n mode. ,urthermore, many counters can "e either >cleared> so that e'ery flip flop
contains a 8ero or preset such that the contents of the flipflops represent any desired "inary
num"er.
Ri&&le counte!
+he ,ig la sho$s a counter "uilt $ith ].F flipflops since the ]\F inputs are tied to a high
'oltage, each flipflop $ill toggle, $hen its clock input recei'es a negati'e edge.
6isuali8e the J outputs as a "inary $ord. G J
3
J
2
J
1
J
3

J
3
is the most significant "it <!2.= and J
3
is the least significant "it <52.=. (hen 15& goes
lo$, all flipflops reset, this results in a digital $ord of J G 3333. (hen clear returns to high,
the counter is ready to go, since the 52. flipflop recei'es each clock pulse, J
3
toggles once
per negati'e clock edge, as sho$n in ,ig 1 ". +he remaining flipflops toggle less often
"ecause they recei'e their negati'e edges from the preceding flip flop outputs <J=. +he
205
triggers mo'e through the flipflops like a ripple in $ater that is $hy this type of counter is
called ripple counter.
Counting se*uence
(hen 15& goes from lo$ to high, the J output of all flip flops "ecome 8eroes.
JGJ
3
J
2
J
1
J
3
J G 3333 (hen the first clock pulse triggered the 52. flipflop, its output J
3
"ecomes 1, so the first output $ord is JG3331. (hen the second clock pulse arri'es, J
3
resets to 8ero, and this negati'e falling edge sets next flipflop output J, to 1 as sho$n in the
timing diagram. +herefore, the next output $ord is JG3313. +he third clock pulse ad'ances
J
3
to 1, at this stage 3
3
is ha'ing O'e rising edge, so J, output $ill not change then the
counter output is JG3311. +he fourth clock pulse forces the J
3
flipflop to reset and carry. #n
turn, the J, flipflop resets and carry, in turn, the J, flipflop resets and carry. +he resulting
output $ord is J G 3133. +he fifth clock pulse gi'es J G 3131. +he sixth clock pulse gi'es J
G 3113. -nd the se'enth pulse gi'es J G 3111. )L the eighth clock pulse J
3
resets and
carrier, J
1
resets and carrier, J
2
resets and carry, and J
3
ad'ances to 1. 2o the output $ord
"ecomes J G 1333. +he ninth clock pulses gi'es J G 1331. +he tenth gi'es J G 1313 and so
on at the 15th clock pulse J G 1111 .+he 1?th clock pulse resets all flipflops. +herefore the
counter resets to J G 3333 and the cycle repeats. .y adding more flipflops to the left end of
the counter circuit, the counter length can "e extended. Eight flip flops gi'e an ; "it ripple
counter% t$el'e flipflops result in a 12 "it ripple counter and so on. +he timing diagram is
sho$n in ,ig 1 ".
'o+n counte!
+he counter discussed a"o'e is an up counter, counts from 3 to 15 H3333 to 1111I. #f a
counter counts from 1111 to 3333 then it is called *)(L counter. #n a do$n counter J output
as sho$n in ,ig 2 is connected to the clock input of the next flipflop. Each flipflop toggles
$hen its clock input goes from 1 to 3. ,lip flop J
3
toggles $ith each negati'e clock transition
as "efore. .ut flip flop 3, $ill toggle each time J
3
goes high. Lotice that each time J
3
goes
high, J
3
goes lo$, and it is this negati'e transition on J
3
that triggers 31. +he timing diagram
is in ,ig 2".
- lo$ preset signal sets all output, producing an output $ord of J G 1111.
(hen pre goes high, the action starts. +he first clock pulse produces a negati'e toggle in J
3
,
nothing else happens. J G 1113 .+he second clock pulse produces a positi'e toggle in 3
3
,
206
$hich produces a negati'e toggle in J
1.
J G 1131, on the third clock pulse J
3
toggles
negati'ely and J G 1133, on the fourth clock pulse, J
3
toggles positi'ely J
1
toggles positi'ely
and J
2
toggles negati'ely. J G 1311.5ike$ise counting do$n from 153 takes place, $hen
count reaches 3, i.e. JG3333, on the next clock pulse, all flipflops toggles positi'ely to get
3G1111 and the cycle repeats.
Mo#ulo 5;= Counte!s As"nc-!onous 'eca#e counte!s
&egular "inary counters ha'e a maximum modulus, $hich means they progress through all of
their possi"le states. +he maximum possi"le num"er of states <maximum modulus= of a
counter is 2
n
, $here n is the num"er of flipflops in the counter. 1ounters can also "e
designed to ha'e a num"er of states in their se0uence that is less than the maximum of 2U.
+he resulting se0uence is called a truncated se0uence. )ne common modulus for counters
$ith truncated se0uence is ten. 1ounters $ith ten states in their se0uence <modulus13= are
called decade counters. - decade counter $ith a count se0uence of 8ero <3333= through nine
<1331= is a .1* decade counter "ecause its tenstate se0uence is the .1* code. +his type
of counter is useful in display applications in $hich .1* is re0uired for con'ersion to a
decimal readout. +o o"tain a truncated se0uence, it is necessary to force the counter to
recycle "efore going through all of its normal states. ,or example, the .1* decade counter
must recycle "ack to the 3333 state after the 1331 state. - decade counter re0uires four flip
flops <three flipflops are insufficient "ecause 2
3
G ;=.
(e $ill use a 4"it asynchronous counter such as the one in ,ig 3 and modify its se0uence to
illustrate the principle of truncated counters. )ne $ay to make the counter recycle after the
count of nine <1331= is to decode count ten <1313= $ith a L-L* gate and connect the output
of the L-L* gate to the clear <1E+#= inputs of the flipflops, as sho$n in ,ig 3. Lotice in ,ig 3
that only J
1
and J
3
are connected to the L-L* gate inputs. +his arrangement is an example
of partial decoding, in $hich the t$o uni0ue states <J
1
G1 and J
3
G1= are sufficient to decode
the count of ten, "ecause none of the other states <8ero through nine= ha'e "oth J
1
and J
3
4#94 at the same time. (hen the counter goes into count ten <1313=, the decoding gate
207
output goes 5)( and asynchronously resets all the flip flops. +he resulting timing diagram is
sho$n in ,ig 3. Lotice that there is a glitch on the J
i
$a'eform. +he reason for this glitch is
that J
1
must first go 4#94 "efore the count of ten can "e decoded. Lot until se'eral
nanoseconds after the counter goes to the count of ten does the output of the decoding gate
go 5)( <"oth inputs are 4#94=. +hus, the counter is in the 1313 state for a short time "efore
it is reset to 3333, thus producing the glitch on J, and the resulting glitch on the 15& line
$hich resets the counter. )ther truncated se0uences can "e implemented in a similar $ay.
Mo#ulo5;< counte!
-n asynchronous counter can "e implemented ha'ing a modulus of t$el'e $ith a straight
"inary se0uence from 3333 through 1311 as sho$n in ,ig 4a. 2ince three flipflops can
produce a maximum of eight states, four flipflops are re0uired to produce any modulus
greater then eight "ut less than or e0ual to sixteen. (hen the counter gets to its last state,
1311, it must recycle "ack to 3333 rather than going to its normal next state of 1133, as
illustrated in the follo$ing se0uence chart:
)"ser'e that J
3
and J
1
"oth go to 3 any$ay, "ut J
2
and J
3
must "e forced to 3 on the t$elfth
clock pulse. ,ig 4a sho$s the modulus12 counter. +he L-L* gate partially decodes count
t$el'e <1133= and resets flipflop 2 and flipflop 3. +hus, on the t$elfth clock pulse, the
counter is forced to recycle from count ele'en to count 8ero, as sho$n in the timing diagram
of ,ig 4". <#t is in count t$el'e for only a fe$ nanoseconds "efore it is reset "y the glitch on
15&.=
208
209
)$/'O,N CO)NTERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the "asic operation of an up/do$n counter
2. Explain the @4521A3 up/do$n decade counter.
210
)$/'O,N SYNC.RONO)S CO)NTERS
-n up/do$n counter is one that is capa"le of progressing in either direction through a certain
se0uence. -n up/do$n counter, sometimes called a "idirectional counter, can ha'e any
specified se0uence of states. - 3"it "inary counter that ad'ances up$ard through its
se0uence <3,1,2,3,4,5,?,@= and then can "e re'ersed so that it goes through the se0uence in
the opposite direction <@,?,5,4,3,2,1,3= is an illustration of up/do$n se0uential operation.
#n general, most up/do$n counters can "e re'ersed at any point in their se0uence. ,or
instance, the 3"it "inary counter can "e made to go through the follo$ing se0uence:
+a"le 1 sho$s the complete up/do$n se0uence for a 3"it "inary counter. +he arro$s indicate
the statetostate mo'ement of the counter for "oth its 7/ and its *)(L modes of operation.
-n examination of J
3
of ,ig 1 for "oth the up and do$n se0uences sho$s that ,,) toggles
on each clock pulse. 2o the ]
3
and F
3
inputs of ,,) are ]
3
G F
3
G1 .,or the up se0uence,
J
1
changes state on the next clock pulse $hen J
3
G1. ,or the do$n se0uence, J
1
changes on
the next clock pulse $hen J
3
G3. +hus, the ]
1
and F
1
inputs of ,,# must e0ual 1 under the
conditions expressed "y the follo$ing e0uation: ]
1
G F
1
G <J
3
.7/= O <J
3
. *)(L= .,or the up
se0uence, J
2
changes state on the next clock pulse $hen J
3
G J
1
G 1.,or the do$n
se0uence, J
2
changes on the next clock pulse $hen J
3
GJ
1
G3. +hus, the ]
2
and F
2
inputs of
,,2 must e0ual 1 under the conditions expressed "y the follo$ing e0uation:
]
2
GF
2
G <J
3
.J
1
. 7/= O <J
3
. J
1.
*)(L= each of the conditions for the ] and F inputs of each
flip flop produces a toggle at the appropriate point in the counter se0uence.
A s"nc-!onous G5bit bina!" u&/#o+n counte!s
+he timing diagram and the se0uence of a synchronous 4"it "inary up/do$n counter if the
clock and 7//*)(L control inputs ha'e $a'eforms as sho$n in ,ig 2. +he counter starts in
the all )s state and is positi'e edge triggered.
Table ;
-p./own se0uence for a %-bit binary counter
211
+he timing diagram sho$ing the J outputs is sho$n in ,ig 2". ,rom these $a'eforms, the
counter se0unce is as sho$n in +a"le 2.
Table <
T-e QGLS;R= )&/#o+n #eca#e counte!
,ig 3 sho$s a logic diagram for the @4521A3, a good example of an integrated circuit
up/do$n counter. +he direction of the count is determined "y the le'el of the up/ do$n input.
(hen this input is 4#94, the counter counts do$n% $hen it is 5)(, the counter counts up.
-lso, this de'ice can "e preset to any desired .1* digit as determined "y the states of the
data inputs $hen the 5)-* input is 5)(. +he !-Y/!#L output produces a 4#94 pulse $hen
the terminal count nine <1331= is reached in the 7/ mode or $hen the terminal count 8ero
212
<3333= is reached in the *)(L mode. +his !-Y/!#L output, along $ith the ripple. 1lock
output <&co= and the count ena"le input <1+EL= is used $hen cascading counters. ,ig 4 is
an example timing diagram sho$ing the @4521A3 counter preset to se'en <3111= and then
going through a countup se0uence follo$ed "y a countdo$n se0uence. +he !-Y/!#L
output is 4#94 $hen the counter is in either the all)s state <!#L= or the 1331 state <!-Y=.
213
S.I%T RE3ISTERS AN' T.EIR A$$LICATIONS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the "asic functions of a shift register
2. Explain different configurations of shift register
3. Explain the function of #1@4A5 in different configurations.
214
INTRO')CTION TO S.I%T RE3ISTERS
- shift register is a 'ery important digital "uilding "lock. &egisters are often used to
momentarily store "inary information appearing at the output of an encoding matrix. - register
might "e used to accept input data from an alphanumeric key"oard and then present this
data at the input of a microprocessor chip. 2imilarly, shift registers are often used to
momentarily store "inary data at the output of a decoder. ,or instance, a register could "e
used to accept output data from a microprocessor chip and then present this data to the
circuitry used to dri'e the display on a 1&+ screen. +hus registers form a 'ery important link
"et$een the main digital system and the inputoutput channels. - "inary register also forms
the "asis for some 'ery important arithmetic operations. ,or example, the operations of
complementation, multiplication, and di'ision are fre0uently implemented "y means of a
register. - shift register can also "e connected to form a num"er of different types of
counters. +hese counters offer some 'ery distinct ad'antages.
T"&es o !egiste!s
- register is simply a group of flipflops that can "e used to store a "inary num"er. +here
must "e one flipflop for each "it in the "inary num"er. ,or instance, a register used to store
an ;"it "inary num"er must ha'e eight flipflops. Laturally the flipflops must "e connected
such that the "inary num"er can "e entered <shifted= into the register and possi"ly shifted
out. - group of flipflops connected to pro'ide either or "oth of these functions is called a shift
register. +he "its in a "inary num"er <let>s call them the data= can "e mo'ed form one place to
another in either of t$o $ays. +he first method in'ol'es shifting the data 1 "it at a time
in a serial fashion, "eginning $ith either the !2. or the 52.. +his techni0ue is referred to as
serial shifting. +he second method in'ol'es shifting all the data "its simultaneously and is
referred to as parallel shifting. +here are t$o $ays to shift data into a register <serial or
parallel= and similarly t$o $ays to shift the data out of the register. +his leads to the
construction of four "asic register types as sho$n in ,ig 1 serial in serial out, serial in
parallel out, parallel in serial out, and parallel in parallel out. -ll of these configurations are
commercially a'aila"le as ++5 !2#/52# circuits. ,or instance:
2erial in serial out 54/@45A1, ; "its
2erial in parallel out 54/@41?4, ; "its
/arallel in serial out 54/@51?5, ; "its
/arallel in parallel out 54/@41A4, 4 "its
/arallel in parallel out 54/@41A;, ; "its
215
+he shifting capa"ility of a register permits the mo'ement of data from stage to stage $ithin
the register or into or out of the register upon application of clock pulses. ,ig 2a to 2g
illustrate the types of data mo'ement in shift registers. +he "lock represents any ar"itrary 4
"it register and the arro$ indicate the direction of data mo'ement.
Se!ial in 5 se!ial out o&e!ation
+he flipflops used to construct registers ar usually either ]F or * types. 2o let>s "egin "y
summari8ing the operation of ]F flipflop.
,or a ]F flipflop, the data "it to "e shifted into the flipflop must "e present at the ] and F
inputs $hen the clock transitions <lo$ or high=. 2ince the data "it is either a 1 or a 3, there are
t$o cases:
V+o shift a 3 into the flipflop, ]G3 and FG1.
V+o shift a 1 into the flipflop, ]G1 and FG).
+he important point to note is that the ] and F inputs must "e controlled to pro'ide the correct
input data. +he ] and F logic le'els may "e changing $hile the clock is high <or lo$=, "ut they
must "e steady from just "efore until just after the clock transition <remem"er, setup time and
hold time=. ,or our discussion $e shall use ]F mastersla'e flipflops ha'ing clock inputs that
are sensiti'e to negati'e clock transitions. #ncidentally, this negati'e transition of the clock is
fre0uently referred to as a shift pulse. +he $a'eforms in ,ig 3 illustrate these ideas. -t time -,
3 is reset lo$ <a 3 is shifted into the flipflop=. -t time ., J does not change since the flipflop
had a 3 in it and another 3 is shifted in. -t time 1, the flipflop is set <a 1 is shifted into it=. -t
time *, another 3 is shifted into the flip flop. #n essence, $e ha'e shifted 4 data "its into this
flip flop in a time se0uence: a 3 at time -, another 3 at time ., a 1 at time 1, and a 3 at time
*.
216
Lo$, consider adding three more flipflops connected as sho$n in ,ig 4. 5et>s "egin $ith all
the flipflops reset and then apply the exact same input signals to flipflop J as $e did in ,ig
3. 4ere>s $hat happens:
At time A: -ll the flipflops are reset, so all ] inputs are lo$ and all F inputs are high. +hen +
is reset <the 3 in 2 is shifted into +=. 2imilarly, the 3 in & is shifted 2, the 3 in J is shifted into
&, and the 3 at the data input is shifted into J. +he flipflop outputs just after time - are J&2+
G 3333.
At time 8: +he flipflops all contain )s. +hus the 3 in 2 is shifted into +, the 3 in & shifts into
2, the 3 in J shifts into &, and the 3 at the data input shifted into J. +he flip flop outputs are
J&2+ G 3333.
At time C: +he flipflops still all contain )s. +he 3 in 2 shifts into +, the 3 in & shifts into 2,
and the 3 in 3 shifts into &, "ut a 1 at the data input no$ shifts into J. +he flip flop outputs
are J&2+ G 1333.
At time ': +he 3 in 2 shifts into +, the 3 in & shifts into 2, the 1 in J shifts into & <the ] input
to & is high and the F input is lo$=, and the 3 at the data input shifts into J. +he flipflop
outputs are J&2+ G 3133.
+o summari8e, $e ha'e shifted 4 data "its in a serial fashion into four flipflops. +hese 4 data
"its could represent a 4"it "inary num"er 3133, assuming that $e "egan shifting $ith the
52. first. Lotice that the 52. is in + and the !2. is in J. +hese four flipflops could "e
defined as a 4"it shift register% thus this is the techni0ue used to construct a serialinput shift
register. +he serial data input for the register sho$n in ,ig 4 re0uires t$o input signals ] and
F. .ut look carefully at the $a'eforms. 1learly, F G ], or ].F. #n other $ords, one signal is
al$ays the complement of the other. #f $e $ere to connect an in'erter "et$een ] and F on
flipflop J $ith the input at ], therefore, $e $ould need to ha'e only one data input signal
the one re0uired for ]. .ut this is precisely a *type flipflop as sho$n in ,ig 5. &emem"er
the rules for a type * flipflop% on the negati'e clock transition, the data present at the * input
<either a 1 or a 3= $ill shift into the flipflop.
217
+hus the 4"it serial input shift register sho$n in ,ig 5 can "e constructed "y replacing the ]F
flipflops $ith type * flipflops.
Se!ial in &a!allel out /SI$O1
*ata is entered serially into this type of register, and data "its are taken out of the register
parallel from the output of each stage. )nce the data "its are stored, each "it appears on its
respecti'e output line, and all "its are a'aila"le simultaneously, rather than on a "it"y"it
"asis as $ith the serial output.
+he ,ig ?a sho$s the 2#/) shift register using ].F.flip flops. -ll the inputs are tied to the
compliment of ]inputs. +he clock, preset and clear inputs are 'e edge triggered.
#nitially all the flipflops are cleared to logic3 state "y applying logic3 pulse to the clear
inputs. +he se0uence of shifting logic information is sho$n in ,ig ?" $hich gi'es $a'eform
diagrams of data input, data output and clock input.
G5bit !ig-t5s-it let5s-it !egiste!s ICQGRI
+he ,ig @ sho$s the internal logic diagram of 4 "it shift register $ith parallel load capa"ility,
and $ith all flipflop outputs a'aila"le. +his makes it possi"le to perform the right shift or left
shift operation under control of the mode control input. ,or greater flexi"ility, the mode control
selects clock1 for the right shift mode and clock 2 for the parallel load <left shift= mode. +he
clock 1 and clock 2 inputs are tied together if only one clock source is re0uired. *ata transfer
occurs once the 'e going edge of the clock pulse occurs.
218
$a!allel in &a!allel out /$I$O1
+he ,ig ; sho$s the pins to "e used for parallel in parallel out operation in. #1@4A5. ,or this
operation mode control should "e kept at logic high. 1lock 2 should selected for applying
clock pulse, data inputs are to "e connected to the -,.,1 \ * parallel inputs, data output can
"e taken simultaneously from J
-
, J
.
, J
1
and J
*
. (hen mode control is at logic high, in'erter
1 output $ill "e at logic3. 4ence -L* gates 1,3,5,@ and A are disa"led "ecause one of the
inputs of those gates $ill "e at logic ). +herefore clock 1 and serial inputs $ill "e
disconnected from the flipflops. -t the same time -L* gates 2,4,?,; and 13 are ena"led
"ecause, "oth the -L* gate inputs of ena"led gates $ill ha'e high inputs simultaneously,
219
$hen clock is high. 4ence only clock 2 and parallel inputs are routed to the flipflop inputs.
,alling edge of the clock pulse, transmits the data information from parallel inputs to parallel
outputs, simultaneously. +his type of register re0uires 'ery less time <i.e. one clock pulse= for
transfer 1 set of parallel data information.
Se!ial In se!ial out /SISO1
+he ,ig A sho$s the pins to "e used for 2#2) operation in #1 @4A5. (hen the mode control
input is at logic3 condition in'erter 1 <refer functional diagram of @4A5 for inter "locks= output
$ill "e at logic1 and that ena"les -L* gates 3,5,@,A and 1. -L* gate1 selects clock1
status for triggering flipflops through )& gate. -L* gates 3,5,@,A selects serial input data. -t
the same time in'erter2 output $ill "e at logic3 that disa"les -L* gates 4,?,;,13 thus
disconnecting all parallel inputs -,.,1 and * reaching flipflop 4 clock pulses are re0uired to
transfer data from input to output of the shift register.
#f the outputs are taken from all the outputs J-, Js, Jc and J3, then this register $orks like
serial in parallel out <shift right= register.
Se!ial in &a!allel out /s-it let1
+he ,ig 13 sho$s external $iring diagram for serial in parallel out shift left register. ,or shift
left operation mode control signal le'el should "e logic1. *ata input is applied to the parallel
input* remaining parallel inputs -, . and 1 recei'es signals from the outputs J
.
, J
1
and J
*
respecti'ely as sho$n in ,ig 13. (hen mode control signal is at logic1 -L* gate 2 is
ena"led and -L* gate 1 is disa"led. 4ence all the flipflops get triggering pulse from clock 2.
-t the same time -L* gates 3,5,@ and A are disa"led and -L* gates 4,?,; and 13 are
ena"led, therefore parallel inputs -,.,1 and * routed to the flipflops inputs, and serial input
is disa"led from the flipflops. +he data input gi'en at the * input is shifted left as the clock
pulse progress. +o mo'e data from J
*
to J
-
, 4 clock pulses are re0uired.
220
221
8C' 'ECO'ERS AN' SE:EN SE3MENT4 'IS$LAYS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain cascaded counter
2. Explain the function #.3 @4A3 decade counter
3. Explain decoder and its application
4. Explain .1*todecimal decoder
5. Explain .1*to@ segment decoder dri'er #1 @443
?. Explain @ segment display and their types and application.
222
Casca#e# counte!s
1ounters can "e connected in cascade to achie'e higher
modules of operation, cascading means that the last stage output of one counter dri'es the
input of the next counter.
+he ,ig 1 sho$s the t$o counters Ha! \ aLI connected in cascade. +he final output of the
cascaded counter at output occurs once for e'ery ! x L clock pulses. +he o'erall modules of
the cascaded counters is <!xL=% that is they act as aH!LI counter. #n general the o'erall
module of cascaded counters is e0ual to the product of the indi'idual modules.
'MQGR= #eca#e counte!
*!@4A3- is a +.+.5 !2# decade counter, contains four master sla'e flipflops, a careful
examination $ill re'eal that flipflops J
.
, J
1
and J
*
form a !)*5 counter, and J
-
a di'ide
"yt$o counter. -ll of these counters ha'e a gated 8ero reset and the 52A3 also has gated
settonine inputs for use in .1* applications.
223
&efer ,ig 2 for the detailed internal "lock diagram. +o use their maximum count length
<decade=, the output - is connected to the input .*. +he input count pulses are applied to
input - and the outputs are as descri"ed in the appropriate truth ta"le. - symmetrical di'ided
"y ten count can "e o"tained from the 52A3 counters "y connecting the )
*
output to the >->
input and applying the input count to the . input $hich gi'es a di'ided"yten s0uare $a'e at
output J
-
. (hen reset pins H&
3<1=
and &
3<2
I are applied $ith logic high, an outputs J
-
, J
.
, Jc
and J
*
resets to logic 8ero are sho$n in reset/count truth ta"le. +o keep counter in count
mode one of the reset inputs should "e in logic 3<lo$= state. +he &
A<1=
and &
A<2=
inputs are
used to preset the counter o/p to .1* nine, to achie'e this condition inputs &
A<1=
and &
A<2=
should "e in logic high state and one of the reset inputs should "e in logic 3<1o$= state. H&ef
truth ta"leI *uring this condition L-L* gate o/p $ill "e logic 8ero and this output is
connected to the preset inputs of 1st and last flipflop, and sets J- and J
*
to logic1 then the
counter reading is 1331.
'eco#e!
+he "asic function of a decoder is to detect the presence of a specified com"ination of "its
<code= on its inputs and to indicate the presence of that code "y a specified output le'el. #n its
general form, a decoder has >n> input lines to handle >n> "its and from one to 2U output lines to
indicate the presence of one or more n"it com"inations.
224
T-e G5bit #eco#e!
#n order to decode all possi"le com"inations of four "its, sixteen decoding gates are re0uired
H24 G1?I. +his type of decoder is commonly called a 4 line to 1? line decoder "ecause there
are four inputs and sixteen outputs or a 1of1? decoder "ecause for any gi'en code on the
inputs, one of the sixteen outputs is acti'ated. +he ,ig 3 sho$s the @4154, 4 line to 1? line
decoder and the truth ta"le.
8C'5to5'ecimal #eco#e!
+he .1*todecimal decoder con'erts each .1* code <;421 code= into one of ten possi"le
decimal digit indications. #t is fre0uently referred to as a 4 line to 13 line decoder or a 1of13
decoder. +he method of implementation is the same as for the 4 line to1? line decoder,
except that only ten decoding gates are re0uired "ecause the .1* code represents only the
ten decimal digits 3 through A.
QGGQ 8C'5to5Q segment #eco#e!/#!ive!
+he @44@ Halso @4524@I is an !2# de'ice that decodes a .1* input and dri'es a @segment
display. #n addition to its decoding and segment dri'e capa"ility, the @44@ has se'eral
additional features as indicated "y the 5+, &.# and .#/&.) functions in the logic sym"ol of
,ig 4 sho$n "elo$, as indicated "y the "u""les on the logic sym"ol, all of the outputs <a
through g= are acti'elo$ as are the 5+ <lamp test= &.# <ripple "lanking input=, and .#/
&.) H.lanking input <ripple "lanking output=I functions. +he outputs can dri'e a common
anode @ segment display directly.
Lam& test
(hen a lo$ is applied to the 5+ input and the .#/&.) is high, all of the @ segments in the
display are turned on, lamp test is used to 'erify that no segments are defecti'e.
Be!o su&&!ession
+his feature is used for multidigit displays to "lank out unnecessary 8eros. ,or example, in a
?digit display the num"er ?.4 may "e displayed as 33?.433 <i.e.= the reading 8eros are not
"lanked out. .lanking the 8eros at the front of a num"er is called leading 8ero suppression
and "lanking the 8eros at the "ack of the num"er is called trailing 8ero suppression. Feep in
mind that only non essential 8eros are "lanked. (ith 8ero suppression, the num"er 333.3;3
$ill "e displayed as 33.3;.Tero suppression in the @44@ is accomplished using the
&.# and .#/&.) functions. &.# is the ripple "lanking input and &.) is the ripple "lanking
output on the @44@. +hese are used for 8ero suppression. .# is the "lanking input $hich
shares the same pin $ith &.), in the other $ords the .#/&.) pin can "e used as an input or
an output. (hen used in .# mode, all segment outputs are high <non acti'e= $ith .# is lo$,
$hich o'er rides all other inputs. +he .# function is not part of the 8ero suppression capa"ility
of the de'ice. -ll of the segment outputs of the decoder are non acti'e H4#94I if a 8ero code
<3333= is on its .1* inputs and if itZs &.# is lo$. +his causes the display to "e "lank and
produce lo$ &.). +he application 8ero suppression $ill "e dealt in *igital clock.
Q5segment #is&la"
@ segment displays are used $ith logic circuits that decode a "inary coded decimal <.1*=
num"er and acti'ate the appropriate digits on the display.
225
+he ,ig 5 sho$s a common display format composed of se'en elements or segments.
Energi8ing certain com"inations of these segments can cause each of the ten decimal digits
to "e displayed. +he ,ig" sho$s the method of digital display for each of the ten digits "y
using a "lock segment to represent one that is energi8ed. +o produce decimal >one> on
display, segments " and c are energi8ed, to produce >t$o> segments a, ", g, d and e are used
and so on.
LE' #is&la"
)ne common type of @segment display consists of light emitting diodes <5E*= arranged as
sho$n in ,ig. Each segment is an 5E* that emits light $hen there is current through it. +he
,ig <-= is common anode arrangement re0uires the dri'ing circuit to pro'ide a lo$le'el
'oltage in order to acti'ate a gi'en segment, $hen a lo$ is applied to a segment input, the
5E* is turned )L and there is current through it. #n ,ig " the common cathode arrangement
re0uires the dri'er to pro'ide a high le'el 'oltage to acti'ate a segment. (hen a high is
applied to a segment input. +he 5E* is turned )L and there is current through it.
226
LC' #is&la"
-nother common type of @ segment display is the li0uid crystal display <51*=, 51*s operate
"y polari8ing light so that a non acti'ated segment reflects incident light and thus appears
in'isi"le against its "ack ground. -n acti'ated segment does not reflect incident light and thus
appears dark. 51*s consume much less po$er than 5E*s "ut can>t "e seen in the dark,
$hile 5E*s can. 51*s operate from a lo$ fre0uency signal 'oltage <33 48 to ?3 48= applied
"et$een the segment and a common element called the "ack plane <"p=.+he ,ig @ sho$s a
s0uare $a'e used as the source signal. Each segment in the display is dri'en "y an Ex)&
gate $ith one input connected to an output of the se'en segment decoder/dri'er and the
other input connected to the signal source. (hen the decoder/dri'er output is high the Ex)&
output is a s0uare $a'e that is 1;3E out of phase $ith the source signal. +he resulting 'oltage
"et$een the 51* segment and "ack plane is also a s0uare $a'e "ecause $hen 6
seg
G 1,
6
"p
G3, and 'ice 'ersa. +he 'oltage difference turns the segment )L.
(hen the decoder/dri'er output is lo$ <3=, the Ex)& output is a s0uare $a'e that is in
phase $ith the source signal, the resulting 'oltage difference "et$een the segment and the
"ack plane is 3 "ecause 6
seg
G 6, +his condition turns the segment off. ,or dri'ing 51*s ++5,
is not recommended, "ecause its lo$le'el 'oltage is typically a fe$ tenths of a 'olt, thus
creating a *1 component across the 51*, $hich degrades its performance. +herefore,
1!)2 is used in 51* applications.
227
8INARY ARIT.METIC
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain "inary arithmetic
2. /erform "inary addition
3. /erform "inary su"traction using 1>s compliment and 2>s compliment
4. Explain half adder circuit, full adder circuit
5. Explain the #1 @452;3, 4 "it parallel adder
6. Explain #1 @452;3 4 "it parallel adder can "e used for su"traction.
228
.inary arithmetic is essential in all digital computers and in many other types of digital
systems. +o understand digital systems, you must kno$ the "asics of "inary addition,
su"traction, multiplication and di'ision.
8ina!" a##ition
/hysical 0uantities are represented "y num"ers. -ddition represents com"ining of physical
0uantities. *igital computers do not process decimal num"ers, they process "inary num"ers.
-ddition is a key process to perform su"traction, multiplication and di'ision. +he four "asic
cases for adding "inary digits are as follo$s.
3 O 3 G 3% 2um is 3 $ith a carry of 3.
3 O 1 G 1% 2um is 1 $ith a carry of 3.
1 O 3 G 1% 2um is 1 $ith a carry of 3.
1 O 1 G 13% 2um is 3 $ith a carry of 1.
Lotice that the first three cases result in a single "it and in the forth case the addition of t$o
1>s yields a "inary t$o i.e. 13. (hen "inary num"ers are added, the last condition creates a
sum of 3 in a gi'en column and a carry of 1 o'er to the next column to the left, as illustrated
in the follo$ing addition of 11 O 31.
#n the right most column, 1O1G3 $ith a carry of 1 to the next left column. #n the middle
column, 1O1O3G3 $ith a carry of 1<one= to the next left column. #n the left most column, 1
remains as final carry of the 2 "it addition. 4ence the result is 133.
13 O 12
13 1313
12 O 1133
22 13113
+he a"o'e process is column"ycolumn addition $hich can "e applied to find the sum of t$o
"inary num"ers of any lengths. +he follo$ing example sho$s ;"it arithmetic addition
operation.
AQ AH AI AG A2 A< A; A=
8Q 8H 8I 8G 82 8< 8; 8=
+he most significant "it <!2.= of each num"er is on the left side and least significant "it is on
the right side. ,or the first num"er, -
@
is the !2. and -
3
is the 52., similarly for the 2nd
num"er .
@
and .
3
are the !2. and 52. respecti'ely.
Signe# numbe!s
*igital systems such as the computer, must "e a"le to handle "oth O'e and 'e num"ers, -
signed "inary num"ers consists of "oth sign and magnitude information. +he sign indicates
$hether a num"er is O'e or 'e and the magnitude is the 'alue num"er. +here are three $ays
in $hich signed num"ers can "e represented in "inary form: sign magnitudes, 1s compliment,
and 2>s compliment.
Sign5magnitu#e s"stem
+he left most "it in a signed "inary num"er is the sign "it, $hich tells you $hether the num"er
is O'e or 'e, - 8ero in the left most position represents O'e num"er and a )LE represents
'e num"er. +he remaining "its are the magnitude "its. +he magnitude "its are in true
<uncomplimented= "inary form for "oth O'e and 'e num"ers.
229
;9s com&lement s"stem
/ositi'e num"ers in the 1>s complement system are represented the same $ay as the
positi'e sign magnitude num"ers. #n the 1>s complement system, a negati'e num"er is the
1Zs compliment of the corresponding O'e num"er.
<9s com&liment s"stem
/ositi'e num"ers in the 2>s complement system are also represented the same $ay as in
sign magnitude and l>s complement system. Legati'e num"ers are 2>s complement of the
corresponding positi'e no>s.2>s compliment of a "inary num"er is found "y adding )LE <1= to
the 52. of the l>s compliment. 2>s 1ompliment G <1>s compliment= O 1.
+he 2>s complement system is preferred for representing signed num"ers as it re0uires a
summation $eights regardless of $hether the num"er is O'e or 'e. #t is used in most
computers "ecause it makes arithmetic operations earier.
8asic A##e!
-dders are used in many types of digital systems in $hich numerical data are processed.
1omputers and calculators perform "inary operations on t$o "inary num"ers at a time, $here
each num"er can ha'e se'eral "inary digits.
+here are "asically 2 types of adders
1. 4alf -dder
2. ,ull -dder
+he logic sym"ol for a half adder is sho$n in ,ig 1.
4alf adder
+he halfadder accept t$o "inary digits on its inputs and produces t$o "inary digits on its
outputs, a sum "it and a carry "it.
,rom the logic operation of the halfadder as stated in the +a"le 1, expression can "e deri'ed
for the sum and the output carry as functions of the inputs, notice that the output carry is a 1
only $hen "oth - and . are 1s. +herefore carry <1out= can "e expressed as the -L* of the
input 'aria"les.
1out G -.. 1
+he sum output <b= is a 1 only if the input 'aria"les, - and . are not e0ual.
230
+he sum can therefore "e expressed as the exclusi'e )& of the input 'aria"les.
2um <b= G - xor . 2
,rom e0uation 1 and 2 the logic implementation re0uired for the halfadder function can "e
de'eloped. +he output carry is produced $ith an -L* gate $ith >-> and >.> on the inputs and
the sum outputs is generated $ith an Ex)& gate, as sho$n in ,ig 2.
%ull a##e!
+he full adder accepts three inputs including an input carry and generates a sum output and
an output carry.
+he "asic difference "et$een a fulladder and a half adder is that the fulladder accepts an
input carry. - logic sym"ol for a fulladder is sho$n in ,ig 3 and the truth ta"le in the +a"le 2
sho$s the operation of a fulladder.
+he fulladder must add the t$o input "its along $ith the input carry. ,rom the truthta"le of
the halfadder $e kno$ that the sum of the input "its - and . is -) .. +o get the sum output
of the full adder the input carry <1in= must "e exclusi'e)&ed $ith - xor .. +hen the sum
+his means that to implement the fulladder sum function, t$o exclusi'e)r gates can "e
used. +he first must generate the term - xor ., and the second has the inputs from the output
of the Y)& gate and the input carry, as sho$n in ,ig 4.
231
+he output carry of the fulladder is therefore produced "y the inputs -, -L*ed $ith . and -
xor . -L*ed $ith 1. +hese t$o terms are )&ed, and expressed in e0uation sho$n "elo$
and this function is implemented and com"ined $ith the sum logic to form a complete full
adder circuits, as sho$n in ,ig 4.
+he ,ig 5, sho$s there are t$o halfadders, connected as sho$n in "lock diagram to form
fulladder.
%ou! bit &a!allel a##e!
- "asic 4"it parallel adder is implemented $ith four full adders as sho$n in the ,ig ?.
8loc@ #iag!am o G bit &a!allel a##e!
+he 52., <-1 and .1= in each num"er "eing added into the right most fulladder% the higher
order "its are applied as sho$n to the successi'ely higher order adders, $ith !2.s <-4 and
232
.4= in each num"er "eing applied to the left most full adder. +he carry output of each adder is
connected to the carry input of the next higher order adder as indicated. #n the manufacturer>s
data sheets the input la"eled 1o is the input carry to the least significant "it adder, 14 is the
output carry of the most significant "it adder, and 21<52.= through 24<!2.= are the sum
outputs.
QGLSN2 G bit &a!allel a##e!
4"it parallel adders that are a'aila"le as !edium2cale #ntegrated <!2#= circuits are the
@452;3- and the @4522;3 lo$po$er 2chottky ++5 de'ices. +hese de'ices are also
a'aila"le in other logic families such as standard ++5 <@4;3- and @42;3= and 1!)2
<@4412;3=. +he @452;3- and the @4522;3 are functionally identical to each other "ut not
pin compati"le, that is the pin num"ers for the inputs and outputs are different due to different
po$er and ground pin connections. ,or the @452;3-, 6cc is pin 5 and ground 12 on the 1?
package. ,or the @4522;3, 6cc is pin 1? and ground is pin;, $hich is a more standard
configuration. 5ogic sym"ols for "oth of these de'ices are sho$n in ,ig @ $ith pin num"ers in
parenthesis.
233
+he 4 "it parallel adder can "e expanded to handle the addition of higher "it num"ers "y a
process called cascading. #n this process, the carry output of the lo$er order adder is
connected to carry input of the higherorder adder "eing cascaded.
8ina!" subt!action
2u"traction is a special case of addition. ,or example 2u"tracting O? <the su"trahend= from
OA <the minuend= is e0ui'alent to adding ? to OA. .asically the su"traction operation changes
the sign of the su"trahend and adds it to the minuend. +he result of a su"traction is called the
difference.
A ? G AO <?=
+he sign of a positi'e or negati'e "inary num"er is changed "y taking its 2>s compliment.
Example:
+he result of 2>s compliment of the positi'e num"er 3113<O?= is l>s compliment of the num"er
O 1
i.e. 1331 O 1 G 1313
1313 is 2>s compliment of 3113<O?=, $hich is e0ual to ? in decimal system, as sho$n "elo$.
1 3 1 3
; O 3 O 2 O 3 G ?
Example:
2u"tract ? from A in 2>s compliment method
A? G 3 normal method
AO <?= G 3 2>s compliment method
.inary form
A G 1331 <minuend= 1331 3113 G 3311
? G 3113 <su"trahend=
2>s compliment method
# step: 2>s compliment of su"trahend 3113 is
1>s compliment of su"trahend O 1
i.e. 1331 O 1 G 1313 <e0ual to ? in decimal system=
## step: -dd minuend $ith 2>s compliment of su"trahend i.e 1331 O 1313 G 13311
*iscard the carry 1, and then the result is 3311. -dder2u"tractor
,ull adder can "e used for to add or su"tract "inary num"ers. +he ,ig ; sho$s the ho$ adder
circuit can "e used as 2u"tractor.
+he carry out from each full adder is the carry into the nexthigher full adder. +he num"ers
"eing proposed are -@....-3 and .@ .3 $hile the output sum is 2@ 2o. (ith ; "it arithmetic,
234
the final carry is ignored. (ith 1? "it arithmetic, the final carry is the carry into the addition of
the upper "yte.
-ddition
-@ -o
O ., .o
2@ 2o
*uring an addition, the 27. signal is deli"erately kept in the lo$ state, therefore the "inary
num"er .@ .3 passes through the controlled in'erter <through Ex)& gate= $ith no change.
+he fulladders then produce the correct output 27!.
,or instance, suppose that the num"ers "eing added are O125 and ?@, then -,
-oG 31111131 and .@ .o G 13111131.
2ince 27.G3 during an addition, the 1-&&M #L to the 52. column is 3.
3 cV 2u" input
31111131 cV #nput >->
O 13111131 cV #nput >.>
133111313
*uring ; "it arithmetic operation >last carry> is ignored, therefore the ans$er is 2@
2o G 33111313.
2u"traction
-@ -o <minuend=
<= .@ .o <su"trahend=
2@ 2o
*uring the su"traction, the 27. signet is deli"erately put into high state. +herefore the
controlled in'erter <Ex)& gates= produces the 1>s compliment of >.> inputs, "ecause the
27. is the carry #L, to the first fulladder <tied to logic1= circuit processes the data as gi'en.
235
M)LTI$LEFERS & 'EM)LTI$LEFERS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the need of multiplexers and demultiplexers in digital circuits
2. Explain the function of a multiplexer $ith an example
3. Explain the relationship "et$een num"er of input lines and re0uired num"er of control
lines
4. 5ist a fe$ commercially a'aila"le multiplexer and demultiplexer #1s
5. Explain the application of a multiplexer \ demultiplexer in data transmission.
236
!any applications in digital logic re0uire circuit $ith multiple input and single output, single
input and multiple outputs. +he output of such circuits should ho$e'er "e uni0uely
determined "y a set of control signals. 2uch circuits find immense application in computer
and data transmission. 2uch circuits that ha'e one or more input lines and gi'e one or more
output $hich are uni0uely determined "y the inputs are called 1om"inational circuits. +$o of
the most important com"inational circuits are the !ultiplexers and *ecoders.
Multi&le7e!s
- multiplexer ha'ing 2
n
data inputs, one data output and an n"it control input $hich selects
one of the input and routes it to the output is sho$n in ,ig 1.
#n ,ig 1, the multiplexer has t$o inputs <2
n
G 2
1
G2
,
hence nG1=. #t has 1"it control signal
<"ecause, nG1= $hich selects - or . as the output as gi'en in the +ruth +a"le 1.
T!ut- Table
+he in'erse of a !ultiplexerZs a *emultiplexer as sho$n in ,ig2.
+his has n input < in this case, nG1=, 2n output <in this case, 2
n
G2
1
G2 outputs= and n num"er
of control signals <in this case nG1, hence control lineG1=. +he single input is routed to one of
the 2U outputs, depending on the 'alue of the n control lines. +he truth ta"le for the
demultiplexer at ,ig 2 is gi'en in +a"le 2.
Table <
IN$)T Cont!ol Out&ut
1 3 #nput S - <+herefore, -G1=
1 1 #nput S . <+herefore, .G1=
N5line Multi&le7e!
-s discussed in earlier paragraphs, a multiplexer is a circuit $ith 2> data inputs, one data
output and n control inputs. +he selected data is gated or routed to the output. ,ig 3 sho$s
the schematic of an eightinput or eightline multiplexer.
237
-s can "e seen in ,ig 3, the three control lines -,. and 1 encode a 3"it num"er that
specifies $hich of the eight input lines is gated to the )& gate and then to the output.
#mmaterial of $hat 'alue is on the control lines, se'en of the -L* gate $ill al$ays output 3,
the other one may output 3 or 1 depending on the 'alue of the selected input line. Each gate
is ena"les "y a different com"ination of the control inputs. 2uch a eightline multiplexer is
a'aila"le as a !2# chip (ith ; input lines, 3 control lines, one output, may "e an additional
compliment output line and po$er supply and ground lines is implemented as a 1? pin
package. )ne such package is the @452151, ;line multiplexer #1 sho$n in ,ig 4. 7nits are
the !ultiplexers and *ecoders.
'emulti&le7e! +he in'erse of a multiplexer is a demultiplexer. - demultiplexer routes its
single input signal to one of 2n outputs, depending on the 'alues of the n control lines. ,or
instance, if the "inary 'alue on the control signal is all 8eros, the 3th output line is selected
and if the "inary 'alue on the control lines is k, then, the le output line is selected for routing
the input signal. 2uch demultiplexers are also a'aila"le in #1 package. )ne such #1 is the 1
line to ; line demultiplexer @45213; as sho$n in ,ig 5.
238
A&&lication o Multi&le7e!s an# 'emulti&le7e!s
+here are almost innumera"le applications of multiplexers and demultiplexers. ]ust to list a
fe$ are in implementing a multiplexed display, parallel to serial data con'erter etc.,
+he application of multiplexer and demultiplexer can "e appreciated in data transmission as
sho$n in ,ig ?.
#n ,ig ?, the eight inputs could "e eight signals coming from different transducers measuring
eight different types of data <say, temperature, pressure...= in a industrial en'ironment. -t the
other end the output of the demultiplexer may "e fed to eight different measuring instruments
meant for measuring the indi'idual parameters. #f the control lines of the multiplexer and
demultiplexer are simultaneously fed $ith "inary signals se0uentially from 333 to 111, then
each of the parameter of the input at any gi'en time is communicated o'er the line to the
demultiplexer $hich inturn routes it to meter $hich is meant for displaying the 'alue of the
'alue of the parameter. )"ser'e from ,ig ?, that only one transmission line is used for
communicating all the eight parameters at different inter'als of time. +his is kno$n as +ime
di'ision multiplexing. 4ence, multiplexers and demultiplexers are in'aria"ly used in such
communication. +he three control lines sho$n in ,ig ? could e'en "e generated at sending
and recei'ing station independently using one of the input lines as the synchroni8ing input.
239
ANALO35TO5'I3ITAL CON:ERTER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the necessity of - to * con'erter
2. Explain successi'eapproximation method of -/* con'erter
3. Explain the characteristic of -*13;3A #1.
240
-nalog to digital con'ersion is the process "y $hich an analog signal is con'erted to an
e0ui'alent digital signal. +his con'ersion is necessary $hen measured 0uantities must "e in
digital form for processing in a computer for display or storage. ,or example, an -/*
con'erter is used to change the analog output signals from transducers measuring parameter
like temperature, pressure, 'i"ration etc into e0ui'alent digital signals. +he major factors that
determine the 0uality performance of -/* con'erter are resolution, sampling rate, speed and
linearity. +he resolution is the smallest change in 'oltage that can "e detected "y the system
and that can produce a change in the digital code. +he speed of a -/* con'erter is
determined "y the time it takes to perform the con'ersion process. +he sampling rate is the
no. of times per second that the analog signal can "e sampled and con'erted into a digital
code. ,or proper -/* con'ersion, the minimum sampling rate must "e at least t$o times the
highest fre0uency of the analog signal "eing sampled to satisfy the sampling theorem. +he
-/* re0uires a 'oltage reference in order to achie'e a"solute con'ersion accuracy. 2ame -/*
con'erters #1s ha'e internal 'oltage reference $hereas others accept external 'oltage
references. -nalog signal can "e con'erted to digital codes "y many methods of $hich
successi'e approximation and flash -/* con'ersion methods are most common 2/- -/*
con'ersion techni0ues is used commonly in medium to high speed data ac0uisition applies. #t
is one of the fastest -/* con'ersion techni0ues that re0uire a minimum amount of circuitry.
Successive5a&&!o7imation A/' conve!te!
2uccessi'e approximation is perhaps the most $idely used method of L* con'ersion. #t has
a much shorter con'ersion time% it also has fixed con'ersion time that is the same for any
'alue of the analog input. +he ,ig 1 sho$s "asic "lock diagram of a 4 "it successi'e
approximation -*1. #t consists of a *-1, a successi'e approximation register <2-&=, and a
comparator.
+he "asic operation is as follo$s:
+he input "its of the *-1 are ena"led <made e0ual to logic1= one at a time, starting $ith
!2., as each "it is ena"led, the comparator produces an output that indicates $hether the
analog input 'oltage is greater or less than the output of the *-1 for the corresponding 1/p. #f
the *-1 output is greater than the analog input, the comparator>s output is lo$, causing the
"it in the register to &E2E+. #f the *-1 output is less than the analog input the >1> "it is
retained in the 2-& register. +he system does this $ith the !2. first, then the next most
significant "it, then the next and so on. -fter all the "its of the *-1 ha'e "een tried, the
con'ersion cycle is complete.
241
,ig 2 illustrates the step"ystep con'ersion of a constant analog input 'oltage <56 in this
case=. 5et us assume that the *-1 has the follo$ing output characteristic: 6
out
G ;6 for the 2
3
"it <!2.=, 6 46 for the 2
2
"it, 6
out
G 26 for the 2
1
"it and 6
out
G 16 for the 2
3
"it <52.=.
,ig 2a sho$s the first step in the con'ersion cycle $ith the !2.G1, the output of the
*-1G;6. 2ince this is greater than the analog input of 56, the output of the *-1 is ;6. 2ince
this is greater than the analog input of 56, the output of the comparator is lo$, causing the
!2. in the 2-& to "e reset to a logic3.
,ig 2" sho$s the second step in the con'ersion cycle $ith the 2
2
"it e0ual to a logic1. +he
output of the *-1 is 46, since this is less than the analog input of 56, the output of the
comparator s$itches to a 4#94, causing this "it to "e retained in the 2-&.
,ig 2c sho$s the third step in the con'ersion cycle $ith the 2
1
"it e0ual to a logic1. +he
output of the *-1 is ? 'olts "ecause there is a logic1 on the 2
2
"it input and on the 2
>
"it
input 46O26G?6, since this is greater than the analog input of 56, the output of the
comparator, s$itches to a 5)(, causing this "it to "e &E2E+ to a logic3.
,ig 2d sho$s the fourth and final step in the con'ersion cycle $ith the 2
3
"it e0ual to a logic
1. +he output of the *-1 is 56 "ecause there is a logic1 on the 2
3
"it input and on the 2
3
"it
input 46O16G56. +he four "its ha'e all "een tried, thus completing the con'ersion cycle. -t
this point the "inary code in the register is 3131, $hich is the "inary 'alue of the analog input
of 56. -nother con'ersion cycle no$ "egins and the "asic process is repeated. +he 2-& is
cleared at the "eginning of each cycle.
242
Analogue to #igital conve!te! A'C=N=N/=N=R N bit mic!o&!ocesso! com&atible A/'
conve!te!
+he -*13;3;/3;3A data ac0uisition de'ices implement on a single chip most the elements of
the standard data ac0uisition system. +hey contain an ;"it -* con'erter, ; channels
multiplexer $ith an address input latch and associated control logic. +hese de'ices pro'ide
most of the logic to interface to a 'ariety of microprocessors $ith the addition of a minimum
num"er of parts.
%unctional #esc!i&tion
+he -*13;3;/3;3A sho$n in the a"o'e ,ig 3 can "e functionally di'ided into 2 "asic su"
circuits. +hese t$o su" circuits are an analog multiplexer and an -/* con'erter. +he
multiplexer uses ;standard 1!)2 analog s$itches to pro'ide for upto ; analog inputs, the
s$itches are selecti'ely turned on, depending on the data latched into 3"it multiplexer
address register. +he second function "lock, the successi'e approximation -* con'erter
transforms the analog output of the multiplexer to an ; "it digital $ord, the output of the
multiplexer goes to one of t$o comparator inputs. +he other input is deri'ed from a 25?&
resistor ladder, $hich is tapped "y a !)2,E+ transistor s$itch tree. con'erter control logic
controls the s$itch tree, funneling a particular tap 'oltage to the comparator, "ased on the
result of this comparison, the control logic and the successi'e approximation register <2-&=
$ill decide $hether the next tap to "e selected should "e higher or lo$er than the present tap
on the resistor ladder, this algorithm is executed ; times per con'ersion, once e'ery ; clock
periods, yielding a total con'ersion time ?4 clock period. (hen the con'ersion cycle is
complete the resulting data is loaded into the tristate output latch can then "e read "y the
host system any time "efore the end of the next con'ersion. +he try state capa"ility of the
latch allo$s easy interface to "us oriented systems.
243
INTER%ACIN3 T.E 'I3ITAL AN' ANALO3 SI3NALS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. *ifferentiate "et$een analog and digital system
2. -ppreciate digital system o'er analog system
3. Explain different methods used in * to - con'ersion
4. Explain performance characteristic of * to - con'erter
5. Explain characteristics of *-1 3;3;#1.
244
-nalog 0uantities are sometimes called real$ord 0uantities "ecause most physical 0uantities
are analog in nature. !any applications of computers and other digital systems re0uire the
input of real$orld 0uantities, such as temperature, speed, position, pressure and force. &eal
$orld 0uantities can e'en include graphic images, also digital systems often must produce
outputs to control real $orld 0uantities.
'igital an# analog signals
-n analog 0uantity is one that has continuous 'alues o'er a gi'en range, as contrasted $ith a
discrete set of 'alues for the digital case. ,or Example: - 'oltage that 'aries o'er a range
from O3 'olts to O15 'olts. +he analog representation of this 0uantity takes in all 'alues
"et$een 3 and 156 $hich are infinite in num"er. #n the case of a digital representation of the
'oltage using a 4"it "inary code, only sixteen 'alues can "e defined. !ore 'alues "et$een 3
and O15 can "e represented "y using more "its in the digital code. 2o an analog 0uantity can
"e represented to some degree of accuracy $ith a digital code that specifies discrete 'alues
$ith in the range. +his concept is illustrated in ,ig 1.
#n the ,ig 1 the 'oltage on the analog cur'e is measured, or sampled, at each of thirty fi'e
e0ual inter'als. +he 'oltage at each of these inter'als is represented "y a )"it code as
indicated. -t this point, $e ha'e a series of "inary num"ers representing 'arious 'alues along
the analog cur'e. <+his is the "asic idea of -* con'ersion=.-n approximation of the analog
function can "e reconstructed from the se0uence of digital num"ers that has "een generated,
o"'iously, there $ill "e some error in the reconstruction "ecause only certain 'alues are
represented, +hirty six sho$n in the ,ig 2 and not the continuous set of 'alues.
#f the digital 'alues at all of the thirty six points are graphed as sho$n in ,ig 2 the graph only
approximates the original cur'e. -ccuracy can "e increased "y sampling the cur'e more
245
often and "y increasing the num"er of "its used to represent each sampled 'alue. +o
interface "et$een the digital and analog systems, t$o "asic processes are re0uired. +hey are
-nalogue to digital con'erter and *igital to analogue con'erter. +he follo$ing examples
illustrate applications of these con'ersion processes.
Elect!onic t-e!mostat
+he ,ig 3 sho$s the simplified "lock diagram of an electronic thermostat, the room
temperature sensor produces an analog 'oltage that is proportional to the temperature. +his
'oltage is increased "y the linear amplifier and applied to the analogtodigital con'erter
<-*1= $here it is con'erted to a digital code and periodically sampled "y the control logic.
,or Example: +he room temperature is ?@E,. - specific 'oltage 'alue corresponding to this
temperature appears on the -*1 input and is con'erted to an ;"it "inary num"er 31333311.
+he control logic compares this "inary num"er $ith a "inary num"er representing the desired
temperature <say 31331333 for @2E,=. +his desired 'alue has "een pre'iously entered from
the key pad and stored in a register. +he comparison sho$s that the actual room temperature
is less than the desired temperature. -s a result, the control logic instructs the control unit
circuit to turn the furnace on. -s the furnace runs, the control logic continues to monitor the
actual temperature through the -*1. (hen the actual temperature e0uals or exceeds the
desired temperature, the control logic turns the furnace off, "oth the actual temperature and
the desired temperature are displayed.
C' &la"e!
+he compactdisk <1*= player is an example of a system that uses a digital to analog
con'erter <*-1=. +he "lock diagram is sho$n in ,ig 4, an audio signal is digitally recorded on
the 1* in the form of pits that are sensed "y the laser pick up and amplified. +he amplified
digital signal is con'erted to a se0uence of "inary codes that represent the originally recorded
audio signal, the "inary representation of the audio is con'erted to analogue form "y the
*-1, amplified, and sent to the speakers.
'igital5to5analog conve!te!
*igital to analog con'erter is an important section in any digital system as indicated in the
a"o'e t$o examples. )/-!/ is the most common element used in the * to - con'erter.
+he "asic pro"lem in con'erting a digital signal into an e0ui'alent analog signal is to change
246
the >n> digital 'oltage le'els into one e0ui'alent analog 'oltage. +his can "e most easily
accomplished "y designing a resisti'e net$ork as sho$n in ,ig 5 that $ill change each
digital le'el into an e0ui'alent "inary $eighted 'oltage or current.
+he 'alues of the input resistors net$ork is chosen to "e in'ersely proportional to the "inary
$eights of the corresponding input "its, the lo$est'alue resistor<&= corresponds to the
highest "inary $eighted input <21. +he other resistors are multiples of &<2&, 4& and ;&= and
correspond to the "inary $eights, 2
n1
, 2
n2
, 2
n3
, 2
nn
respecti'ely.
+he #// currents are also proportional to the "inary $eights, thus the o/p 'oltage is
proportional to the sum of the "inary $eights "ecause the sum of the input current is through
&
f.
+he ,ig 5 sho$s a 4 "it *-1, each of the input resistors $ill either ha'e current or ha'e no
current, depending on the input 'oltage le'el. #f the input 'oltage is 8ero <"inary 3=, the
current is also 8ero. #f the input 'oltage is 4#94 <"inary 1=, the amount of current depends on
the input resistor 'alue and is different for each input resistor. 2ince there is practically no
current into the opamp in'erting input, all of the input currents 27! together and go through
&
f
, since the in'erting input is at 36 <6irtual ground=, the drop across &
f
is e0ual to the o/p
'oltage, so 6
outG
#
f
. &
f .
+he main disad'antage of this type of *-1 is the num"er of different
resistor 'alues. ,or example, -n ; "it con'erter re0uires eight resistors, ranging from some
'alue of & to 12;& in "inary$eighted steps. +his range of resistors re0uires tolerances of
one part in 255 <less than 3.5Q= to accurately con'ert the input, making this type of *-1 'ery
difficult to massproduce.
R/<R la##e! #igital5to5analog conve!te!
+he ,ig ? sho$s another method of *- con'ersion using &/2& ladder resistor net$ork, for
four "its. #t o'ercomes one of the pro"lems in the "inary$eighted input *-1. #n this type
*-1 only t$o 'alues of resistors are re0uired & and 2&.
-ssuming that the *
3
input is 4#94 <O56= and the others are 5)( <ground 36=. +his
condition represents the "inary 1333. - circuit analysis $ill sho$ that this reduces to the
e0ui'alent form sho$n in ,ig @. Essentially no current goes through the 2& e0ui'alent
247
resistance "ecause the in'erting input is at 'irtual ground.
+hus all of the current <#G56/2&= through &
@
also goes through &
f
, and the output 'oltage is
56. +he operational amplifier keeps the in'erting <= input near 8ero 'olts <36= "ecause of
'e feed"ack. +herefore all current goes through &
f
rather than into the in'erting input, $hen
the *
2
input is at O56 and the others are at ground. +his condition represents 3133.
+he'ani8e the &2/2& ladder net$ork looking from &
;
, results in a current through &
f
of
#G2.56/2&, $hich gi'es an output 'oltage of2.56. Feep in mind that there is no current into
the )p -mp in'erting input and that there is no current through the e0ui'alent resistance to
ground "ecause it has 8ero 'olts across it, due to the 'irtual ground.
,-en t-e in&ut is ==;=
(hen *
1
input is at O56 and the others are at ground, this condition represents 3313, again
the'ani8ing the &2/2& ladder net$ork looking from &
;
, results in a current through &
f
of
#G1.256/2&, $hich gi'es an output 'oltage of 1.25 'olts.
,-en t-e in&ut is ===;
(hen *
3
input is at O56 and the others are at ground, this condition represents 3331, again
the'ani8ing the &2/2& ladder net$ork looking from &
;
, results in a current through &
f
of
#G3.?256/2&, $hich gi'es an output 'oltage of 3.?256. Lotice that each successi'ely lo$er
$eighted input produces an o/p 'oltage that is hal'ed, so that the output 'oltage is
proportional to the "inary $eight of the input "its. #n e0uation form the o/p 'oltage is gi'en "y
6G*
3
2
E
O *
1
2
1
O *
2
2
2
O *
3
2
3
O_. *
n1
2
n1
/2
n
, $here *
3
, *
1
, *
2
, *
3
*
n1
are the digital input
le'els.
$e!o!mance c-a!acte!istics o #igital5to5analog conve!te!
Resolution
+he resolution of a *-1 is the reciprocal of the num"er of discrete steps in the output. +his of
course, is dependent on the num"er of input "its.
,or example: - 4"it *-1 has a resolution of one part in 2
4
1 <one part in fifteen= expressed
as a percentage, this is <1/15= x 133 G ?.?@Q. +he total num"er of discrete steps e0uals 2
n1
,
$here n is the num"er of "its. &esolution can also "e expressed as the num"er of "its that
are con'erted.
Accu!ac"
-ccuracy is a comparison of the actual output of a *-1 $ith the expected output. #t is
expressed as a percentage of a fullscale or maximum output 'oltage.
Example: #f a con'erter has a fullscale output of 136 and the accuracy is R3.1Q, then the
maximum error for any output 'oltage is <136= <3.331= G13m6, ideally, the accuracy should
"e, at most R1/2 of an 52.. ,or an ;"it con'erter, 1 52. is 1/25? G 3.333A <3.3AQ of full
scale=, the accuracy should "e approximately R3.2Q.
Linea!it"
- linear error is a de'iation from the ideal straightline output of a *-1. - special case is an
offset error, $hich is the amount of output 'oltage $hen the input "its are all 8eros.
Monotonicit"
- *-1 is monotonic if it doesn>t take any re'erse steps $hen it is se0uenced o'er its entire
range of input "its.
Settling time
2ettling time is normally defined as the time it takes a *-1 to settle $ithin R1/2 52. of its
final 'alue $hen a change occurs in the input code.
'AC =N=N 'igital to Analog conve!te!
+he *-1 3;3; series is an ; "it monolithic digitaltoanalog con'erter <*-1= featuring a full
scale output current setting time of 153ns $hile dissipating only 33m$ $ith t56 supplies. Lo
248
reference current <1, 3= trimming is re0uired for most applications since the full scale output
current is typically R1 52. of 255 1, 3/25?. &elati'e accuracies of "etter than R3.1AQ assure
;"it monotonicity and linearity, $hile 8ero le'el output current of less than 4P- pro'ides ;"it
8ero accuracy for #
ref
G 2m-, the po$er supply currents of the *-1 3;3; series are
independent of "it codes and exhi"its essentially constant de'ice characteristics o'er the
entire supply 'oltage range. +he *-1 3;3; $ill interface directly $ith popular ++5, *+5 or
1!)2 logic le'els, and is a direct replacement for the !1153;/!1143;.
; sho$s the data "its of a *-13;3; connected to port 224 of minimum system. /in 2 of the
*-13;3; is grounded, and a 15p, compensating capacitor is "et$een pins 1? and 3, O56
supply sets up a reference current for the &2& ladder, pin 14 is connected to a positi'e
supply through a resistance <trimmer= &
14
allo$s you to adjust this to 2m- and pin 15 is
grounded through a resistance &
15
is the same si8e as &
14
% this compensates for drift in the
input stage of the con'erter. Lotice that lout dri'es the in'erting input of an opamp% therefore
the final output ranges from 3 to O26. /in 1 is unused, pin 2 is chip ground, pin 3 <6EE= is
156, pin 4 is the ground return for the current out of the ladder% this pin usually connects to
an opamp, pin 5 to 12 are for the ; "its of input data, /in 13<6cc= is O56. ,inally a capacitor
"et$een pin 1? and pin 3 fre0uencycompensates the de'ice.
3!oun#ing an# b"&assing
*/- and -/* con'erter #1<s= re0uire correct grounding and capaciti'e "ypassing in order to
operate according to performance specifications. +he digital signals can se'erely impair
analog signals to contact the electromagnetic interference caused "y the digital signals, the
analog and digital grounds should "e kept separate and should ha'e only one common point
on the circuit "oard. .ypass capacitors are re0uired at the po$er connections to the #1, the
reference signal inputs and the analog inputs to minimi8e noise that is induced "y the digital
signals. !anufacturer specifies the recommended "ypass capacitor locations and 'alues in
the data sheet.
249
INTRO')CTION TO 'I3ITAL COM$)TER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the "lock diagram of a digital computer/micro computer
2. Explain the different "uses in microprocessor
3. 4istory of microprocessor e'olution.

250
'igital com&ute! - digital computer is a multipurpose, programma"le machine that accepts
"inary data as input, processes data according to gi'en instructions and gi'e results as
output. - set of instructions $ritten for the computer to perform a task <say to add t$o
num"ers= is called a program. - group of such programs is called soft$are. *igital computer
recogni8es and operates in "inary digits <3 and 1=. +hese are kno$n as "its. - "it is the
a""re'iated form of the term "inary digit. +hese digits are represented in terms of electrical
'oltages. 9enerally, 3 represents lo$ le'el and 1 represents high le'el. . *igital computer is
programma"le machine. +his means that, it can "e instructed to perform re0uired tasks $ithin
its capa"ility. *igital computers are designed to understand and execute "inary instructions. -
computer is a multipurpose machine that can "e used to perform sophisticated tasks to do
this, it consists of logic circuits. +he manufacturer of the computer pro'ides the user $ith a list
of the instructions the computer $ill understand <#nstruction set=. ,or example, an instruction
for adding t$o num"ers may look like a group of eight "inary digits, such as 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 1.
$!og!amming languages - computer must "e programmed so that it kno$s $hat to do. -
program, referred to as soft$are <or firm$are= consists of a series of instructions. +he
instructions are follo$ed "y data for the computer to >fetchandexecute>. /rograms can "e
$ritten in machine code, i.e. the )s and 1s as mentioned in earlier paragraphs. .ut it is a
tedious, timeconsuming process, prone to error. /rogram >languages> ha'e therefore "een
de'eloped to make the jo" easier.
Lo+5level an# assembl" languages +hese are close to the "inary system. /rograms are
$ritten in mnemonics. ,or example, that the mnemonic for return is &E+. #t $ould also gi'e
the "inary code for this operation. +o ena"le the computer to understand the instruction &E+
i.e. to con'ert the mnemonic code into machine code, a special program called an assem"ler
is a'aila"le in the computer.
.ig-5level languages +hey are more like e'eryday English and are easier to understand
and $ork $ith. +his is "ecause they use terms such as 5)-*, -**, /&#L+, 2+)/. 4o$e'er
they are con'erted into se'eral machine code instructions. /rograms called compiler or
interpreter does the translation into machine code. .-2#1 <.eginner>s -llpurpose 2ym"olic
#nstruction 1ode= is a popular highle'el language. 1).)5 is designed for "usiness use,
$hile ,)&+&-L is suita"le for scientific and mathematical $ork.
%lo+c-a!ts: bina!" multi&lication -ll programs, $hether high or lo$ le'el must gi'e
a"solutely clear instructions to the computer. (riting a program is easier if a flo$chart is
dra$n up initially to sho$ the different steps re0uired for the task. 2uppose the task is the
"inary multiplication of ? and 5 i.e. 113 and 131. ,irst consider ho$ it is done "y long
multiplication. +he method is the same for decimal multiplication, i.e. the multiplicand<?= is
multiplied separately "y each digit of the multiplier <5= in turn and the partial products properly
shifted $ith respect to one another "efore they are added. +he operation is simpler in "inary
"ecause $e ha'e to deal $ith just t$o digits <1 and 3= and so at each stage there are only
t$o possi"le ans$ers ie. 113 x 1 G 113 or 113 x 3 G 3. #t is performed as follo$s
251
+he process is one of >shiftandadd> in $hich the partial products are either 8ero or a shifted
'ersion of the multiplicand. (hen a digital computer is used for multiplication, it is more
con'enient to add each partial product as it >accumulates> rather than adding them all at the
end. +he result is the same "ut the se0uence is
#n practice, one shift register <Y= is needed for the multiplicand another <M= for the multiplier
and a third, the accumulator, stores the partial products and sums and contains the final
product $hen the multiplication is complete. +his e'ent is detected "y a "inary counter $hich
records the num"er of >shiftandadd> cycles to ena"le the $hole operation to "e stopped
$hen finished.
%lo+c-a!t
- flo$chart for "inary multiplication is gi'en in ,ig 1. +he >shiftandadd> cycle is repeated <as
sho$n "y the >loop>= until e'ery "it in the multiplier has multiplied the multiplicand. Lote that
>terminal> sym"ols <start, stop= are o'al, >operation> ones are rectangular, $hile those in'ol'ing
a >decision> are diamondshaped.
252
*etails on programming and flo$charts are discussed in further lessons.
Memo!" o #igital com&ute!s
!emory of a digital computer considered like the page of a note"ook $ith space for a storing
fixed num"er of "inary digits on each line. #n computers, these pages are generally made of
semiconductor material or some form of magnetic material. +ypically, each line has space for
eight "inary "its. #n reality, a line is an ;"it register that can store eight "inary "its <refer
chapter on digital electronics= se'eral of these registers arranged in a se0uence is referred to
as semiconductor memory. +hese registers are al$ays grouped together in po$ers of t$o.
,or example, a group of 1324 <2
13
= ;"it registers on a semiconductor chip is kno$n as 1F
"yte of memory. <1F is the closest approximation in thousands=. -ctually a computer user
$rites the necessary instructions and data in memory, asks the computer to perform the gi'en
task and find an ans$er. +hese instructions are loaded into the memory through the input
de'ice <key"oard= of the computer. -s sho$n in ,ig 2, a digital computer $ill ha'e 5 main
"locks or units.
In&ut unit
+hrough this unit, data and program is fed to the computer. Examples of input units are
key"oard, mouse....
Out&ut unit
- computer after carrying out necessary computation of the fed data sends the result through
output unit. +ypical output de'ices are 'ideo monitor, printer.
Memo!"
!emory unit consists of de'ices called &-!, &)! and disks etc., $hich store data and
programs.
C$) /Cont!ol $!ocessing )nit1
+his is the heart of any computer. 1/7 is made of t$o su" units namely 1ontrol unit and -57
<-rithmetic \ 5ogic unit=. 1ontrol unit fetches the instructions of a program from the memory
and performs arithmetic or logical operation depending on the instruction. #t then sends the
resultto the output de'ice or to the memory. +he 1/7 of small digital computers such as the
popular desktop computers or the personal computer or microcomputers use one single
integrated chip to perform the function of 1/7. +his chip is kno$n as a microprocessor.
Mic!ocom&ute!
,ig 3 sho$s the "asic "locks of a micro computer. Lote that in ,ig 2, the 1/7 sho$n in ,ig 1
is replaced "y a microprocessor.
253
Mic!o&!ocesso!
- microprocessor performs the function of 1/7 of a digital computer. - microprocessor
generally in the form of a single chip may also ha'e a small amount of semiconductor
memory unit into it. +his microprocessor once interfaced $ith memory, input and output
de'ices, "ecome a microcomputer. +hese are referred as microcomputers "ecause it uses a
microprocessor as its 1/7.
8uses
6arious "locks of a microcomputer as sho$n in ,ig 2 are interconnected through $hat are
called "uses. - "us is common group of $ires that interconnect components in a computer.
+hese groups of $ires carry electrical signals. +here are three types of electrical information
that tra'el "et$een the 'arious units of computer. +hey are the address of memory, data and
control signals. +he si8e of a "us means the num"er of $ires of the "us. +he si8e of a "us is
referred as ;"it, 1?"it, 32 "it and soon. ;"it "us means ; $ires $ill parallely electrical
signals. 2ince, it is a digital signal that passes through this "us, the electrical signal $ill ha'e
digital information.
T-e t-!ee main t"&es o buses in a mic!ocom&ute! a!e
1. *ata "us
2. -ddress "us
3. 1ontrol "us
'ata bus
*ata "us is used to transmit data "et$een parts of the computer. -n ;"it data "us carries ;
"its of data at any gi'en time. +he data "us is kno$n as a "idirectional "us "ecause it carries
data in "oth directions "et$een any t$o or more parts. ,or example, data "us gi'es and
takes data from and to memory.
A##!ess bus
-ddress "us carry "inary information a"out the location or addresses from $here or at $hich
data/instructions need "e fed or data to "e stored. - microprocessor $ith 1? lines <1?"it=
address "us can address 2>? locations of the memory in $hich the data/program is stored or
to "e stored. -ddress "us is a unidirectional "us.
Cont!ol bus
1ontrol "us carries such information instruction the memory or a de'ice to accept or gi'e
<read or (rite= data. #n essence, the control "us synchroni8es all the acti'ities of the micro
computer. ,or example, it sends control signals to an input de'ice to put the data on the data
"us and simultaneous sends signal to memory to accept and store the data a'aila"le on the
data "us in the memory.
Mic!o &!ocesso!s 5 T-e Intel amil"
!icroprocessors are a'aila"le from many manufacturers. !icroprocessors from #ntel
254
1orporation $hich are $idely used are listed in the order of their appearance in market $ith
time.
7sing these microprocessors as the. 1/7 se'eral generations of microcomputers ha'e
e'ol'ed. 2ome of these are ta"ulated "elo$%
255
MICRO$ROCESSOR INTEL N=NI AN' ITS INTERNAL 8LOCM
'IA3RAM
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Fno$ the internal architecture of #ntel ;3;5
2. Fno$ a"out machine language program, assem"ly language program
3. Fno$ a"out programming process, algorithm, coding #nto !5/ and -5/.
256
8asic a!c-itectu!e o a mic!o&!ocesso!
- microprocessor is a programma"le logic de'ice. +he internal logic design of the
microprocessor is called its >architecture>. +his architecture determines ho$ and $hat 'arious
operations are performed "y the microprocessor.
-ll microprocessors are designed $ith the follo$ing three elements in addition to those
discussed earlier%
Vregisters to store intermediate data
Vflipflops to indicate status of a operation <flags=
Vtiming elements clocks and counters
.o+ #oes t-e mic!ocom&ute! +o!@S
-ssume that a program and data are already entered in the &/( memory. +he program
includes "inary instructions to add gi'en data and to display the ans$er. (hen the micro
computer is gi'en a command to execute the program, it reads and executes one instruction
at a time and finally sends the result to the display. +his process of program execution can
"est "e descri"ed "y comparing it to the process of assem"ling a circuit. +he instructions for
assem"ling the circuit are gi'en in a sheet of paper in se0uential steps. )ne reads the first
instruction, then picks up the necessary components of the circuit and performs the task.
+hus the se0uence is read, interpret and perform. +he microprocessor also performs in a
similar $ay. +he instructions are stored se0uentially in the memory. +he microprocessor
fetches the first instruction from its memory sheet, decodes it and executes that instruction.
+he se0uence of fetch, decode and execute is continued until the microprocessor comes
across the instruction, 2top. *uring the entire process, the microprocessor uses its "uses to
fetch the "inary instructions and data from the memory. #t uses registers to store data
temporarily. #t performs the computing function in the -57 section. ,inally, it sends out the
result in "inary, using the same "us lines, to the output display such as a monitor. - simplified
"lock diagram of a typical microprocessor chip is sho$n in ,ig 1. +his can "e used to
understand the outline of ho$ a microprocessor $orks. #n the "lock diagram at ,ig 1 for easy
understanding, lip is programmed $ith necessary instructions and data to add t$o num"ers.
+he programs counter $hose function is to keep track of the memory address from $here the
257
instructions/data is to "e fetched is reading 8ero. -lso all registers contain 3>s and the clock
has stopped.
"ction: +he program counter is connected "y the address "us to the memory <&)! or
/&)! in $hich the instructions are stored=. +he "inary output <count= from the counter is the
address input to the memory and is initially all 32 <e.g. 3333 3333 for a P/ $ith an eight"it
address "us=. +he instruction in this first address is thus >read> out of the memory into the P/
'ia the data "us. +he read instruction is held "y the instruction register <until another is
recei'ed=. +his instruction is decoded "y the instruction decoder into a signal that goes to the
control circuits. .y opening and closing logic gates the control circuit routes the data that
ena"le the P/ to perform the operation re0uired "y the first instruction. 2uppose it is 5)-*.
#f the clock is no$ started and ad'ances the program counter "y one count, the program
ad'ances "y one step <line= and the data stored at the second address <e.g. 3333 3331= is
>read> out of the memory and loaded <>copied> is more exact= 'ia the data "us into the
accumulator. <+he data $ill ha'e "een entered pre'iously "y the programmer and transferred
into a &-!=. +o o"tain addition of the data <num"er= in the accumulator and the data
<num"er= stored at another address in the &-!, the program must gi'e the necessary
instructions on succeeding clock pulses to ena"le the first data to "e shifted from the
accumulator to one of the internal registers in the P/ and for the second data to "e copied
into the accumulator. #f the -** instruction is then gi'en, the instruction decoder arranges for
the -57 to perform the addition <i.e. act as a fulladder= and to store the result in the
accumulator for su"se0uent transfer to the output unit. 4a'ing discussed in "rief a
microcomputer and a microprocessor $ork, let us discuss a more detailed $orking of a P/
choosing a specific P/ chip. +he P/ chosen for this discussion is the #L+E5 ;3;5, ; "it
microprocessor. ;3;5P/ is 1hosen for the reason that, it is fairly simple to understand its
architecture and ha'e a fe$ hands on practice of programming. 2e'eral companies produce
;3;5 trainee kits using $hich practice can "e had in the la"oratory lessons.
Mic!o&!ocesso! Intel N=NI
#ntel ;3;5 is a ;"it microprocessor. #t is a'aila"le as a 43pin *#/ as sho$n in ,ig 2a. #ts
data "us $idth is ; and address "us $idth is 1?. #t has multiplexed address/data lines for the
lo$erorder address as sho$n in ,ig 2".
#t has a 1/7, flags and fe$ registers as sho$n in ,ig 3 and as listed "elo$%
#. $-bit registers: "% &% C% '% E% ( and. )
*. #+-bit registers: ,C -,rogram counter. % S, -Stock pointer.
/. Flags: S% 0% "C% C1% , -.
258
259
Inte!nal a!c-itectu!e o Intel N=NI 8uses
;"it internal data "us is to carry instructions and data "et$een the 1/7 registers. External
"uses are -ddress "us, -ddress/*ata "us, 1ontrol "us. +hese "uses are used to connect to
peripheral chips like memory, input/output etc.
a= -ddress "us is designated as -l 5-;. +his "us is exclusi'ely used to carry upper ;"its of
the address.
"= -ddress/*ata "us is designated as -*@-*). +he same "us is used to carry either lo$er
;"its of address or data.
c= 1ontrol "us is used to carry control signals such as &*Z, (&Z, -5E etc.
Registe!s
#ntel ;3;5 contains se'en ;"it registers namely -reg <also called -ccumulator= $hich is a
special register and general purpose registers ., 1, *, E, 4 and 5. #t contains t$o 1?"it
registers namely /1 </rogram 1ounter= and 2/ <2tack /ointer=. /rogram counter al$ays
holds the address as the next instruction to "e executed. 2tack pointer also holds the
address of a memory location of stack. #ncrementer decrementer latch is used to add 1 or
su"tract 1 from the content of 2/ or /1.
AL) an# %lags
+he -57 <-rithmetic and 5ogic 7nit= is used to carryout arithmetic and logical operations. -s
sho$n in ,ig, the contents of -reg and temporary register are inputs to the -57. *epending
upon the instruction executed, -57 performs arithmetic or logic operation on the contents of
-reg and temporary register. ,or instance, during the execution of -** 1 instruction, the
content of 1register is copied in the temporary register during one clock cycle and the
contents of - and temperature register are added during the another clock cycle period. +he
260
result is stored "ack in the -register. +here are fi'e flip flops <flags= $hich $ill "e set or reset
$hene'er -57 performs arithmetic or logical operation. ,lags are affected as follo$s:
A##!ess bue! an# a##!ess5#ata bue!
+he contents of the stack pointer <2/= and program counter </1= can "e loaded into the
address "uffer <higher "yte= and addressdata "uffer <lo$er "yte=. +he output of these "uffers
then dri'es the external address "us <-15-;= and addressdata "us <-*@-*)=. !emory
and #/) chips are connected to these "uses. #n this $ay, the 1/7 can send the address of
desired data to the memory or #/) chips.
Inst!uction !egiste! an# #eco#e!/enco#e!
*uring fetch cycle, the opcode of an instruction is stored in instruction register. +his opcode
then dri'es the instruction decoder and machine cycle encoder. +he output of machine cycle
encoder is fed to timing and control unit.
Timing an# cont!ol
+his section includes an oscillator and a controller se0uencer. +he oscillator generates the
t$o phase clock signals <15F and ?33 that synchroni8e all the registers and peripherals.
+he controller se0uencer produces the control signals needed for internal and external
control.
Inte!!u&t cont!ol
+here are 5interrupt inputs lines such as +&-/, &2+5.5, and &2+?.5, &2+@.5 and #L+& and
one interrupt ackno$ledge output line ,&. 2ome times it is necessary to interrupt the
execution of the main program to ans$er a re0uest from an #/) de'ice. ,or instance an #/)
de'ice may send an interrupt signal to the interrupt control unit to indicate that data is ready
for input. +he processor temporarily stops $hat it is doing, inputs the data, and then returns to
$hat it $as doing.
Se!ial I/O cont!ol
2ome #/) de'ice $ork $ith serial data rather than parallel. #n such case, the serial data
stream from an input de'ice must "e con'erted into ;"it parallel data "efore the computer
can use it. 5ike$ise, the ;"it data out of a computer must "e, con'erted into serial form
261
"efore a serial output de'ice can use it. 2#* input is used for serial input and 2)* output is
used for serial output. ruction decoder and machine cycle encoder. +he output of machine
cycle encoder is fed to timing and control unit.
Timing an# cont!ol
+his section includes an oscillator and a controller se0uencer. +he oscillator generates the
t$o phase clock signals <15F and ?33 that synchroni8e all the registers and peripherals.
+he controller se0uencer produces the control signals needed for internal and external
control.
Inte!!u&t cont!ol
+here are 5interrupt inputs lines such as +&-/, &2+5.5, &2+?.5, &2+@.5 and #L+& and one
interrupt ackno$ledge output line ,&. 2ome times it is necessary to interrupt the execution of
the main program to ans$er a re0uest from an #/) de'ice. ,or instance an #/) de'ice may
send an interrupt signal to the interrupt control unit to indicate that data is ready for input. +he
processor temporarily stops $hat it is doing, inputs the data, and then returns to $hat it $as
doing.
Se!ial I/O cont!ol
2ome #/) de'ice $ork $ith serial data rather than parallel. #n such case, the serial data
stream from an input de'ice must "e con'erted into ;"it parallel data "efore the computer
can use it. 5ike$ise, the ;"it data out of a computer must "e, con'erted into serial form
"efore a serial output de'ice can use it. 2#* input is used for serial input and 2)* output is
used for serial output.
$!og!am
- program is a se0uence of instructions that operate a certain data to perform a particular
task.
Mac-ine Language $!og!am /ML$1
- program $ritten using )s and 1s is kno$n as !achine language program. 2ince any
microprocessor can understood only instructions $ritten using se0uences of )s and 1s,
programs should "e in machine language. .ut $riting machine language programs is a 'ery
cum"ersome, errorpro'e and machine dependent.
Assembl" language &!og!am /AL$1
- program $ritten using sym"olic names such as -**, 27., -L-, )&-, *1&, #L& etc and
define the data using decimal, hexadecimal or "inary notation is called assem"ly language
program. 1ompared to !5/ de"ugging the error is easy in -5/. 2ince any microprocessor
can understood only !5/, programs $ritten using -5/ needs to "e translated into !5/. 2uch
a translator that translates an -5/ into !5/ is kno$n as an assem"ler. E'en assem"ly
language programming is cum"ersome if programs of reasona"ly large si8e are to "e $ritten.
#n such cases, it is ad'isa"le to $rite programs using languages like ,)&+&-L, 1).)5, 1,
/ascal etc kno$n as 4igh 5e'el 5anguage <455=.
$!og!amming &!ocess
)nce the pro"lem is stated, de'elop an algorithm for it. -n algorithm is a precise statement of
the procedure re0uired for sol'ing the pro"lem. +he language used for $riting an algorithm
must "e such that the intension of the programmer can "e clearly expressed. 4ence English
like language is used to $rite algorithm. +he algorithm is then coded into a suita"le
programming language say machine or assem"ly language of the ;3;5. +o understand a"out
algorithm and programming let us take a simple pro"lem and try to sol'e.
262
$!oblem
-dd 2 single "yte num"ers stored at memory location 42334 and 4231 4 and store the result
at memory location 42324.
Algo!it-m
1. 5oad the address of the first "yte in register pair 45.
2. 5oad - reg $ith content of memory location pointed "y the pair.
3. #ncrement the content of register pair 45 <no$ 45 points to the second "yte of the
data=.
4. -dd the content of memory location pointed "y 45 to - reg.
5. #ncrement the content of register pair 45.
?. 2tore the result i.e. the content of - register in memory location pointed "y register pair
45.
@. 4alt.
The above algorithm can be coded into a 1ssembly language program as follows'
5Y# 4, 42334 5oad 42334 into 45 pair
!)6 -, ! !o'e the content of memory pointed .y 45 into - reg.
#LY 4 #ncrement the content of 45 pair "y 1
-** ! 1ontent of - is added $ith the content of memory location pointed "y 45
pair and place the result in - reg.
#LY 4 #ncrement the content register pair 45 "y 1.
!)6 !,- !o'e the content of - into memory /ointed "y 45 pair.
45+ 4alt
+he complete coding sheet $hich contains "oth assem"ly language and machine language
program is sho$n "elo$.
263
INTEL N=NI INSTR)CTION SET 5 INTRO')CTION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. *ata structures used in #ntel ;3;5
2. -ddress used in #ntel ;3;5
3. #nstruction types
4. -ddressing modes used in #ntel ;3;5
5. #nstruction sets of #ntel ;3;5.
264
'ata
#n #ntel ;3;5, data "us $idth is ;. #t means that at a time only ;"its can "e transferred or
manipulated.
a= /ossi"le ;"it unsigned dataZs are as follo$s:
"= +aking !2. as a sign "it
i.e.
<#= for O'e num"ers, !2.G)
<ii= ,or 'e num"ers, !2.G1 and it $ill "e in 2>s complement.
#.e. -ddress range is from 33334 to ,,,,4
+otal no. of memory locations G 2
1?
G ?4F
G ?553?
)ut of ?4F memory locations, some portion $ill "e used to address &)! and some portion
$ill "e used to address &-!. -ctual address range for &)! and &-! chips depends upon
the $ay in $hich it is interfaced/ interconnected.
$ositive numbe!s
!inimum G 3333 3333 G 334 G 3
13

!aximum G 3111 1111 @,4 G 12@
13
#.e. 334 to @,4
Negative numbe!s /in <9s com&lement1
!inimum G 1111 1111 G ,,4 G 1
13
!aximum G 1333 3333 ;34 G 12;
13
#.e. ;34 to ,,4
A##!ess
#n #ntel ;3;5, address "us $idth is 1?. +herefore address range is as follo$s:
Inst!uctions
#nstructions are of 3types namely4
265
1. 2ingle .yte #nstruction
2. +$o .yte #nstruction
3. +hree .yte #nstruction
A##!essing Mo#es
-ddressing modes means the mode or method in $hich the location of the data is addressed.
#n #ntel ;3;5, the follo$ing addressing modes are used.
1. #mmediate addressing mode
#n this mode, the instruction itself $ill contain the data. <e.g.= !6# -, 3@4
+he data 3@4 is mo'ed to register -.
2. &egister addressing mode
#n this mode, the instruction points to a register $here the data is a'aila"le.
<e.g.= !)6 -, 1
+he data a'aila"le in 1register is mo'ed to -register
3. 'i!ect a##!essing mo#e
#n this mode, the instruction contains the address of the memory location $here the data has
to "e mo'ed. <e.g= 5*- 23A34 #n this instruction, 23A34 is the address of the memory
location. +he data stored at memory location 23A34 is mo'ed to -register.
4. Registe! in#i!ect a##!essing mo#e
#n this mode, the instruction contains a register pair $hose content is the address of a
memory location $here a "yte of data is mo'ed. <e.g= 5*-Y .
#n this instruction, . indicates the register pair .1, the content of memory location $hose
address is the content of .1pair is mo'ed to -register.
Inst!uction sets
#ntel ;3;5 instruction set contains @2instructions. +hey are grouped as follo$s.
1 *ata transfer group
2 -rithmetic group
3 5ogic group
4 .ranching group
5 2tack, #/) and machine control group
266
'ATA TRANS%ER 3RO)$ INSTR)CTIONS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Fno$ the data transfer group instruction
2. 7nderstand the meaning/function of the instruction.
267
;3;5dp has six ;"it general purpose registers. +hey are identified as ., 1, *, E, 4 and 5.
+hey can "e com"ined as register pairs .1, *E and 45 to perform 1?"it operation.
+hese registers are programma"le meaning that a programmer can use them to load or
transfer data from the registers "y using instructions. 1onceptually registers can "e 'ie$ed
as memory location "uilt inside the microprocessor. -ccumulator - is an eight "it special
register used to store ; "it data. (hile performing arithmetic or logical operation one of the
data must "e a'aila"le in this register and the result is also stored in the same register. +he
accumulator is also identified as register -.
268
269
ARIT.METIC 3RO)$ INSTR)CTIONS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Fno$ the arithmetic group instructions
2. 7nderstand the meaning/function of each instruction.
270
A!it-metic g!ou& inst!uctions
-lmost all the instructions in this group affect the conditional flags <2, T, -1, 1M, and /=
unless or other$ise mentioned other $ay. (hene'er arithmetic or logical operation is
performed, one of the data must "e a'aila"le in ^-Z register and affect the flags. +hese flags
are arranged in an ;"it pattern called ,register or flag register as follo$s.
271
272
273
LO3ICAL 3RO)$ INSTR)CTIONS
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Fno$ meaning/function of each instruction in this group.
2. 5ogical group instructions
274
-lmost all the instructions in this group affect the flags unless or other$ise mentioned other
$ay. 5ogical operations are performed on the corresponding "it i.e. "it 3 $ith "it 3, "it 1 $ith
"it 1 etc.
275
276
277
MONOC.ROME TELE:ISION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the +6 system
2. Explain the tele'ision "roadcasting system
3. Explain the tele'ision "roadcast channels
4. Lame the front panel controls of a monochrome +6 recei'er
5. Explain the function of each control used in +6 set
?. Explain hori8ontal and 'ertical linear scanning
@. Explain the use of pattern generator for testing a +6 recei'er.
278
INTRO')CTION
+he meaning of the $ord +ele'ision is e+o set at a distanceU. +he scene or a picture is
focused through a +6 camera $hich con'erts the focused image to electrical signals. +he
camera>s output signal is modulated and transmitted as electromagnetic $a'es along $ith
respecti'e sound. +he transmitted electromagnetic $a'es are intercepted "y a recei'ing
antenna, usually a M-9# type antenna as sho$n in ,ig .1.
+(#L feeder antenna ca"le is connected to the t$o ends of the folded dipole. (ith a
matching .-57L 33352/ @552, the ca"le is then connected to a +6 recei'er. +he +6 recei'er
has the follo$ing front panel controls $ith the sym"ols as sho$n "elo$.
<a=)L/),, 'olume control 7sed to 'ary 'olume
<"=.rightness control 7sed to 'ary o'erall illumination of the screen
<c=1ontrast control 7sed to 'ary "lack and $hite picture intensity
<d=1hannel selector s$itch and fine tuning
+he +6 recei'er may ha'e any one of the follo$ing tuning mechanism <or simply tuner= as
sho$n in ,ig 2.
<a=+urret type tuner or mechanical type tuner
<"=Electronic tuner
279
#n turret tuner the channel num"ers are marked on the kno" and the re0uired channel can "e
selected "y rotating the channel selector s$itch. (hereas in electronic tuner there are ; to 13
programme selector s$itches and each selector s$itch can "e tuned to any particular
channel. +he channel selection is made "y simply pressing any of the re0uired program
selectors. +he procedure adopted to recei'e a particular channel in electronic tuners is as
follo$s.
<a= 2elect any one <num"er= of the program selector s$itch "y pressing the push "utton.
"= 2elect the "and of the re0uired channel and tune to recei'e the program for a clear
picture.
<c=-djust the other front panel controls.
+he "asic tele'ision system has to extend the sight "eyond it>s natural limits and it has to
transmit sound associated $ith the scene. #n the tele'ision system adopted "y #ndia, the
picture signal is amplitude modulated and sound signal is fre0uency modulated. +he t$o
carrier fre0uencies are suita"ly spaced and their modulation products radiated through a
common antenna. -s in radio communication, each +6 station is allotted different carrier
fre0uencies, to ena"le selection of desired station at the recei'ing end. +he +6 recei'er has
tuned circuit in its input section called tuner. #t selects desired channel signal out of the many,
picked up "y the antenna. +he selected &, "and is con'erted to a common fixed #, "and.
+he amplified #, signals are detected to o"tain 'ideo and audio signals. +he 'ideo signal after
large amplification dri'es the picture tu"e% similarly the audio signal is amplified and fed to the
280
speaker.
Television b!oa#casting
+he term "roadcast means to send out in all directions. -s sho$n in ,ig 3 the transmitting
antenna radiates electromagnetic $a'es $hich can "e picked up "y the recei'ing
antenna. +he +6 transmitter has t$o functions 'isual and sound transmission. .oth
picture signal and the sound signal are emitted from the common radiating antenna. +he
ser'ice area is a"out 123 km in all directions from the transmitter.
+he recei'ing antenna intercepts "oth the picture and the sound carrier signals. +he
signals are amplified and then detected to reco'er the original modulation. +hen the
detected 'ideo signal is amplified enough to dri'e the picture tu"e. ,ig 4 sho$s the "lock
diagram of monochrome recei'er system.
Television b!oa#cast c-annels
+he "and of fre0uencies used for 'ideo and audio signal transmission is called a
tele'ision channel. +6 signals are radiated at fre0uencies a"o'e 43 !48. +he fre0uency
"ands that ha'e "een assigned for the use of the +6 stations are as follo$s.
.and # 41?; !48
.and ### 1@4233 !48 2.and 134 to 1@4 !48 kno$n as 64, "and
4yper .and 2334@3 !48
.and #6 4@3G5;2 !48 21 to 3? channels kno$n as 74, "and
.and 6 3@?A 1h G ?3? !48 ;@3 !48 channel $idth G ; !48
.and ## ;313; !48 is used for ,! "roadcast. )nly .and # and ### are used for +6
transmitters in #ndia. Each "and is di'ided into a num"er of channels. -ccording to
standards adopted in #ndia a channel is @ !48 $ide. +he allocation of +6 channels to
some of the #ndian stations in the t$o fre0uency "ands are gi'en in the +a"le 1.
281
Receive! cont!ols
!ost of the "lack and $hite recei'ers $ill ha'e the follo$ing controls on their front panel
#. 1hannel 2elector
##. .rightness
###. ,ine tuning
#6. 1ontrast
6. 6ertical hold control
6#. 6olume control
6##. )L),, s$itch
2ome recei'ers also ha'e a tone control. +he channel selector s$itch is used for selecting
the desired channel. +he finetuning control is pro'ided for o"taining "est picture details in
the selected channel. +he hold control is used to get a steady picture in case it rolls up or
do$n. +he "rightness control 'aries the "eam intensity of the picture tu"e and is set for
optimum a'erage "rightness of the picture. +he contrast control is actually a gain control
of the 'ideo amplifier. +his can "e 'aried, to o"tain desired contrast "et$een $hite and
"lack contents of the reproduced picture. +he 'olume and tone controls form part of the
audio amplifier in sound section and are used for setting 'olume and tonal 0uality of the
sound output from the loud speaker.
$atte!n 3ene!ato! an# its use o! testing t-e &e!o!mance o a T: !eceive!
/attern generator is an e0uipment $hich can produce certain picture patterns $hen
connected to the antenna input of the +6 recei'er. +hese picture patterns are useful for
testing the performance of the +6 recei'er. +he factors $hich determines the correct
picture are
<a= .rightness of the picture
<"= 1ontrast of the picture
<c= 6ertical linearity
<i=+op linearity
<ii=.ottom linearity
<d= 4ori8ontal linearity
<e= &eception of complete picture $ithout shado$s on edges or sides
<f= -udio <0uality=
282
<g= 1lear picture <Loiseless or $/o 9host/sho$=
+here are different manufacturers of pattern generator and there are num"er of patterns.
2ome of the normal picture patterns and their use in identifying any defect on the picture
are discussed "elo$.
1. 4ori8ontal lines/"ar pattern
(hen the pattern generator is connected to a +6 recei'er and hori8ontal lines/"ar pattern
is selected, a pattern as sho$n in ,ig 5 appears on the screen. +he lines/"ar is "lack and
they are in $hite "ackground. +he lines should "e of e0uidistant and parallel. +his pattern
is for testing the 'ertical section, if the lines are not as specified then the pro"lem is
'ertical nonlinearity.
2. 6ertical lines/"ar pattern
,or testing the hori8ontal section of the +6 recei'ers the pattern as sho$n in ,ig ? is
selected. +hese "lack 'ertical "ars are also e0uidistant and parallel, $hen these "ars are
not e0uispaced then the pro"lem is hori8ontal nonlinearity.
3. 1ross hatch pattern
283
+his cross hatch pattern as sho$n in ,ig @ is also used for testing the hori8ontal and
'ertical non linearity simultaneously. ,inetuning control is used for adjusting straightness
of the "ars.
4. 9rey scale pattern
+he grey scale pattern as sho$n in ,ig ; is mainly used for setting the contrast,
"rightness and finetuning control. Lormally this pattern is used for testing the
performance of the 'ideo amplifier. - good 'ideo amplifier used in a +6 recei'er produces
maximum num"er of grey scales.
5. 1hess"oard or checker "oard <1he0uered .oard=
+he chess"oard pattern as sho$n in ,ig A can also "e used for setting the contrast,
"rightness and finetuning controls. *im picture sho$s the defect in 'ideo amplifier.
$oints to !emembe! beo!e using &atte!n gene!ato!
1. +6 recei'er should "e tuned to the channel set on the pattern generator.
2. +he output gain of the antenna is far less than the maximum gain at the output of the
284
pattern generator. 4ence lo$er le'el output should "e set on the pattern generator.
285
TELE:ISION ANTENNA
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the tele'ision recei'ing antenna parameters
2. Lame the elements of a yagi antenna
3. 1alculate the length of different elements of a yagi antenna for channel 4 \ @
4. Explain a fringe area antenna
5. Explain an inline antenna.
286
- correct choice of tele'ision recei'ing antenna <aerial= is necessary for o"taining good
0uality reception from desired "roadcast channels. ,ull kno$ledge a"out the +6 recei'ing
antenna and its installation is re0uired to get efficient pick up of radiated signal at any gi'en
location of the +6 recei'er. #t is e0ually important to kno$ that different antenna structures are
needed for recei'ing 64, and 74, channels "ecause of the $ide difference in their "ands of
fre0uencies. #n fringe areas $here signal strength is lo$, special antenna is used and in many
cases a "ooster amplifier is located on the antenna mast to ensure high signal to noise ratio.
#n addition $here signals from 64, and 74, antennas are to "e com"ined and carried "y a
common leadin$ire, special net$orks are pro'ided to isolate the t$o antennas. +he
characteristics impedance of the transmission line used for carrying the signal from aerial to
recei'er must "e e0ual to that of the antenna to pre'ent any reflections and conse0uent loss
of signal po$er.
Antenna &a!amete!s
/ractical +6 recei'ing antenna has more than one element necessary for o"taining more
directi'e characteristics. +he parameters of the antenna are gi'en "elo$.
;0 $ola!iEation
-n electromagnetic $a'e is hori8ontally polari8ed if its electric field is in the hori8ontal plane
and 'ertically polari8ed if the electric field is in the 'ertical direction. #n tele'ision transmission
$here $a'elengths are short the antenna can "e easily placed hori8ontally many $a'e
lengths a"o'e the ground. +hus hori8ontally polari8ed $a'es are standard for +6
transmission and recei'ing antennas are mounted hori8ontally for a strong and noise free
signal pickup.
<0 Antenna #i!ectivit"
+6 transmitting antenna arrays are usually designed to "e omnidirectional for e0ual radiation
in all directions. )n the other hand +6 recei'ing antenna is in general unidirectional "ecause,
this ena"les large signal pick up from the direction of desired +6 transmitter and un$anted
signals from other directions cause practically no induction and are thus rejected. &ecei'ing
antenna can "e made more directional "y adding additional elements. 2uch aerials are
pointed to$ards the transmitting antenna for a strong and selecti'e pick up of +6 signals.
20 Antenna gain
-ntenna gain, so far as recei'ing antennas are concerned is a measure of their directi'ity. -
highly directi'e antenna $ill ha'e more gain "ecause of its a"ility to ha'e maximum reception
from the most preferential direction. +he antenna gain is thus defined as the ratio of 'oltage
induced per unit length in the directi'e antenna to that of induced in an omni directional
antenna at the same location $ith respect to the transmitting antenna. +he gain is usually
expressed as the ratio of po$ers.
287
G0 Antenna ban#+i#t-
.and$idth of an antenna is the range of fre0uencies $ithin $hich the performance of an
antenna is satisfactory "oth in gain and directi'ity. #n general higher the gain and
directi'ity the narro$er is the "and$idth. (hile +6 recei'ing antennas must ha'e high
gain and directi'ity, it is e0ually important that they ha'e ade0uate "and$idth to co'er
most of the 64, <or 74,= channels. +his is not difficult "ecause the resonant circuit
formed "y the antenna is of lo$ >J> and as such has a "road"and response.
I0 Antenna im&e#ance
+his is a 'ery important characteristic of the antenna "ecause the transmission line
impedance must match $ith its impedance for maximum po$er transfer from aerial to
recei'er. -ntenna impedance is defined as the ratio of 'oltage and current. ,or recei'ing
antennas it is measured at the central point $here the transmission line is attached. Lote
that it is the ratio of &, -1 'alues of >6> \ >#> and can>t "e measured $ith an ohmmeter.
+he elements of a yagi antenna are sho$n in ,ig 1. +he antenna consists of a folded
dipolereflector and director<s=. +he antenna has impedance e0ual to 333N and gain close
to @d". #t is relati'ely unidirectional as seen "y the directi'e response. +o a'oid pick up
from any other side, the "ack to "e of the radiation pattern can "e reduced "y "ringing the
radiating elements <reflector and director= closer to each other. +he resultant impro'ement
in the front to "ack ratio of the signal pick up makes the antenna highly directional.
+he electrical length of the antenna 1G D / 2 $here D corresponds to center fre0uency of
the desired channel $idth
288
Yagi antenna o! c-annel G
+he fre0uency range for channel 4 is ?1?; !48. +herefore the centre fre0uency >f> is
used for design purposes is <?1 O ?;= / 2G ?4.5 !48. ,or the antenna to "e installed close
to the transmitter <13.15 Fms= one director "esides the reflector $ill ser'e the purpose. #n
the expressions used "elo$ all lengths are in meters <m= and fre0uencies in !48.
2pacing "et$een director and director <$hen more than one director is necessary is
nearly the same as "et$een director and dipole i.e., 3;/f G 3;/?4.5 G 3.5Am. +he
dimensioned sketch of the antenna is sho$n in ,ig 2.
Yagi antenna o! c-annel Q
+he fre0uency range of channel @ is 1;; !48 to 1A5 !48. +herefore the centre fre0uency
f.<1;;O1A5=/2 G 1A1.5 !48. ,or location not a$ay from the transmitter <15.33Fm= three
directors "esides a reflector to the dipole are considered ade0uate. 5engths of 'arious
elements can "e calculated as under.
289
+he a"o'e lengths and spacing are "ased on elements of 1 to 1.5cm in diameter. #t may
"e noted that the length of the folded dipole is measured from center of the fold at one
end to the center of the fold at the other end. #t may also "e noted that the performance of
yagi arrays can only "e assessed if all the characteristics like impedance, gain, directi'ity
and "and$idth are taken into account together. 2ince there are so many related 'aria"les
the dimensions of commercial antennas may slightly differ from those computed a"o'e.
%!inge a!ea antenna
#n fringe areas $here the signal le'el is 'ery lo$, high gain antenna arrays are needed.
+he gain of antenna increases $ith the no. of elements employed. - yagi antenna $ith a
large no. of directors is commonly used $ith success in fringe areas for stations in the
74, "and. - typical yagi antenna for use in fringe areas is sho$n in ,ig 3. #n such
antenna the reflectors are usually 5Q longer than the dipole and may "e spaced from it at
3.15 to 3.25 $a'elengths depending on design re0uirements. 2imilarly the directors may
"e 4Q shorter than the dipole element, "ut $here "road"and characteristics are needed
successi'e directors are usually made shorter to the resonant for the higher fre0uency
signals of the spectrum. #nsome fringe area installations, "ooster amplifiers are also used
along $ith the yagi antenna to impro'e reception. +hese are connected just close to the
antenna on the transmission line to the recei'er.
290
In line antenna
-nother com"ination antenna, $hich is kno$n as #nline antenna is sho$n in ,ig 4. #t
consists of a half$a'e folded dipole $ith reflector for the lo$er 6.4., "and that is in line
$ith the second shorter half $a'e folded dipole meant for the upper 64, "and. +he
distance "et$een the t$o folded dipole is approximately one 0uarter $a'e length at the
higher "and dipole fre0uency. +his is the length of the line connecting the short dipole to
the long dipole, $here the transmission line to the recei'er is connected.
+he directi'ity pattern of the inline is as follo$s in ,ig 4.
291
8/, TELE:ISION RECEI:ER $O,ER S)$$LIES
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 5ist different 'oltages re0uired "y a tele'ision recei'er
2. 2tate different types of po$er supplies used in +6 recei'er
3. Explain the $orking of simple transformer type po$er supply.
4. Explain the $orking of a 21& po$er supply circuit used in .\( +6 recei'er
5. Explain the $orking of an 2.!./.2 circuit used in .\( +6 recei'er.
292
8LACM AN' ,.ITE T: $O,ER S)$$LIES
+he po$er supply unit of a +6 con'erts the >-1> 2336 input 'oltage to different >*1> out put
'oltages as different *1> 'oltages are re0uired to fit the needs of the signal circuits, the
deflection circuits and the picture tu"e. - typical 23 inch ./( recei'er needs the follo$ing:
1. 5o$ 'oltage -"out ?.36 for picture tu"e
filament
-"out to 126 to 356 for small signal circuits
2. !edium 'oltage -"out 1136 to 2336 for the 'ideo output stage, and for hori8ontal
output stage.
3. 4igh 'oltage -"out 3336 to 4336 for the screen
grid and focus grid of the picture tu"e.
4. Extraordinary -"out 15 kilo'olt to 1;k6 of anode 'oltage for a monochrome
4igh 'oltage picture
E.4.+ tu"e.
+he circuit, $hich employs a mains transformer, "ridge rectifier and filters, is kno$n as a
simple po$er supply circuit as sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he main ad'antage of simple po$er supply circuit is the lo$ cost. +he disad'antage is the
line fluctuation, $hich causes greater change in picture 0uality and some times damages
the transistors and #1s used. #n modem tele'ision recei'ers, to o'ercome the a"o'e pro"lem,
regulated >*1> po$er supply circuits such as 21& po$er supply and 2!/s po$er supplies
are employed. +he *1 output of such po$er supplies are a"out 113 'olt *1. +he other
auxiliary *1 outputs are taken from hori8ontal output stage, $here the current demand is
small. +he filtering is simplified "ecause the ripple fre0uency in hori8ontal output stage is
15?2548 instead 53 48. +he 2!/s and 21& po$er supplies pro'ide constant *1> output
'oltage $ith changes in -1 mains 'oltage and in load current 'ariations.
+he modem porta"le +6 sets can "e operated from a "attery supply <O12 'olt=.
+he ,ig 1 sho$s simple transformer po$er supply circuit. +his circuit is employed in all the
cheap sets. +he transformer +1 pro'ides isolation "et$een -1 mains and *1 load as $ell as
pro'ide stepped do$n ac secondary 'oltages .+he "ridge formed "y *
1
to *
4
rectifies the
1?36 ac into pulsating dc. +he f filter formed "y &
1
, 1
1
and 1
2
filters out the 13348 ac
components and thus pro'ides pure *1 'oltage at .. 2imilarly *
5
to *
;
rectifies the 236 -1,
and filters through &
2
, 1
3
and 1
4
to pro'ide 156 pure *1 at 1O. +he 5
3
pro'ides ?.36 >ac> for
1&+ filament. +he ,
1
and ,
2
fuses, protect the circuit from the high transient. +he main dra$
293
"ack of this po$er supply is that, the output is unregulated.
SCR &o+e! su&&l" ci!cuit
2ince 21& is used to regulate the *1 'oltage, the circuit is called 21& regulated po$er
supply. +he "lock diagram of 21& po$er supply is sho$n in ,ig 2.
-n input filter is used to limit the peak 21& current to a permitted 'alue to reduce &,
s$itching currents flo$ing "ack into the mains. +he control circuit may "e of discrete or #1
'ersion. +he output lo$pass filter takes the form of single >&1> com"ination "ecause of the
po$er le'els in'ol'ed.
+he ,ig 3 "elo$ sho$ing typical 21& po$er supply circuit employed in >.E5> and e7/+&)L>
tele'ision recei'ers.
21& 2L3?@3 has "een used in this circuit for regulating the output 'oltage. +he regulation is
achie'ed "y controlling the conducting angle of the 21& $ith the help of the associated
components. +he &
1
4@N/23 $att a current limiting resistor also ser'es as a &, filter along
$ith 1
1
2@3 F/, and 5
1
13 milli 4enry inductance. *iode *
1
.M12@ rectifies the -1 mains. +he
21& 2L3?@3 and its associated circuit $ith filter circuit pro'ide O1;5 'olt as a constant *1
output 'oltage. O- a"out 35 'olts also taken from .E5 553 .*
2
to ser'e as 'ariactor supply
'oltage for the electronic turner. +he *1 'oltage o"tained from the *
1
.M12@ is applied to the
21&. +he *1 output 'oltage in this circuit depends on the conduction angle of the 21&
$hich is controlled "y applying suita"le conducting pulses to its gate. +he triggering circuit of
the 21& consists of &
@
4@F 1
3
, 2@3 F/, and diac *32323. +he condenser 2@3 F/, is
charged through the resistor 4@F during the positi'e cycle of the -1. -s soon as condenser
charged to the "reak o'er 'oltage of diac a trigger pulse is generated. +his trigger pulse is
coupled to the gate of 21& through &
13
133 and 1
2
2@3 F/,, resulting in the conduction of the
21&. +he output *1 'oltage is regulated "y controlling the conduction angle of the 21&. +he
controlling circuit consists of J
1
.114@, diodes *
3
.T14@ and its associated components.
+he input and output 'oltages are applied through resistors &
2
4@3F and &
12
3A3F
294
respecti'ely to the "ase of .114@. +he transistor senses the input and output 'oltages and
suita"ly controls the charging current of the capacitor 132@3 F/,. +his in turn controls the
instant of "reak o'er 'oltage of the diac resulting in the phase controls of the 21&. +he circuit
pro'ides good line regulation for input from 1;36 -1 to 253 'olt -1. .etter filtering is
achie'ed "y 15, 1? 233 !,* 4536 $ith 521333 m4 f filter circuit. +he nominal output is
1;5 'olt. +his can "e adjusted "y &4 5FN potentiometer.
*efects in the regulator circuit may lead to
<i=Lo output
<ii=5o$ output
<iii=5oss of regulation.
.y checking the operation of the regulating circuit, apply 1;5 to 2536 ac through the 'ariac
and check the *1 output if the *1 output should practically at the nominal output 'oltage
then the regulator circuit is okay.
SM$S /S+itc-e# Mo#e $o+e! Su&&l"1 &o+e! su&&l"
2!/2 is the impro'ed 'ersion of po$er supply unit used in modern ./( tele'ision recei'ers.
+he main ad'antage of 2!/2 o'er the other regulated po$er supply is its constant *1
output 'oltage for a changing line 'oltage from A36 to 2@36 -1, the "lock diagram in ,ig 4
explains the $orking functions of the simple 2!/2 circuit. +he single ended s$itching
con'erter chops unregulated *1 <6i= at a 'ery fast rate in the form of current pulses that flo$
through the 2!/2 +ransformer <+
1
=. +he energy transfer from primary to secondary offers
isolation "et$een main supply and load. +he error 'oltage induced "y the error sensing
$inding is used to control )L),, periods of the con'erter to regulate the output 'oltages.
+he o'er load protection circuit pro'ide protection to the s$itching transistor in case the
output 'oltage tends to o'ershoot for any reasons. +he 2!/2 transformer is of much smaller
si8e, "ecause the fre0uency of current pulses is chosen to "e 0uite high.
295
+he selfoscillated s$itched mode po$er supply circuit used in the reference recei'er circuit
is sho$n in ,ig 5.
+his circuit pro'ides sta"ili8ed >dc> supplies of O1136, O246 and O126. +he mains supply
<1@36 to 2536, 5348= is rectified using .ridge rectifier <diodes *131*134= and filtered "y
capacitor 1135 and 113?. +he main supply 'oltage is applied to the "ridge rectifier through
fuse ,131 and limiting resistor &131. 5?/, capacitors across four diodes are used for surge
protection. +he unsta"ili8ed >dc> 'oltage across 1135 and 113? is connected to the s$itching
transistor 3134 through J132 and 2! con'erter transformer +131 $inding 1 through ? and
formed a series circuit through emitter resistor &115 and ground resistance &113. +he
transistor .753;- J134 functions as electronic s$itch or s$itching de'ice. - sa$ tooth $a'e
applied at the "ase of J134 s$itches it )L and ),,. (hen the transistor J134 turns )L, a
linearly rising current flo$ through input $inding 1? of +131 and electromagnetic energy is
stored in $inding 1?. 6oltages are induced in $indings 25 43 and other secondary $indings
of +131. .ut the polarity of 'oltage is such that, none of the diodes *13@, *13;, *13A, *113,
*111 and *112 conduct. (hen J134 s$itches ),,, energy stored in $inding 1? is released.
+he 'oltage induced in $inding 25 is rectified "y *13; and filtered 1112 and this 'oltage is
connected J133. +he 'oltage induced in feed"ack $inding 43 also fed to the "ase of J134.
+his 'oltage s$itches J134 )L and after $hich J134 remains completely )L fixed "ase
"ias is ensured "y &114. *uring the ),, period of the sa$ tooth $a'e applied to the J134
"ase, the J134 s$itches ),, 'oltages de'eloped in $inding 25 rectified and filtered "y
*13A and 113@. +his 'oltage decides the "ase "ias of 3131, through the potential di'ider
&132, &133 and A134. +he emitter of J@31 is fixed "ias of 8ener potential of ;.26 "y *135.
(hen the 8ener 'oltage decreases "y the decreasing $inding 'oltage 25, the transistor
J131 turns )L. (hen J131 is )L, the collector current increases, the "ase 'oltage of J132
also increases and J132 s$itches )L. (hen J132 is )L, the transistor J133 also s$itches
)L. -s 3132 conducts, it charges the capacitor 113A in such a $ay makes the J134 "ase
more negati'e this in turn, J134 to s$itches ),,. -s soon as 3134 s$itches ),,, the
electromagnetic energy stored in $inding released. 6oltages are induced in $inding 25, 43,
296
;A, ;13 and ;11. +he 'oltages induced in $inding ;A, ;13 and ;11 are rectified "y
diodes *113, *111 and *112 respecti'ely and filtered out "y capacitors 1113, 1114 and
1115 to get 1136, 246 and 126 sta"ili8ed supply. (hen the 'oltage at secondary $indings
finally falls to 8ero, a resonant current is induced in primary $inding 1? resulting current
flo$ing in feed"ack $inding 34. +his current first achie'es maximum peak in one direction
and then re'erses its direction and it turns on J134.
Regulation
+he circuit uses a "locking oscillator that generates a s0uare $a'e to s$itch J134 )L and
),,. +he output supply 'oltages are controlled "y means of duty cycle s$itching. +he
conduction of J134 is controlled "y 'arying its )L and ),, times <i.e.= "y 'arying the $idth
of pulses fed at its "ase. (hen main supply increases, increase the )L times of 3134 thus
decreases the output, similarly $hen load current decreases, the output 'oltage tends to
increase, this result in decrease in )L time of J134 thus the output 'oltage remain constant.
297
MONOC.ROME $ICT)RE T)8E
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the construction of a monochrome picture tu"e
2. Explain the function of yoke assem"ly and centering magnets
3. #nterpret the picture tu"e specifications
4. Explain the picture tu"e control circuits
5. 5ist the precautions to "e taken $hile handling a picture tu"e
?. 2tate the pin configuration and electrical data of a picture tu"e
298
$ICT)RE T)8E CONSTR)CTION
- typical .\( picture tu"e is sho$n in ,ig 1. +he picture tu"e ser'es as a screen for
tele'ision. #t consists of an e'acuated glass or en'elope. +he neck of picture tu"e contains
electron gun $hich generates electron "eam. +his "eam is accelerated to the screen "y the
positi'e 'oltage of the anode. +he anode is a conducti'e coating on the inside surface of the
$ide glass $all. +he inside of the face plate is coated $ith a luminescent material that
produces light $hen excited "y electrons of the "eam.
*eflection coils are mounted externally in a specially designed yoke $hich is fixed close to
the neck of the tu"e. (hen hori8ontal and 'ertical scanning current is applied simultaneously
the "eam deflects at a fast rate to produce the raster. +he composite 'ideo signal that is
injected either at the grid or cathode of the tu"e modulates the electron "eam to produce
"rightness 'ariations on the screen. +his results in the reconstruction of the picture on the
raster, "it "y "it as a function of time. +he information thus o"tained on the screen is
percei'ed "y the eye as a complete and continuous scene "ecause of the rapid rate of
scanning.
Elect!on gun
+he 'arious electrodes of an electron gun are sho$n in ,ig 2. +he indirectly heated cathode
is a cylinder of nickel that is coated at its end $ith thoriated tungsten or "arium and strontium
oxides. +he control grid 91 is maintained at a negati'e potential $ith respect to cathode and
controls the flo$ of electrons from the cathode. #t is a cylinder $ith a small circular opening to
confine the electron stream to a small area. +he accelerating or screen grid 92 and the
focusing grid 93 are maintained at different positi'e potentials $ith respect to the cathode
that 'aries "et$een O2336 to O?336. -ll the elements of the electron gun are connected to
the "ase pins and recei'e their rated 'oltages from the socket that is $ired to the 'arious
sections of the recei'er.
299
8eam ocusing
+he electric field due to the positi'e potential of the accelerating grid extends through the
opening of the control grid right to the cathode surface. #n addition to accelerating the
electrons do$n the tu"e, the field also "rings all the electrons in the stream into a tiny spot.
+his is kno$n as the 1st electrostatic lens action.
+he #lnd lens system that consists of the screen grid and focus electrode dra$s electrons
from the pre'ious spot and "rings them to a focus at the 'ie$ing screen. +he focus anode is
larger in diameter and is operated at a higher potential than the first anode. +he electrode
'oltages are so chosen that the second point $here all the electrons get focused is the
screen of the picture tu"e. #n order to gi'e the electron stream sufficient 'elocity to reach the
screen material a second anode is included $ithin the tu"e. +his is a conducti'e coating $ith
colloidal graphite on the inside of the $ide "ell of the tu"e. +his coating is called a0uadag.
7sually extends from almost half $ay into the narro$ neck to $ithin 3cm of the fluorescent
screen as sho$n in ,ig 2. #t is connected through a specially pro'ided pin at the top or side of
the glass "ell to a 'ery high potential of o'er 1;k', for a 51cm monochrome +6 as this
'oltage depends on the screen si8e. +he electrons that get accelerated under the influence of
the high 'oltage anode area attain 'ery high 'elocities "efore they hit the screen. (hen the
"eam hits the screen, their energy is gi'en out in the form of light. +he eyes percei'e it as
spots of light of 'arying intensity depending on the strength of the electron "eam "om"arding
the screen. .ecause of 'ery high 'elocities of the electrons, $hich hit the screen, secondary
emission takes place. +he conducti'e coating "eing at a 'ery high positi'e potential collects
the secondary electrons.
300
8eam #election an# #election angle
#n tele'ision picture tu"es electromagnetic deflection is used. *eflection angle is the
maximum angle through $hich the "eam can "e deflected $ithout striking the side of the
"ul". +ypical 'alues of deflection angles are @3E, A3E, 113E and 114E. -s sho$n in ,ig 3 it is
the total angle that is specified. ,or instance a deflection angle of 113E means the electron
"eam can "e deflected 55E from the center.
Sc!een &-os&-o!
+he phosphor chemicals are generally light metals such as 8inc and cadmium in the form of
sulphide and phosphate compounds. +his material is processed to produce 'ery fine
particles, $hich are then applied on the inner surface of the glass plate.
%ace $late
+here $ill "e $astage of screen area if rectangular image is produced on a circular screen.
+herefore picture tu"es ha'e rectangular faceplate $ith a "readth and height ratio of 4:3. -
rectangular tu"e $ith 3?cm screen means that the distance "et$een t$o diagonal points is
3?cm.
Yo@e an# cente!ing magnets
+he t$o pairs of deflecting coils are mounted outside and close to the neck of the tu"e. +he
physical placement of the t$o pairs of coils around the neck of the picture tu"e is sho$n in ,ig
4. #n com"ination the 'ertical and hori8ontal deflection coils are called theyoke. +his yoke is
301
fixed outside and close to the neck of the tu"e just "efore it "egins to flare out, electrical
centering of the "eam can "e done "y supplying direct current through hori8ontal and 'ertical
deflection coils. .ut this method is not used in +6 recei'ers "ecause of the added current drain
on the lo$ 'oltage po$er supply. +he picture tu"es $ill ha'e a pair of permanent magnets for
centering, in the form of rings usually mounted on the yoke co'er. /oles of "oth the magnets
can "e suita"ly shifted $ith a pair of projecting ta"s pro'ided on the magnetic rings. +he t$o
rings are rotated together to change the direction in $hich decentering occurs. +his is sho$n in
,ig 5. +he edge of the yoke linear is used to hold small permanent magnets. +hese are
positioned to correct any pincushion error.
.ig- voltage ilte! ca&acito!
+he picture tu"e also has a graphite coating outside surface of the glass neck. +he external
coating must "e connected to the ground. Lormally grounded $ire spring is used on the
mounting. +he glass en'elope acts as a capacitor formed "y the inner and outer coatings $ith
302
glass as the dielectric. +his anode capacitance forms the filter capacitor of high 'oltage supply.
+he 'alue of the capacitance is a"out 2333p,. +he anode capacitorcan hold a charge for a
long time. (hene'er you handle the picture tu"e first discharge the anode capacitor. +he high
'oltage filter capacitor is sho$n in ,ig ?.
$ictu!e tube siEe
+he si8e of a picture tu"e ranges from the smallest $ith a"out a 1 in. screen, measured
diagonally to, large direct 'ie$ tu"es $ith a diagonal screen of 33 in. or more. +he 1 inch tu"e
is a monochrome type for the 'ie$finder in porta"le +.6 cameras. !ost common screen
si8es are 4, 14, 15, 1@, 23, 21, 25 and 2A inch. ,or larger picture si8es optical projection
systems are used. +he heater 'oltage for the picture tu"es is generally ?.36. 2pecial small
monochrome picture tu"es for .atteryoperated +.6 recei'ers may use a lo$erheater 'oltage
of 2 to 46.
$ictu!e tube s&eciications
+a"le sho$s the application data for the 2 commonly used <3?cm and 51cm= monochrome
picture tu"es. +he type no. of a picture tu"e starts $ith a num"er that gi'es the screen si8e.
,or the 1A64./22 for example the screen si8e is 1A inch <diagonal distance=. +ype num"ers
of foreign picture tu"es "egin $ith a num"er specifying the screen diagonal in millimeters. ,or
example a ]apanese type num"er such as 333$.22 has a diagonal screen measurement of
333mm <approximately 13 in.= -t the end of the type designation is a / or . num"er that
specifies the phosphor screen. +he phosphor num"er is /4 or .4 for .\( picture tu"es. ,or
color picture tu"es the num"er is /22 or .22. +his screen has &ed, 9reen or .lue
phosphorus.
$ictu!e tube ci!cuit cont!ols
- sufficiently high 'oltage is re0uired for the second anode of the picture tu"e to produce
sufficient screen "rilliance. +his 'oltage is al$ays o"tained from the output of the hori8ontal
deflection circuit. +he *1 'oltages to the screen grid and focus grid are also taken from the
hori8ontal stage and adjusted to suita"le 'alues "y resisti'e potential di'ider net$orks. +his is
sho$n in ,ig @.
303
- 'aria"le "ias control either in the cathode circuit or control grid lead is pro'ided to control
the "rightness on the screen. +his control kno$n as the "rightness control is "rought out at
the front panel of the recei'er to ena"le the 'ie$er to adjust "rightness. +he contrast control
forms a part of the cathode or control grid circuit. +his control is also pro'ided at the front
panel of the recei'er and its 'ariation ena"les adjustment of contrast in the reproduced
picture.
$ictu!e tube &!ecautions
+he picture tu"e is extremely dangerous "ecause it is a large, e'acuated glass "ul". - crack
or puncture results in a 'iolent inrush of air called and implosion and the kinetic energy of the
"roken glass causes a su"se0uent explosion. Mou should al$ays $ear eye protection such
as goggles or a face shield, $hile handling a picture tu"e. -lso $ear hea'y glo'es that
pro'ide a secure grip. #n large screen sets the picture tu"e can "e extremely hea'y and
a$k$ard to handle. #n this case it is "etter to put the set face do$n on a "lanket or carpet and
lift or lo$er the picture tu"e 'ertically into place. Le'er handle the picture tu"e "y its neck. .e
sure the delicate neck does not strike the ca"inet or any chassis "racket $hile you are
installing or remo'ing the picture tu"e.
.ig- voltage &!ecautions
+he glass dielectric for the anode capacitance of the picture tu"e has extremely lo$ leakage
out of the set the anode can retain a charge of se'eral thousand 'olts for $eeks at a time.
-ccidental contact $ith the ultor "utton of a chargedpicture tu"e in itself, seldom gi'es a
dangerous electric shock. +he person>s physical reaction may cause the tu"e to "e dropped.
-l$ays discharge the picture tu"e "efore remo'ing it. +o do this connect a clip lead "et$een
the chassis ground and the metal shank of a plastic handled scre$ dri'er. +hen holding the
scre$ dri'er "y its plastic handle, touch the ultor "utton under the ru""er cap of the high
304
'oltage connector. Mou $ill hear a snap $hen the tu"e is discharged. *o not trust picture
tu"es that are stored temporarily out of the set. 9round the ultor"utton using the clip lead
and scre$ dri'er techni0ue.
$in conigu!ations
/in configurations and the details of some of the picture tu"es that are commonly used is
gi'en in ,ig ;.
#. 233C# ,4% +#3C#,4
<Juick heat tu"e 53311 /4=
*eflection angle 114E for 53311 /4
*eflection angle 113E for ?1311 /4
/hosphor coating /4 alumini8ed
-node 'oltage 1?k' for 53311 /4
-node 'oltage 1;k' for ?1311/4
6oltage at 92 4336*1 for ?1311/4
6oltage at 92 1536*1 for 53311 /4
6oltage at 91 45 to AA6 *1 for ?1311/4
6oltage at 91 35 to ?56 *1 for 53311 /4
6oltage at 94 3 4336 *1
4eater 'oltage ?.36 -1
*. /43C#,4
34311 /4 is a 14U rectangular picture tu"e employing clipped tension "and for integral
implosion protection and lugs are pro'ided for mounting.
/. #*4C#,4
305
12411/4 is a 5U rectangular .\( picture tu"e $ith 4.5U flat 'ie$ screen area and 13mm
diameter neck.
*eflection angle A3E <diagonal=
4eater 'oltage <-1 or *1= ?6
-node 'oltage ?.4F6*1
6oltage at 94 33336
6oltage at 92 3336
$ictu!e element
+ele'ision is "asically a system for reproducing a still picture such as a snapshot. 4o$e'er
the pictures are sho$n one o'er the other fast enough to gi'e the illusion of motion. )ne
picture frame "y itself is just a group of small areas of light and shade. -ll the details $ith
'arying light and dark spots pro'ide the 'ideo signal for the picture information. ,rom ,ig A
and ,ig 13 $e can see that the printed picture is composed of small elementary areas of
"lack and $hite. Each small area of light or shade is a picture detail or picture element. #f
these elements are transmitted and reproduced in the same degree of light or shade as the
original and in proper position then the picture is reproduced.
Scanning
+he scene is scanned rapidly "oth in the hori8ontal and 'ertical directions simultaneously to
pro'ide sufficient num"er of complete pictures or frames per second to gi'e the illusion of
continuous uniform motion. #nstead of 24 frames as is the practice in commercial motion
pictures, the frame repetition rate is 25 per second in most tele'ision systems.
.o!iEontal scanning
,ig 11 sho$s the trace and retrace of se'eral hori8ontal lines. +he linear rise of current in the
hori8ontal line deflection coils as sho$n in ,ig 12 deflects the "eam across the screen $ith a
continuous, uniform motion for the trace from left to right.
306
-t the pack of its rise the sa$ tooth $a'ere'erses direction and decreases rapidly to its initial
'alue. +hese fast re'ersals produce the retrace or fly "ack. +he start of hori8ontal trace is at
the left edge of raster. +he finish is at the right edge and then the fly "ack produces retrace
"ack to the left edge. Lote that on the sa$ tooth, $a'e corresponds to hori8ontal deflection to
the right. +he hea'y lines indicate useful scanning time and dashed lines correspond to the
retrace time.
:e!tical scanning
+he sa$ tooth current in the 'ertical deflection coils as sho$n in ,ig 13 mo'es the electron
"eam from top to "ottom.
-s sho$n in ,ig 13 the trace part of the sa$ tooth $a'e for 'ertical scanning deflects the
"eam to the "ottom of raster. +hen the rapid 'ertical retrace returns the "eam to the top. -s
sho$n in ,ig 13 during 'ertical retrace, hori8ontal scanning continues and se'eral lines get
scanned during this period. .ecause of motion in the scene "eing tele'ised, the information
307
or "rightness at the top of the picture tu"e screen normally changes "y the time the "eam
returns to the top to recommence the $hole process. +his information is picked up during the
next scanning cycle and the $hole process is repeated 25 times to cause an illusion of
continuity. #t must "e noted that "oth during hori8ontal and 'ertical retrace inter'als the
scanning "eams at the camera tu"e and picture tu"e are "lanked and no picture information
is either picked up or reproduced. +hese short retrace inter'als are utili8ed for transmitting
distinct narro$ pulses to keep s$eep oscillators of the picture tu"e deflection circuits of the
recei'er in synchroni8ation $ith those of the camera at the transmitter. +his ensures exact
correspondence in scanning at the t$o ends and results in distortion less reproduction of
picture details. #n #ndian +6 system the total no. of lines for one complete picture, ha'e "een
chosen to "e ?25.
Inte!lace# scanning
-lthough the rate of 24 pictures per second in motion pictures and that of scanning 25 frames
per second in tele'ision pictures is enough to cause an illusion of continuity, they are not
308
rapid enough to allo$ the "rightness of one picture or frame to "lend smoothly into the next
through the time $hen the screen is "lanked "et$een successi'e frames. +his results in
definite flicker of light that is 'ery annoying to the o"ser'er $hen the screen "ecomes
alternately "right and dark. +his pro"lem is sol'ed in motion picture "y sho$ing each picture
t$ice so that 4; 'ie$s of the scene are sho$n per second although there are still the same
24 picture frames per second. -s a result of the increased "lanking rate, flicker is eliminated.
#n tele'ision pictures an effecti'e rate of 53 'ertical scans per second is utili8ed to reduce
flicker, "y making e'ery alternate line to get scanned instead of e'ery successi'e line. +hen
$hen the "eam reaches the "ottom of picture frame at the end of the first scan, it 0uickly
returns to the top to scan those lines that $ere missed in the first scanning. +hus the total
num"ers of lines are di'ided into t$o groups called >fields>. Each field is scanned alternately.
+his method of scanning is kno$n as >#nterlaced scanning> and is sho$n in ,ig 14. #n the ?25
line +6 system each frame or picture is di'ided into sets of 312.5 lines and each set is
scanned alternately to co'er the entire picture area. +o achie'e this the hori8ontal s$eep
oscillator is made to $ork at a fre0uency of 15?2548 <312.5 x 53 G 15?25= ,to scan the same
num"er of lines per frame <15?25/25 G ?25 lines=, "ut the 'ertical s$eep circuit is run at a
fre0uency of 5348.
Lote that since the "eam is no$ deflected from top to "ottom in half the time and the
hori8ontal oscillator is still operating at 15?2548. +he first field ends in a half line and the
second field commences at middle of the line on top of the screen. +he complete
geometry of the standard interlaced scanning pattern is sho$n in ,ig 15.
309
.ORIBONTAL S)85SECTION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the functions of the hori8ontal su"section of a .\( +6 recei'er
2. Explain the $orking of synchronous separator circuit using transistor
3. Explain the $orking of -,1 circuit and need for -,1
4. Explain the hori8ontal su"section constructed using #1 1-A23
5. Explain the common faults $hich occur in the hori8ontal su"section.
310
T-e im&o!tant unctions o t-e -o!iEontal sub s"stems a!e
i. 2eparation of synchroni8ing pulses from the composite 'ideo signal
ii. 9eneration of 15?2548 signal
iii. -utomatic control of the hori8ontal oscillator fre0uency and phase $ith reference to the
fre0uency and phase of the synchroni8ing pulses
i'. 2haping the oscillator output pulses capa"le of dri'ing the hori8ontal output and deflection
circuits.
S"nc-!onous se&a!ato!
+he synchroni8ing pulses are transmitted to keep the scene in the tele'ision recei'er in step
$ith the scene at the transmitter. +he synchronous separator or clipper separates the
synchronous pulses from the composite 'ideo signal. +hese synchronous pulses are
employed to synchronous the scanning of electron "eam of the picture tu"e $ith that of
transmitter camera tu"e.
+he "lock diagram in ,ig 1 sho$s the $orks of a synchronous separator stage. +he input
of a synchronous separator is a composite 'ideo signal. +he outputs are hori8ontal
synchronous pulses, e0uali8ing pulses and 'ertical synchronous pulses.
S"nc-!onous se&a!ato! using a t!ansisto!
-s $e kno$ synchronous pulses are a'aila"le 25Q of the composite 'ideo signal. +he
transistor is kept class e1> "ias i.e. "eyond cutoff le'el. +he ,ig 2, is sho$ing the "ias
condition and the output a'aila"le. +he circuit performs the functions of synchronous
pulse separation and shaping "esides pro'iding gain e0ui'alent to one transistor stage. -
'ideo signal $ith negati'e picture phase <synchronous position= is applied at the input
terminals.
311
+he collector is connected to the positi'e terminal of O1?6 supply. .efore the signal rises
to 3.56, the transistor remains cutoff and the collector 'oltage is O1?6. -s "ase 'oltage
exceeds 3.56, the transistor conducts and the collector 'oltage falls and "ecomes a"out
3.36 at saturation. !ean$hile the capacitor 11 is charged to 3.56. (hen the 'ideo signal
'oltage drops, the 3.56 charge left on the capacitor 12 "egins to discharge through
resistor -l. +he 'alue of &1, 11 are so chosen that, 11 discharges only partially during
hori8ontal scan period and thus the capacitor remains charged to 'oltage >E1> $hen the
next synchronous pulse internal arri'es. +he polarity of charge on capacitor 11 is sho$n
in ,ig 2a. +hus 'ideo signal must reach E1 O3.56 le'el "efore the transistor starts
conducting. +his $ill allo$ only the synchronous pulse to turn the transistor )L. +he rest
of the 'ideo signal $ill "e "locked "y the remaining E1 on 11 and 3.5 "aseemitter cutoff
'oltage.
'ie!entiato! ci!cuit
+he output of the synchronous separator is hori8ontal and 'ertical synchronous pulses.
+o, fa"ricate the hori8ontal synchronous pulses from 'ertical synchronous pulses% the
circuit used is called differentiator circuit. +he ,ig 3 represents differentiator circuit. #t is
simply a high pass filter, passi'e net$ork. +he time constant maintained here is 3.5psec.
+he input pulses, 1333p, get charge through 15kN resistor during charging. - sharp
positi'e spike appears in the output during discharging current flo$ in opposite direction
$hich causes negati'e spikes as an output.
.o!iEontal A%C nee# o! A%C
+he hori8ontal or line oscillator dri'ing the hori8ontal output stage must "e synchroni8ed "y
the narro$ hori8ontal synchronous pulses o"tained after differentiator circuit. +hese pulses
could "e used for triggering the hori8ontal line oscillator. 4o$e'er, extraneous impulsi'e
noise interference also produces output at the differentiator circuits. +his may also trigger the
hori8ontal oscillator and put it out of synchroni8ation. #t is therefore not desira"le to feed
these pulses directly to the hori8ontal oscillator for direct triggering. .y employing an
automatic fre0uency control circuit, the impulsi'e interference affected the hori8ontal
oscillator can "e eliminated. ,or the "lock diagram refer to the position of -,1 stage in the
hori8ontal su" system as sho$n in ,ig 4.
,o!@ing o an A%C ci!cuit
+he ,ig 5 sho$s a typical -,1 circuit. +he input is a differential signal from synchronous
separator, and also hori8ontal pulses from 5)+. +he output is a *1 'oltage taken from the
312
junction of &4 and &5.
,ig ?a illustrates the action of the diode detector in the -,1 circuit $hen there is no
fre0uency difference "et$een the applied pulses and the sa$ tooth reference 'oltage.
#n this case each diode is gated into conduction "y the synchronous pulses as the reference
'oltage passes through 8ero. +he current through each diode is e0ual thus charge 12 and 13
e0ual. 4ence output at >-> is >3> 6 $ith respect to ground. +his action impro'es the noise
immunity of the -,1 system.
313
(hen the oscillator fre0uency is less than that of applied synchronous as in ,ig ?". -
decrease in the operating fre0uency sho$s charge in the relati'e position. +his causes *1 to
conduct more strongly than *2. +he charge on 11 therefore "ecomes more positi'e. +he
resulting un"alance current flo$ through &4 and &5 causes the potential at >-> to "ecome
positi'e. +his positi'e 'oltage increases the oscillator fre0uency to compensate the
discrepancy "et$een oscillator fre0uency and the hori8ontal synchronous pulses. - similar
"ut opposite action occur as in ,ig ?c $hen the oscillator fre0uency is higher than that of
applied pulses. #n this case *2 conduct more than *1, the point >-> "ecome more negati'e.
+his negati'e 'oltage $ill soon cause an appropriate decrease in the oscillator fre0uency.
+he oscillator incorporated $ith in the #1 is a tree running multi 'i"rator.
+he controls associated in hori8ontal su"systems are
<i= 4ori8ontal hold <ii= hori8ontal linearity controls etc. #n 1-A23 su"system hori8ontal hold
control is employed at pin no.15 and also an auxiliary su" hold control in pin no.3 "eing
employed for find hold correction. 4ori8ontal linearity is a'aila"le at the output section using a
coil $ith core. +o perform the a"o'e functions, the hori8ontal su" system #1 is incorporated
$ith synchroni8ing separator, a coincidence detector, hori8ontal oscillator, t$o phase
discriminator, a phase shifter etc.
+he ,ig @ gi'en a internal "lock diagram of a hori8ontal su"system #1 1-A23/+.-A23
+he 1-A23 is a monolithic 1?lead dualinline #1. +he noise gated synchroni8ing separator,
separates the synchroni8ing pulses from the gi'en composite 'ideo signal. +he oscillator
stage, produce an oscillation of line fre0uency a"out 15?2548. +he coincidence detector
$hich $ill produce an -,1 <-utomatic ,re0uency 1ontrol= *1 "ias $ith the help of hori8ontal
fly"ack pulses getting from 5)+ ensures the oscillator fre0uency. +he hori8ontalfly"ack
phase detector and oscillator phase detector ha'e to correct the oscillator signal phase. #f any
spikes a'aila"le that $ill remo'ed "y these stages. +he pulse $idth is "eing controlled $ith
the time constant net$ork associated $ith the pulse $idth control stage. +he output is then
taken from the output stage $hich ena"les the dri'es the hori8ontal output stage.
+he functions of 'arious pins are as follo$s:
i. 2upply 'oltage <positi'e terminal=
ii. )utput 15?2548 to hori8ontal dri'er stage
314
iii. /hase shift
i'. /hase comparison
'. ,ly"ack signal input
2ynchronous pulse input
'i. 1omposite synchronous pulse output
'ii. 6ideo signal input <positi'e going synchronous=
'iii. Loise gating input
ix. External s$itch o'er e
x. +ime constant s$itch
xi. 1ontrol 'oltage limiter
xii. &eference 'oltage
xiii. 4ori8ontal oscillator
xi'. 4ori8ontal oscillator
x'. 9round <supply negati'e terminal=
+he complete circuit diagram of the hori8ontal oscillator su" system using #1 1-A23 is sho$n
in ,ig ;.
+he "rief explanation of the circuit is gi'en "elo$.
+ransistor J531 .114@., phase re'ersal has "een done and pro'ides positi'e going
synchronous 'ideo signal input to pin no.; of 1-A23. J531, kept at no "ase "ias 'oltage, the
signal itself acting as a "ias 'oltage. +he input gi'en to J531 is a"out 16 peaktopeak 3.@
'olt $hich is sufficient for conducting a transistor. +he a"o'e 3.@'olt, during the conduction
mostly synchronous pulses are a'aila"le "ut along $ith little 'ideo signal. &535, &534 forms
a 'oltage di'ider to pro'ide proper "ias to synchronous separator $ithin the #1. 1532 133kpf
&53? and 1533 are couples the signals to synchronous separator "ase. +he synchronous
signals are then separated "y the synchronous separator is applied to the input of the 'ertical
oscillator through an integrator net$ork formed "y &53@ and 1535. +he synchronous signal is
also coupled to pin ? of the #1 'ia a differentiator net$ork &53;, 1534. +he fre0uency of the
315
hori8ontal oscillator in the #1 depends on the capacitance of 1513 connected to pin 14 of #1.
+he &51@ is grounded transistor pin no.15, and the current fed to pin 15. +he amount of
current fed to pin 15 can "e controlled "y a 'aria"le resistor 6&531 $hich $orks as hori8ontal
hold control. +he hori8ontal oscillator signal a'aila"le at pin 4 of #1 is fed to pulse shaping
stage $ith in the #1 $hich also controlled phase shifter <pin 3=. +he $idth of the shaped,
s0uare $a'e pulse depends on the 'oltage at the input terminal pin 3. +he shaped s0uare
$a'e pulses are amplified $ith in the #1 and are a'aila"le at output terminal 2. +hese shaped
pulses are no$ a"le to dri'e the hori8ontal output stage. +he compared phase current
a'aila"le at pin no.12 is according to the synchronous pulse a'aila"le at pin no.?. +he control
current is filtered "y resistor &511, capacitor 1511 and 1512. +his current is used to control
the line oscillator fre0uency. +he fly"ack pulses transistor 5)+ is applied to pin no.5. #f the
synchronous pulses appearing at pin @ of #1 sufficiently o'erlap the hori8ontal fly"ack pulse
at pin no.5 a coincidence detector $ithin the #1 de'elops a control 'oltage. +his control
'oltage is filtered "y &513 and 153? connected to pin 13, and is then used for phase
synchroni8ation of the hori8ontal oscillator. +he second phase discriminator in the #1 supplies
control 'oltage to ensure that the phase position of the deflection does not depend on delay
times in the hori8ontal output stage. +his control 'oltage appears at pin 4 and filtered "y a
com"ination of &515 and 153; along $ith the su" hold control 6&532.
&53@, 1534 and &53; they form a high pass filter <differentiator= circuit and the hori8ontal
synchronous pulses are fed to pin ? of the #1 through this net$ork.&51@, &51;, &51A and
&523 and capacitor 1513. +his net$ork decides the fre0uency of the hori8ontal oscillator.
&531 $orks as hori8ontal hold.
Common aults an# t-ei! !easons in -o!iEontal sub s"stem stage
#. (ori5ontal rolling or diagonal pulling
<a=+his fault is due to incorrect hori8ontal fre0uency settings of the hori8ontal fre0uency
a"o'e or "elo$ 15?2548 diagonal pulling occur left side or from right side respecti'ely. +his
is due to the causes of defecti'e presets hold control 6&531 13F hold control or the defecti'e
su" hold control 6&532. +he defects of the controls may "e of dry solders or the mechanical
contact may "e "roken. #n some time, due to aging, the presetting may slightly change, this
re0uire slight alignment only to correct the fault.
<"=+he diagonal rolling occurs due to loss of hori8ontal synchronous pulses also. +he trou"le
may "e the synchronous pulses run through the component to #1 may "e open or short
circuited. +he &53@, 53;, 1535 and 1534 are such circuit taken the synchronous to the
circuit. +o correct the fault check the components through multimeter. !easure the 'oltage at
pin no.? it could "e 3.36 in normal position.
<c=#f feed"ack from hori8ontal pulses from 5)+ is a"sent is also another reason for diagonal
pulling. +his could "e corrected "y checking the signal line. #t could start from 5)+ and
through &514, 153@ etc., and also check the normal 'oltage at piri no.5 of 1-A23. #f
a"normal, change the a"o'e component.
20 .o!iEontal ol#ove!
<a= #t is due to poor linearity in hori8ontal scanning process. #f the hori8ontal sa$ tooth current
is not uniform or sa$tooth current is flat at ends, causes fold o'er in the picture as sho$n in
,ig A. +his $ill cause lea'es at the "lack strip at one end, either left or right. +his is due to
aging of transistor J533, defecti'e line output transformer, defecti'e "ypass capacitor 1515
and defecti'e $a'e shaping component &52?.
*ue to leaky capacitor, the charging action may delayed causes flat $a'eform for fold o'er
316
picture output.
5ist of #1>s used in hori8ontal section
1. 1-A23 o"'iously a popular #1
2. +*-@23 used in conjection $ith 6#, #1 +.-;A3
3. +*- 25@@- hori8ontal as $ell as 'ertical
4. 1- 3223 oscillator includes in these #1>s
317
.ORIBONTAL O)T$)T STA3E
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the meaning of hori8ontal linearity
2. Explain the construction of E4+ transformer
3. Explain the production of high 'oltage.
318
+he hori8ontal output stage is a po$er amplifier $hich produces scanning current re0uired in
the yoke to deflect the "eam across the $idth of the raster. +he deflection current induces
'ery high 'oltages in the line output transformer <5)+= during retrace. +his 'oltage is rectified
to produce Extra 4igh +ension <E4+= for the final anode of the picture tu"e. ,urther more, the
energy associated $ith the high 'oltage pulses tends to set up high fre0uency oscillation in
the output circuit, this is suppressed "y using a damper diode. +he diode $hile conducting,
charges a capacitor, the capacitor 'oltage adds to the .O supply to produce a high dc source.
+hese increased 'oltages are kno$n as "oosted .O supply and mostly used for the anode of
line amplifier. +he unidirectional damper diode current $hich also flo$ through the deflection
coils is used to complete a part of the hori8ontal trace. *ue to this, efficiency is increased
"ecause amplifier need not supply deflection current for the $hole cycle. +he "lock diagram
of hori8ontal output stage is sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he functions of E4+ transformer are <i= to pro'ide impedance matching "et$een the output
stage and deflection $indings <ii= to act as a step up transformer for the E4+ rectifier.
+he damper diode conducts soon after the fly"ack stroke, to suppress excited oscillations.
(hile doing so the damper also causes hori8ontal scan of the "eam on the left half of the
raster.
.o!iEontal linea!it"
Lormally a coil called linearity coil as sho$n in ,ig 2 is used for linearity correction. - small
coil is $ound on a ferrite core, $hich is premagneti8ed "y means of permanent magnet
mounted near to the coil. +he coil is connected in series $ith the hori8ontal deflection coil.
+he magnet can "e adjusted "y rotating it. 4ence the 'oltage drop across the deflection coil
is compensated "y e0ual and opposite change in the 'oltage drop across the linearity coil.
319
.o!iEontal out&ut t!anso!me!
-n auto transformer is used as E4+ transformer. #t is necessary to ha'e a 'ery large $indo$
opening for the core to ensure ade0uate spacing in the primary and E4+ $inding in order to
pre'ent flash o'er and corona discharge from parts carrying the E4+. 4ence t$o 7 shaped
ferrite lim"s are used as core. 2pecial ferrite core is re0uired for the line transformer to keep
do$n eddy current losses, "y its high resisti'ity. +he primary, secondary and auxiliary
$indings are $ound on one support, impregnated $ith polyester resin and placed on lim" of
the core. +he E4+ $inding encapsulated suita"ly in polyester resin is placed on the other
lim". +he E4+ transformer is sho$n in ,ig 3.
#n some monochrome +6 sets separate E4+ diode called +623 is used. .ut in some other
sets no separate diode is used. +he diode is used inside the 5)+ and the dc 'oltage for final
anode is a'aila"le from one lead of transformer. -s sho$n in ,ig 3 the thickest $ire coming
out of transformer is carrying dc 'oltage to the final anode. -t the end of this lead there is a
ru""er mask, $hich is to "e connected to the final anode of the picture tu"e. +he internal
construction of E4+ is also sho$n in ,ig 4.
320
$!o#uction o -ig- voltage
+his is done "y fly"ack $hen line amplifier conducts a strong magnetic field is de'eloped
around primary $indings of autotransformer. (hen retrace starts the current flo$ is cut off
and the magnetic flux collapse 'ery rapidly. +his induces 'ery large pulses of positi'e 'oltage
of the order of 33334333 'olts. +his 'oltage is increased "y the action of the transformer to
a"out 1;333 'olts, in case of monochrome +6 recei'er. +his 'oltage is rectified "y E4+
rectifier. -fter filtration this 'oltage is applied to the picture tu"e as E4+ 'oltage. 2ince the
fre0uency of the high 'oltage pulses applied to the E4+ rectifier is 15?2548, the 'alue of filter
capacitor need not "e 'ery large for effecti'e filtration. Lormally its 'alue is in the order of
533p,. +he filter capacitor is formed "y inner and outer coating of picture tu"e. +he glass
used in"et$een acts as dielectric, as sho$n in ,ig 5
Line out&ut stage
+he circuit diagram of this stage is sho$n in ,ig ?.+$o transistors are used in this stage. )ne
dri'er .*115 and the second output transistor .7235 from pin 2 of 1-A23 line s$eep signal
is applied at the "ase of dri'er transistor .*115 through a capacitor 1
1
. +he transistor
amplifies this signal and feeds it to the "ase of output transistor. +he collector 'oltage of this
transistor is a"out 1336. +he transistor J
2
<.7235= pro'ides the line output supply is gi'en to
the collector of this transistor from the main po$er supply 'ia resistor &
A
and the primary
$inding of the line output transformer +
2
. 1
13
is decoupling capacitor.
321
322
323
:ERTICAL SECTION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the functions of 'ertical section of a .\( +6 recei'er
2. Explain the $orking of #ntegrator circuit
3. Explain the 'ertical section constructed using #1 .E51344
4. Explain the common faults $hich occur in the 'ertical section.
324
INTRO')CTION
+he composite 'ideo signal from the output of 'ideo detector or 'ideo preamplifier is fed to
synchronous separator and the 'ertical synchronous $hich is one of the outputs of
synchronous separator is fed to the input of 'ertical section. +he functions of this section are
1. +o produce a 'ertical scanning fre0uency of 5348 in 'ertical oscillator.
2. +o amplify the 'ertical oscillator output
3. +o pro'ide 'ertical synchroni8ation
4. +o pro'ide 'ertical "lanking pulse
Integ!ato!
#ntegrator is a &1 net$ork as sho$n in ,ig 1. +he integrator separates the 'ertical
synchroni8ing pulse from the total pulse <hori8ontal pulse O 'ertical pulse=. -n integrator is a
lo$ pass filter. +he $a'eform separation of the integrator depends on the &1 time constant.
+he hori8ontal synchronous pulse is around 4.@ Psec. +he &1 time constant of this integrator
is much more than the hori8ontal pulse. 4ence 'ertical synchronous pulse can pass through
this &1 net$ork. +he input of the integrator is a s0uare $a'e and the output is a integrated
'ertical synchronous pulse. +his integrated synchronous pulse is used for triggering 'ertical
deflection oscillator at the 5348 'ertical scanning fre0uency.
:e!tical #election section using IC CAN;=
,ig 2 and ,ig 3 sho$s a 'ertical section circuit and "lock diagram in $hich a transistor is
used as 'ertical oscillator and an #1 1-;13 is used as 'ertical dri'er/output amplifier. +he
integrated synchronous pulse from integrator is fed to the input of 'ertical oscillator for
triggering. +his 5348 'ertical oscillator is to oscillate at the fre0uency of the triggering pulse
for 'ertical synchroni8ation.
325
+he oscillators commonly used in deflection section are
1. .locking oscillator
2. !ulti'i"rator
3. 6oltage controlled oscillator
4. !iller integrator
5. 1omplementary pair relaxation oscillator
Common aults an# t-ei! !eason in ve!tical sections
#. &right hori5ontal line
+his symptom on the raster is caused $hen there is no deflection current flo$ through the
'ertical deflection coil. +his may "e due to
a= defect in yoke
"= defect in 'ertical o/p
c= defect in 'ertical oscillator
*. 6nsufficient raster height
+his symptom on the raster is caused $hen the deflection current flo$ is less through the
'ertical deflection coil. +his may "e done to
a= defect/misadjusted height control
"= defecti'e feed"ack
/. ,icture rolling ertically
+his symptom on the picture is caused $hen the 'ertical oscillator fre0uency is not
synchroni8ed $ith the 'ertical synchronous pulse. +his may "e due to
a= 6ertical synchronous pulse missing/not reaching the oscillator
"= *efecti'e 'ertical hold control
4. ,icture cramping or fold oer at the bottom -ertical non-linea!it"1
+his symptom on the picture/raster is caused $hen the shape of the 'ertical deflection
current is not uniform.
,ig 4a sho$s the linear or uniform sa$ tooth current $a'eform. ,ig 4" illustrates the defect in
sa$ tooth current $a'eform caused the defect of "ottom non linearity. 2imilarly ,ig 4c sho$s
the defect in sa$ tooth current $a'eform caused the defect of top nonlinearity.
326
327
:I'EO AM$LI%IER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the function of a 'ideo amplifier of a .\( +6 recei'er
2. Explain the -1 and *1 components of the 'ideo signal
3. Explain the $orking of a 'ideo amplifier circuit used in monochrome +6 recei'er
4. Explain common faults $hich occur in a 'ideo amplifier stage of a .\( +6 recei'er
5. Lame some of the transistors used in the 'ideo amplifier stage of a .\( +6 recei'er.
328
+he function of 'ideo amplifier is to pro'ide sufficient gain to the 'ideo signal such that it can
dri'e the picture tu"e from cutoff for "lanking, to 8ero grid cathode 'oltage for peak $hite.
+he peak to peak 'alue of the 'ideo signal re0uired to dri'e the picture tu"e 'ary depending
on its si8e. +he 'ideo, signal $ith range of 'ideo fre0uencies from 2548 to o'er 4 !48 has to
"e uniformly amplified "y the 'ideo amplifier. 2o a $ide "and amplifier is used $ith a high
amplification factor.
The three basic re7uirements of a ideo amplifier are
1. +he entire "and of 'ideo fre0uencies should "e uniformly amplified.
2. -s the amplitude of the 'ideo signal determines the contrast of the picture, the peakto
peak 'alue of the 'ideo signal is to "e sufficient enough to produce a range from "right to
dark picture elements on the screen. #f the peaktopeak 'alue is lo$ then the picture on the
screen $ill "e 'ery dim.
3. 1omposite 'ideo signal $ith negati'e polarity is to "e applied at the cathode of the picture
tu"e. 4ence the 'ideo amplifier should produce such signal from the output of 'ideo detector.
+he ,ig 1 sho$s such type of signal.
AC an# 'C com&onents o t-e vi#eo signal
+he composite 'ideo signal contains "oth -1 and *1 components "esides "lanking pulse
and synchroni8ing pulse. +he -1 component of the 'ideo signal $hich $hen applied to
picture tu"e, screen produces spots of different "rightness on the screen.
+he *1 component determines the o'erall "ackground "rightness of the picture.
,ig 2a sho$s the 'ideo signals $ith *1 component and ,ig 2" sho$s $ithout *1
component.
329
'C REINSERTION
+he dc component of the 'ideo signal has to "e reinserted "efore it is applied to the picture
tu"e% if &1 coupled 'ideo amplifier stage is used. +he "lanking 'oltages are set to the same
le'el in the 'ideo signal, just as they $ere in the transmitted signal. *1 restorer is the circuit
used for *1 reinsertion. Lormally *irect coupled 'ideo amplifiers are used for this stage as
*1 is not lost in coupling component of a *irect coupled 'ideo amplifier, the &1 coupled
amplifiers are not used in 'ideo amplifiers.
,o!@ing o vi#eo am&liie!s
+he ,ig 3 sho$n a"o'e is a typical 'ideo amplifier. +he composite 'ideo signal from the 'ideo
preamplifier is fed to 'ideo output transistor. +he contrast control at the "ase of J
431
determines the amount of 'ideo signal fed to J
431
Lormally .* 115 is used as 'ideo output
transistor. +his amplifier has a uniformly high gain o'er a $ide "and of fre0uencies 'ideo
signal of a"out A36
//
fed to cathode of picture tu"e. +he diode at the collector pro'ides *1
restoration for the 'ideo signal, "esides its function as .eam current limiter along $ith 223kp
capacitor and 333FN, 1.;kN resistor. +his "eam current limiter net$ork protects the line
output transistor in the 4ori8ontal output section.
8lan@ing o CRT
#n order to make the 'ertical and hori8ontal retrace line in'isi"le, the 'ideo output transistor is
s$itched off during that period. +his action kno$n as "lanking is achie'ed "y ha'ing the
hori8ontal and 'ertical "lanking pulses and fed to the 'ideo output transistor through *
432
and
&
432
respecti'ely. +his pulse s$itches ),, the transistor during the re0uired period. +hese
pulses are fed to emitter of the output transistor, $hich increases the emitter "ias and dri'es it
to cut off condition.
Common aults in vi#eo am&liie!
#. 8o picture% raster normal% sound satisfactory
This fault is due to any of the following defect
i. 2hort "et$een cathode and control grid of picture tu"e
ii. Lo *1 <OK= supply to the 'ideo amplifier
iii. *efecti'e 'ideo amplifier transistor
i'. )pen load resistor
'. )pen coupling capacitor
'i. )pen "ias resistor
'ii. )pen contrast control
*. Smeared picture
This fault is due to the following reason
(hen the lo$ fre0uency compensation net$ork is defecti'e, "ackground shading of the
image "ecomes darker and the larger o"jects in the image smear.
i. *efecti'e lo$ fre0uency compensation net$ork
ii. 5o$ 'alue or open coupling capacitor
iii. )pen emitter or other "ypass capacitor
i'. !isaligned #, amplifier stage
L)+E: if the "lack in the picture are not fully "lack the reason could "e shorted 'ideo
coupling capacitor.
/. )oss of fine details of picture or ringing
This is caused by poor high fre0uency response of video stage
i. #mproper shielding
ii. )pen shunt resistance across peaking coils
330
4. 9eak -dim. picture /ue to low gain in the video section
i. (eak transistors
ii. *efecti'e picture tu"e <rare=
iii. #ncorrect "ias
i'. ,aulty contrast control
'. Excessi'e -91 "ias in #, section
I0 Soun# ba!s on &ictu!e
These occur if sound signal snea2s through the video amplifiers and reaches the picture
tube.
i. *efecti'e sound trap circuit
ii. !isalignment of #, stage <sound #, recei'ing excessi'e gain=
+. 6ntermittent picture
This occurs due to repeated brea2s in the signal path
i. *efecti'e transistor<s=
ii. /oor soldering at joints
iii. *irty or $orn out "rightness and contrast controls
i'. 1apacitors or resistors loosely connected.
331
SO)N' SECTION O% A 8&, T: RECEI:ER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the $orking of the sound section of a +6 recei'er
2. Explain the function of each stage in the sound section
3. Lame the #1s used in the sound section
4. Explain the sound section using #1 1- 33?5
5. Explain the sound section using #1 +.-l235 and #1 1-;13
?. Explain the sound section using #1 1-11A3
@. Lame the #1s used in the sound section.
332
8loc@ #iag!am o soun# section
+he input to the sound section is the 5.5!8 inter carrier sound #., signal. +his is taken from
the output of 'ideo detector or from the 'ideo amplifier stage. +he "lock diagram of typical
sound section of monochrome +6 recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 1.
+he 2ound #., amplifier amplifies the 5.5!48 sound #., signal, the amplified signal is passed
through sound #., limiting circuit $hich remo'es the amplitude 'ariations from the fre0uency
modulated sound #., signal. -mplitude limiting is performed either "y a separate limiter stage
or "y the use of a ,.! demodulator, $hich does not respond to amplitude 'ariations. -udio
information in a ,.! detector circuit is detected from 5.5!48 ,.! sound #.,, audio signal
a'aila"le from ,.! detector is amplified in audio amplifier stage to a le'el re0uired to dri'e a
speaker $ith suita"le 'olume.
Soun# I0% am&liie!
+he function of sound #.,.-mplifier is to amplify 5.5!48 ,.! sound "efore feeding it to ,.!
detector. -t least t$o stage of sound #., amplification are pro'ided to get at the output
amplitude of 2 to 56. +he maximum fre0uency of the ,! sound signal is O 25 k48.
+he inter carrier sound #., signal from the output of 'ideo detector is coupled to sound #.,
amplifiers through "roadly tuned circuit at 5.5!48 that also pro'ides impedance matching.
Each #., amplifier stage is a tuned amplifier $ith a center fre0uency of 5.5!48 and a
"and$idth of a"out 153 F48. +hus it is a"le to amplify 5.5!48 signal and its side"ands.
Am&litu#e limite!
+he ,.! detector stage of a +6 recei'er is al$ays preceded "y sound #, amplitude limiting
stage. +he purpose of limiter is to eliminate the amplitude 'ariations in the ,.! signal, "y
doing so most of the noise signal is remo'ed. -mplitude limiter stage is not re0uired $ith a
,.! detector that does not respond to the amplitude 'ariations. +he ratio detector and
0uadrature detector circuits do not need limiter stage. - limiter circuit is almost identical to an
#., amplifier stage except for "aseemitter "ias. +he dynamic range of a limiter is reduced so
that the transistor reaches current saturation easily. +his helps in keeping output anode
current constant for different input 'oltage le'els. +hus $hen a ,.! signal of different
amplitude arri'es at the "ase of limiter, the amplitude distortions are eliminated and signal of
constant amplitude is a'aila"le at the output.
%0M #etecto!
+he purpose of ,.! detector is to o"tain audio 'ariations from constant amplitude fre0uency
modulated carrier. +he de'iation from the center fre0uency is proportional to the intensity of
audio note. +hus a loud audio note produces a large fre0uency de'iation from the carrier
fre0uency. +he rate of change of de'iation represents the fre0uency of audio note. ,.!
detection is carried out in t$o steps. #nitially there must "e a circuit to de'elop 'oltages
proportional to the de'iation of the 'arious incoming fre0uencies a"out the ,.! carrier
fre0uency. 2econdly the resulting amplitude and fre0uency modulated signal is coupled to a
diode detector to reco'er audio 'oltage 'ariations.
Au#io am&liie!s
-udio output amplifiers amplify the small audio signal recei'ed from ,.! detector to a le'el
re0uired to operate a speaker. +he detected audio range is from 5348 to 15 F48. .ut in most
333
of the tele'ision recei'ers, the audio amplifiers are not capa"le of pro'iding suita"le
amplification at this center range. #n many recei'ers the fre0uencies a"o'e 5 F48 are
eliminated. -n audio amplifier stage incorporates a deemphasis circuit. +his circuit reduces
the higher fre0uencies to their original le'el. -t the transmitter, higher audio fre0uencies are
"oosted relati'e to the lo$er audio fre0uencies. +his is done to impro'e signal to noise ratio
at higher fre0uencies. +his is achie'ed "y the use of pre emphasis at the transmitter. - de
emphasis circuit is sho$n in ,ig 2. #t is a 'oltage di'ider circuit. +he reactance of the
capacitor is in'ersely proportional to the fre0uency. +hus as the audio fre0uency increases,
the reactance of capacitor decreases and less audio output 'oltage appears across it.
,ig 3 sho$s the sound section circuit using #1 +*-11A3 and ,ig 4 sho$s the internal "lock
schematic of #1 +*-11A3.
+his #1 replaces the entire acti'e components used in the sound #, and audio output stages.
#n this #1 the sound #, is processed and the audio information is restored from the sound #,.
+he audio current is also amplified $ithin the #1 and the audio output from the #1 is sufficient
to dri'e the speaker. #t consists of an #, amplifier, limiter unit, a lo$ pass filter and ,!
detector, a dc 'olume control an -, po$er amplifier and a regulated po$er supply unit. +he
circuit operates from supply 'oltage "et$een OA6 to O2;6. +he sound #, signal at 5.5!48 is
fed "et$een pins 1 and 2 of #1 through +
231
. +he ,! detector components external to #1
consist of coil 5
231
and capacitors 1
21?
and 1
21@
. +he dc 'olume control 6&
232
is connected to
pin ?. &esistor &
232
and &
233
determine the gain of the audio amplifier. +he audio output at pin
A is fed to the speaker through 1
215
. +he com"ination of &
234
and 1
213
compensates for the
increase in the speaker impedance at high fre0uencies 1
213
13Fp, is the deemphasis
capacitor. 5ist of some more #1s used in the sound section of +6 recei'er is gi'en "elo$.
334
S.)F section
1. #1 +.- @53
2. #1 5- 13?5
3. #1 -L 241
4. #1 F- 2131
5. #1 +*- 2@A3
?. #1 +-- 545
@. #1 +-- 5@3
;. #1 +-- 5@3
A. #1 +- @3@3
13. #1 +-- ??1.
11. #1 1Y)A5E
12. #1 +*- 2@A3
13. #1 4- 112;
"udio section
1. #1 +*- 2?13
2. #1 +*- 2?13
3. #1 -L @133
4. #1 2?11-
5. #1 +*- 233?
Complete sound section
1. #1 +*- 1335+
2. #1 +*- 31A3
335
:I% AM$LI%IER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the "lock diagram of a 6.#., su"section of a +6 recei'er
2. Explain the necessity of $a'e traps
3. Explain the 6.#., stage using transistors
4. Explain the 6.#., stage using #1 1- 33?;
5. Explain the 6.#., stage using #1 1- @?11
?. Explain the use of 2-( filter in a +6 recei'er
@. Lame some of the #1s used in 6.#., stage of a .\( +6 recei'er.
336
+his section has great importance "ecause, all the gain and selecti'ity of the recei'er is
pro'ided "y the #., section. -s sho$n in the "lock diagram in ,ig 1, in monochrome
recei'ers, $here 'ideo and sound detection occurs together, the sound #., is separated at the
output of 'ideo detector.
+he recei'er>s intermediate fre0uencies ha'e "een fixed at 33.4 !48 for sound and 3;.A
!48 for the picture signal. Lormally the o'er all gain pro'ided "y the 'ideo #., is in order of
@3@? d.. 2ince "oth the sound and 'ideo #., fre0uencies are to "e amplified simultaneously
the "and$idth of #., amplifier is made so $ide such that "oth the fre0uencies are passed.
+he &., sound carrier is transmitted 5.5!48 higher than the &., picture carrier "ut in the
recei'er>s #., section the #., sound carrier is 33.4!48 $hich is 5.5!48 lo$er than the picture
$hich amounts to 3;.A!48. ,or example suppose that it is desired to recei'e channel 4,
$hose 'ideo carrier is ?2.25 !48 and the sound carrier is ?@.@5 !48. +he local oscillator
fre0uency for this channel $ould "e 131.15!48. 4ence $hen this fre0uency is heterodyned
$ith the incoming signal, follo$ing #., fre0uencies are produced.
5ocal oscillator 6ideo carrier G 6ideo #.,
131.35 ?2.25 G 3;.A !48
5ocal oscillator 2ound carrier G 2ound #.,
131.15 ?@.@5 G 33.4 !48
I0% +ave t!a&s
+he #., amplifier has to suppress the un$anted fre0uencies like sound channel and adjacent
channel carrier etc. .asically $a'e traps are used for this purpose $hich are high J, 51
resonant circuits tuned to the fre0uencies and coupled to the amplifier circuits or placed in the
#, signal path. *ifferent types of $a'e traps are gi'en "elo$.
#. Shunt traps
+hese are series tuned circuits connected in shunt $ith the path of the signal as sho$n in ,ig
2a. +his is acting as 'ery lo$ impedance short circuit path at the resonant fre0uency.
*. Series traps
+hese are parallel tuned circuits connected in series $ith the input lead, as sho$n in ,ig 2".
-t the resonant fre0uency the impedance of the tuned circuit is 'ery high.
337
/. &ridged T trap
+his is a modified series trap in $hich a resistance is "ridged across the center tap of the coil
or split capacitor and a common ground as sho$n in ,ig 3a and 3". +his type of trap pro'ides
"etter results, since the resistance can "e adjusted to cancel the losses in the tuned circuit.
Am&liie! ban#+i#t-
+he ideal "and$idth of the #., amplifier $ith the gain and $a'e shape for monochrome
recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 4. +o o"tain this stagger tuning is used.
Stagge! tuning
#n the stagger tuning the resonant fre0uency of single tuned stage is staggered. 4ere each
stage is tuned to slightly different fre0uency that makes the o'erall response of the amplifiers
$ider than that of indi'idual amplifier. 2tagger tuning is used in all the three stages of a
transistori8ed 6.#., stage of a +6 recei'er. +his is sho$n in ,ig 5.
338
8iila! I0% coils
+his type of coil has t$o $indings like a transformer, "ut it is not dou"le tuned. +his coil is
$ound $ith t$in conductor $ires each insulated from the other as sho$n in ,ig ?. +his is
used for coupling. )ne $inding is for collector and second is for the "ase of the next stage.
.ifilar $inding ensures maximum transfer of energy from one $inding to other <primary to
secondary=.
+his type of coupling is normally used to couple the signal from mixer to 1st #., stage on the
main chassis. +he link from the tuner to #., has @5N coaxial ca"le.
:i#eo I% subs"stem using IC CAQH;;/TAQH;;
+he internal "lock diagram of 1-@?11 is sho$n in ,ig @. #nside 1-@?11 the #., signals are
amplified and then the 'ideo information is detected. #n the 'ideo detector stage the picture
and sound #., signals at 3;.A!48 and 33.4!48 "eat together to produce a ne$ sound #., at
5.5 !48. +he detected 'ideo signal along $ith sound #., at 5.5!48 is amplified "y 'ideo
amplifier and the output is a'aila"le at pin 12. +his #1 also incorporates -91 section. +he
-91 control 'oltage for the &., tuner is a'aila"le at pin 4. +he -91 delay control 6&131 is
connected to pin 3. - typical circuit diagram of 6.#., su"section using #1 @?11 is sho$n in ,ig
;. +he #., signal from the tuner is fed to the #1 at pins 1 and 1? 'ia a set of trap circuits.
339
+he nature of discrete net$orks at 'arious pins of the #1 as follo$s.
+he inductor 5
5
is turned to o"tain 3;.A !48 reference #., fre0uency.
340
Sa+ ilte!
+he operation of a 2-( filter is "ased on the phenomenon of surface acoustic $a'es. -
surface acoustic $a'e is a non electromagnetic $a'e that tra'els along the surface of a
pie8oelectric su"strate. +his su"strate undergoes physical changes $hen any electric
potential is applied across it. 2imilarly $hen such a material is su"jected to any physical
stress, a proportionate electric potential is de'eloped. +ransducers are pro'ided at t$o ends
of the pie8o electric $afer to con'ert electric energy to acoustic $a'e energy and then "ack
to electric energy.
Sa+ ilte! o! I0% section
!any +6 manufacturers are using surface acoustic $a'e filter <2-(= in 'ideo #., section. #t is
a fre0uency selecti'e de'ice $hich can replace the tuned 51 circuit in a +6 recei'er. +he
2-( filter pro'ides the re0uired #, response and eliminates the cum"ersome and time
consuming alignment. +he 2-( filter is manufactured to pro'ide exactly the re0uired
response $hich needs no adjustment at all during the $orking life of the recei'er.
- typical 2-( filter that pro'ides complete desired #, "and pass characteristics is sho$n in
,ig Aa. - simplified response cur'e of a 2-( filter 2(211! meant to replace $a'e traps 51
circuitry in a .\( +6 recei'er is sho$n in ,ig A" +he test and "asic application circuit is
sho$n in ,ig Ac.
341
5ist of some more #1s used in the 6.#., section is gi'en "elo$.
Automatic gain cont!ol voltage gene!ato!
- *1 control 'oltage for the tuner, ranged from O26 to O@6 and for the 6#, stage ranged from
V26 to V46 is generated in the -91 section. +he -91 "ias is a *1 'oltage proportional to
the input signal strength. .y applying this -91 'oltage, this section
1. /ro'ides constant output at the 'ideo detector e'en $hen different channel is
selected / s$itched.
342
2. /ro'ides constant le'el signal to the synchronous circuits there"y maintaining sta"le
synchroni8ation
3. /re'ents o'erloading of picture, $hen input signal is 'ery strong.
4. !aintains a sta"le picture contrast regardless of the 'ariations of the input signal
strength.
Cont!ol o gain o a t!ansisto!
+he effect of 'ariation of gain of an amplifier "y a change in "ase to emitter 'oltage 6
"e
is
sho$n in ,ig 13.
+he current gain >.> of a transistor is determined "y 6"e, i.e. the K can "e increased or
decreased "y changing 6
"e
. +he gain is maximum at a specific 'alue of 6
"e.
+he gain
decreases as the for$ard "ias is either increased or decreased. 2ince the gain of an amplifier
can "e increased or decreased "y increasing or decreasing 6"e, t$o types of -91 are used
these are explained "elo$.
%o!+a!# A3C
+he method of decreasing the gain of the amplifier "y increasing the 6
"e
.#n for$ard -91 an
increase in the positi'e -91 'oltage $ill increase the gain of an L/L transistor, $hereas an
increase in the negati'e -91 'oltage $ill increase the gain of a /L/ transistor. .ecause O'e
'oltage is for$ard "ias for L/L transistor $hereas 'e 'oltage is for$ard "ias for /L/.
2hifting of operating point to$ards saturation ,or$ard -91
Reve!se A3C
+he method of decreasing the gain of the amplifier "y decreasing the "ase emitter 'oltage, is
called re'erse -91. #n re'erse -91 a decrease in the positi'e -91 'oltage $ill reduce the
gain of an L/L transistor $hereas a decrease in the negati'e -91 'oltage $ill reduce the
gain of a /L/ transistor. 2hifting of operating point to$ards cutoff &e'erse -91
'ie!ent t"&es o A3C s"stems
#. ,eak :or simple; "<C
+o de'elop -91 'oltage, the peak amplitude of the synchronous pulses are utili8ed in this
peak -91 system. 2ince negati'e transmission or do$n$ard modulation is used at the
transmitter, the peak 'alue of the synchronous is used. +his synchronous le'el is unaffected
"y the 'ariations in picture content. +he peak amplitude 'oltage is rectified filtered and fed to
the &, and #, amplifiers. - separate diode is used for this purpose, at the 'ideo detector
section.
'isa#vantages o &ea@ A3C
1. +his type of -91 de'elops -91 'oltage e'en for $eak signals and reduces &, amplifier
gain. /oor signal to noise ratio results from $eak signals.
2. +he peak -91 has a slo$ response.
343
3. Loise pulses are rectified "y tne -91 diodes along $ith the desired signal. #f interference
is present, a higher -91 'oltage is de'eloped. +his reduces the gain of the &, amplifier
and #, amplifier<s= more than desired. +he result is a decrease in the signal to noise ratio
of the recei'er.
4. +he control range is small. #t cannot respond ade0uately to large changes of input signal
strength.
Me"e# A3C
#n this system the control 'oltage is not affected "y the noise pulses. +his system eliminates
picture intensity 'ariation caused "y the rapid signal strength changes. +his keyed -91
system is also kno$n as 9ated -91. #n this system, -91 'oltage is de'eloped only during
hori8ontalretrace time.
'ela"e# A3C
+he delayed -91 is to delay the application of -91 'oltage to &, amplifier until the input
signal exceeds a certain minimum 'alue. +he -91 'oltage should not "e applied to the &,
amplifier $hen the input signal is 'ery $eak i.e -91 'oltage is not applied to the &, amplifier
till the input signal is 533p6. +he techni0ue to o'ercome the undesira"le for $eak effect of
reduction of gain of &, amplifier e'en for $eak input signals. 7sed $hich is a delay in 'oltage
not in time, is called *elayed -91.
List o ICs in +-ic- A3C section is also inclu#e#
1. 1-33?;
2. +*-2543/2541
3. 4-11443
4. +*-3541
5. .el@?11
?. +-@?3@-/, +*-3543
@. +.-;A3
;. 5-@523/5-@521
A. +*-443
13. P/113??
11. +*-14439 +*- 5533
12. #Y33;;1E
T!oubles in A3C ci!cuits
3*T!' In general it is fre0uently necessary to isolate the cause of 14& type troubles
between the actual 14& circuits and the +5, I5 and video amplifier sections. This is
necessary because many symptoms which appear to be caused by a defective 14& section
may actually be caused by defects in the other circuits.
#. 8egatie picture
#n a negati'e picture, the "lack and $hite 'alues are re'ersed, pictures is like photo negati'e.
+his fault is caused "y excess -91 'oltage o'erdri'e 6#, stage.
*. 8o picture and no sound -raster present.
+his symptom is caused "y insufficient -91 'oltages $hich makes &, or #f stages ),,.
/. Oerloaded picture !ith intercarrier bu55
-n o'erloaded picture is easily recogni8ed "y the dark o'erall appearance of the picture. #f
the o'erloading causes synchronous compression in the #, stages there may "e hori8ontal
picture pulling or e'en 'ertical rolling. #n addition an intercarrier "u88 may "e present
particularly on strong signals. +his is due to the modulation of the sound #, signal $ith the 53
48 synchronous pulses. +his trou"le is caused "y insufficient -91 'oltage and may "e the
result of incorrect -91 control adjustment.
344
345
T)NER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the functions performed "y tuner used in .\( +6 recei'er
2. Explain different types of tuners
3. Explain the $orking of a transistori8ed 64, tuner
4. Explain the $orking of an electronic tuner using, !)2,E+.
346
+he &., tuner often called the front end of a +6 recei'er has the follo$ing functions to
perform.
1. #t selects the channel to "e recei'ed "y s$itching pre tuned circuits in the &, stage and
the oscillator.
2. #t matches the impedance of the line at its input and amplifies it to maintain a good signal
tonoise ratio. +he gain is controlled "y -.9.3 'oltage to suit the inputsignal strength.
3. #t con'erts the &, into #, "y mixing it $ith the local oscillator fre0uency to feed it to the
'ideo #, amplifier.
4. #t "lock the interfering antenna pickup signals in the #, range and pre'ents them from
entering the recei'er and mix up $ith the local oscillator and hence to the #, amplifier.
5. #t isolates the local oscillator signals from the antenna due to the &, amplifier acting as a
"uffer, pre'enting radiation and interference to other recei'ers.
?. #t rejects the image fre0uencies "y means of &, selecti'e circuits.
+here are t$o types of tuners as sho$n in ,ig 1.
*epending upon the tuning range re0uired, the tuner is designed as a single channel, multi
channel, 64, or 74, tuners. +he 64, tuner may "e a steps$itch type tuner, using preset
tuned circuits on a turret or a rotary s$itch. +he 74, tuner uses continuous tuning usually
employing transmission line or stripline tuned circuits. +he "lock diagram of a tuner is sho$n
in ,ig 2.
347
8AL)N
-t the antenna input terminals the tuner must ha'e input impedance e0ual to the
characteristic impedance of the aerial feeder so that the matching pro'ides a maximum
po$er transfer and a'oids reflections on the line. +he standard impedance is 333N,
corresponding to the t$in $ire ri""on feeder $hich is commonly used. +he "alun matches
this impedance to the @5N input impedance of the &, amplifier. #t consists of a ferrite core
$ith "ifilar $indings, each of 153N $hich pro'ide "y series connection 333N "alanced
impedance on one side and pro'ide "y parallel connection of @5N un"alanced impedance on
the other side, "y grounding of one terminal. - pair of t$o small capacitors 4@3p, each are
included in each lead to pre'ent or "lock the dc path from chassis to antenna and pre'ent
damage due to lightning. +he 2N shunting resistors discharge any static accumulated charge
on these capacitors.
I% t!a& an# .$ ilte!
7n$anted spurious signals in the #, range of 33 to 43 !48 are "locked "y the #, trap and
high pass filter as the rejection of these "y the lo$ J &, circuits may not "e ade0uate due to
"road "and $idth, particularly on the lo$est channel <ch2VS4@54!48=. #t is 'ery difficult to
reject them once they reach the mixer and #, stages. +he trap usually consists of a 4/ filter
$ith pass "and "eyond 43 !48.
R% am&liie!
+his pro'ides a gain to the input signal ensuring "etter signal to noise ratio isolation to the
local oscillator radiation and "etter image selecti'ity. #ts primary function is to pro'ide
ade0uate gain to $eak signals maintaining a good signal to noise ratio at the mixer. +he
mixer generates more noise "ecause of its heterodyne function. +he e0ui'alent noise 'oltage
at the input of the &, amplifier sets a limit to the minimum signal that can "e recei'ed. +he
noise 'oltage is 'isi"le on the screen of the picture as a sno$y "ackground of "lack and
$hite randomly mo'ing spots. +he noise 'oltage is typically around 13P6. +he &, stage is
"est suited for -91 "ecause the signal le'el is small and the gain control is most effecti'e
here producing minimum distortion. -pplication of -91 to &, stage is usually delayed
suita"ly in order to maintain good 2/L ratio at $eak signals. +he stage pro'ides isolation "y
acting as a "uffer "et$een the local oscillator and antenna terminals to minimi8e radiation
from the local oscillator. +hese radiations can "e a source of considera"le interference to
348
neigh"oring recei'ers sho$ing as diagonal line patterns on the screen. 2eparate chassis
ground return is generally employed for tuner circuits. 7se of feed through capacitor also
helps to "ring do$n the radiation "elo$ specified limits. +he &, tuned circuits should
suppress reception of image fre0uency ^fsO21,Z $hich also produces the #, at the mixer.
R% !es&onse
+he &, amplifier has a pass"and "road enough to pass the channel selected and also to
allo$ for the 'ariation in the local oscillator fine tuning, 'ariation due to the -91 'oltage. +he
dou"le tuned filters $ith a suita"le dip "et$een peaks can pro'ide "road "and$idth and good
transient response. ,ig 3 sho$s a typical response $ith a dip of 1 d. "et$een the peaks.
Mi7e!
+he mixer produces the #, signal "y heterodyning the &, signal $ith the local oscillator
fre0uency. -s there are t$o carriers in the &, signal, t$o #,s are produced, the picture #,
e0ual to 3;.A !48 and the sound #, e0ual to 33.4!48. +he local oscillator fre0uency is
higher than the &, carriers so that for channel 4 for example the 5) fre0uency is ?2.25 O
3;.A3 G 131.15 !48 and for channel 5 it is 1@?.25 O 3;.A3 G 215.15 !48.
Local oscillato!
+his pro'ides the local oscillator fre0uency, $hich should "e essentially sta"le and free from
drifts due to temperature, aging of components or small changes in the supply 'oltage etc. #t
should ha'e minimum harmonic content. +he oscillator fre0uency control is "asically the fine
tuning control of the recei'er.
T"&es o tune!s
-ll +6 recei'ers ha'e separate 74, and 64, tuners. +he 64, tuner may "e single channel
or multi channel to co'er .and # and .and ## channels. +he tuner can "e a mechanical tuner
or an electronic tuner. #n mechanical tuner there are t$o types
1. +urret tuner
2. (afer or incremental tuner
Tu!!et tune!
+he turret or drum type tuner is so named "ecause coils for the 'arious channels are
mounted on a slotted drum type structure that is rotated "y the channel selector. +he tuner
circuits are mounted on separate strips for each channel, $hich are clipped into the turret.
+he coils re0uired are selected "y rotating the turret thus maintaining the shortest possi"le
length of connections. Each strip has coils for &, amplifier, mixer and local oscillator for a
single channel.
,ae! o! inc!emental tune!
+his tuner employs a $afer s$itch type construction $here a tier of $afer s$itches permits
349
selection of the proper &., mixer and oscillator coils. +he coils are usually mounted around
the outer rim of the s$itch $ith a fe$ turns of $ire for the lo$er channels and progressi'ely
decreasing for the higher channels. +he $afer s$itch is rotated to connect one set of &,
amplifier, mixer and oscillator coils for each channel. ,ig 4 sho$s schematic of 6 4., tuner
$afer s$itches. Lote that the coils for &, amplifier oscillator and mixer stages are on
separate $afer s$itches ganged on a common shaft. +he oscillator coils are al$ays on the
front section for con'enience of adjusting the inductance to set the fre0uency. +he $afer type
tuners are also called incremental tuners "ecause the change of channel is accomplished "y
a progressi'e shorting of sections of the total inductance. ,or channels 2? indi'idual coils
are connected in series and are progressi'ely shorted out. ,or channels @11 only a single
turn or half a turn is sufficient for tuning. 1hannel1 is not assigned for +6 "roadcasting and
this position on the selector s$itch is generally used to turn on the 74, tuner. +he recent
'ersion of tuner $afer construction utili8es a printed circuit $afer. #n this method all coils for
higher channels are replaced "y printed circuit inductances. +his method has the ad'antage
of greater relia"ility, greater uniformity of alignment and lo$er cost.
Elect!onic tuning
6aractor or 'aricaps are used for electronic tuning in tuner circuits. 6aractor is a special
silicon diode, the junction capacitance of $hich is used for tuning. (hen re'erse "iased, a
diode has a large resistance &
&
$hose 'alue depends on the minority carriers. - diode also
has a "uilt in capacitance 1
+
. (hen re'erse "iased, a silicon diode resem"les a capacitor.
+he / \ L regions are like the plates of a capacitor and the depletion layer is like the
dielectric. +his capacitance is also kno$n as depletion layer capacitance, "arrier capacitance
and junction capacitance. 2ince the depletion layer gets $ider $ith more re'erse 'oltage, the
350
junction capacitance "ecomes smaller. #t is as though you mo'ed the plates of a 'aria"le
capacitor apart. +his capacitance is controlled "y 'oltage. ,ig 5 sho$s the diode under
different re'erse 'oltages, and the sym"ol of a 'aractor diode.
-s the capacitance 'aries in'ersely $ith the amount of re'erse "ias applied across the diode,
the resonant fre0uency of the tuned circuits in $hich they are connected is controlled merely
"y changing the re'erse "ias across the 'aractor. ,ig ? sho$s ho$ a 'aractor is used in a
resonant circuit.
+he capacitor 1
1
is 0uite large and thus has negligi"le reactance at resonant fre0uency of the
tuned circuit, "ut it is needed to "lock the *1 supply 'oltage. +he *1 supply through &
1
supplies re'erse "ias to the diode. &
2
is the isolating resistance and &
3
can "e 'aried to
change the re'erse "ias 'oltage. 2ince 1
1
is short for -1 it puts the capacitance of the
'aractor in parallel $ith 1
2
. -t higher channels, capacitor 1
2
is not necessary and only the
'aricap is enough to pro'ide necessary capacitance. - simplified circuit arrangement of a
common method "y $hich 'arious channels can "e selected "y electronic tuning is sho$n in
,ig @. #n this circuit selection of *1 'oltage for re'erse "iasing the 'aractor diode in each
tuned circuit is done "y push "uttons. +he amount of re'erse "ias determines the diode
capacitance and there"y the resonant fre0uency of each tuned circuit. -ll the tuned circuits of
a channel are adjusted simultaneously to ensure proper tracking. - separate potentiometer is
pro'ided for each channel. Each potentiometer acts as a fine tuning control for the associated
channels tuned circuits. +he *1 tuning 'oltage is o"tained through a 'oltage regulator for
351
sta"le operation.
#n ,ig @ the resistors &
1
, &
2
, &
3
and &
4
couple *1 'oltage to the 'aractors from
potentiometers and isolate one 'aractor from the other. +he capacitors 1
1
, 1
2
, 1
3
and 1
4
are
large and pro'ide a short to the &, signals. +herefore from the -1 point of 'ie$ the 'aractors
352
in effect appear in parallel $ith the tuned circuits.
,ig ; sho$s the circuit of a 64, tuner.
J
1
acts as a &, amplifier J
2
acts as mixer and J
3
acts as local oscillator. +he input tuning
circuit is formed "y 5
1
and 15/, 13pf capacitor. 6ia 1 F) a for$ard -91 "ias is fed to J
1
, $ith
decoupling capacitor 3nf. +he dou"le tuned interstage coupling $ith "ottom coupling
inductance 5
4
is used to achie'e re0uired &, $ide"and response $ith a small dip "et$een
the t$o peaks at the sound and picture carriers. +he mixer stage gets the local oscillator
signal through 2pf and 22 ohm. +he mixer transistor J
2
heterodynes the &, and )21
fre0uencies and the #,+ at its collector produces the #, signal. +he local oscillator is of
1olpitt>s type. ,inetuning is done "y 'aractor diode *. +he re'erse "ias is adjusted "y 13k.
).% tune!
+he 74, tuner co'ers 74, "and of +6 channels 14 to ;3. +uner assem"ly is mounted at the
front of the recei'er ca"inet. (ith electronic tuner, any channels in 64, or 74, can "e
selected. - 74, tuner circuit is sho$n in ,ig A. +he tuner is di'ided into three metallic
compartments. +he 64, tuner is a part of a 74, tuner. +he design re0uirement of a 74,
tuner is different from 64, tuner "ecause of its higher fre0uency in the 74, tuner.
353
).% va!acto! tune!
(hen the station selector is set to the 74, position for mechanically s$itched tuners, the
follo$ing changes occur.
1. +he &, amplifier and mixer input circuits on the 64, tuner are tuned to the #f pass
"and.
2. +he *1 supply 'oltage is connected to the 74, tuner to actuate its local oscillator.
3. +he 64, local oscillator is turned ),,.
4. +he 64, antenna feed is disconnected to su"stitute the #, output of the 74, tuner.
Elect!onic tune!
- 'aractor diode, $hose capacitance changes $ith the amount of re'erse 'oltage, is used in
the electronic tuner to change the oscillator fre0uency "y 'arying the *1 control 'oltage on
the 'aractor diode. 6aractor tuner has push"utton s$itches instead of rotary type program
selector s$itch.
,ig 1 " sho$s a 64,/74, tuner.
354
Automatic ine tuning
+he -,+ circuit is actually -utomatic ,re0uency 1ontrol <-,1= on the local oscillator in the
tuner. ,or a "lack/ $hite +6, a small amount of change in the local oscillator fre0uency can "e
tolerated $ithout much effect on the reproduced picture and sound. .ut in color +6 recei'ers
the change in oscillator fre0uency affects the sharpness of picture and 0uality of color. +o
o'ercome the pro"lem of local oscillator drift, all color +6 recei'ers use an -,+ circuit.
Mo#e!n 8lac@ an# ,-ite T:s
(ith the introduction of satellite and ca"le +6 channels the tele'ision technology has also
changed. +he present day "lack $hite +6s ha'e microcomputer controlled "and s$itching
and tuning facility, up to A3 channels $ith remote controls. E'en the old ./( +6s are
replaced $ithin 2 "and tuner or a non remote set is con'erted into remote model.
COLO)R T:
355
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain $hat a +6 system is
2. 5ist the names and functions of 'arious controls of a 1+6 recei'er
3. 2tate the fre0uency and "and allocations used in +6 transmissions
4. 5ist different types of tuning mechanism in +6 recei'er
5. Explain the use of remote control
?. Explain the "asic difference "et$een a ./( +6 and a 1olour +6.
-s any &adio recei'ers picks up the transmitted signals from a distant &adio station and
356
co'ert them to a audi"le sound, a +ele'ision &ecei'er picks up transmitted +6 signals
through antenna and con'ert them as 'isual image on the screen $ith associated -udio.
+here are three major tele'ision systems $hich are follo$ed in different parts of the $orld.
#ndia and many of the European countries follo$s a system of /-5 </hase -lternate 5ine=
$hich is "ased on ?25 lines @ !48 channel $idth $ith a line fre0uency of 5348. #n -merica a
system kno$n as L+21<Lational +ele'ision 2ystems 1ommittee= is follo$ed $hich is "ased
on 525 lines ,?!48 channel $idth operating on line fre0uency of ?3 48. ,rance and some
European countries follo$s a system called 2E1-!<2e0uential a memorie= "ased on ?25
lines $ith A !48 "and $idth. - tele'ision "ased on one particular system cannot "e used in
other countries follo$ing a different system. ,or example a tele'ision used in -merica cannot
"e used in #ndia. +he present day +ele'isions ha'e pro'ision to select one of the three
systems so that the same +6 could "e used $ith different system in different countries.
%un#amentals o colo! T:
2imple "lock diagram of a ./( +6 recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 1.
2imple "lock diagram of a 1olor +6 recei'er is sho$n in ,ig 2.
+he "lock diagram of colour +6 recei'er is almost similar to the "lock diagram of a ./(
tele'ision except the 1olor processing unit and the picture tu"e. +he 1olor processing unit
consists of t$o "asic circuits called as 57!#L-L1E and 14&)!#L-L1E circuits.
5uminance circuit is also called as 5uma 1ircuit. +his adds light to the 1olor picture. #t is
similar to .lack and (hite tele'isions 6ideo amplifier. 1hrominance 1ircuit is also called as
1hroma circuit. +his adds colors to the picture this special circuit $ill function only $hen in
coming signal is 1olor. #f the signal is ./( this circuit $ill not function, "ut gi'es only ./(
357
picture, "ecause of this characteristics the 1olour +6 is compati"le $ith 1olor signals as $ell
as ./( signal reception. +he output of 1olor processing circuit pro'ides three independent
primary 1olor signals of &ed, 9reen, and .lue. +he 1olor picture tu"e consists of three
electron gun assem"lies for three primary colors, the screen is coated $ith these primary
1olor phosphor dots. +hree such 1olor dots forms one picture element. *epending upon the
intensity of the three indi'idual colors 'arious colors are formed. +he +ele'ision 2ignals "oth
6ideo and -udio are transmitted from a common radiating antenna. #n tele'ision transmission
the 'ideo signal is amplitude modulated and the -udio signal is fre0uency modulated.
+he recei'ing antenna <usually M-9# type= sho$n in ,ig 3 intercepts "oth the 'ideo and the
-udio signals and feed them to the +ele'ision. #n the +ele'ision the re0uired signals are
selected "y tuner, amplified and then detected to reco'er the original modulation. +he
detected 'ideo signal is amplified to create an image on the +6 screen and the audio signal is
processed to gi'e the audio through amplifier and speakers.
Television C-annel
+he "and of fre0uencies used for 'ideo and audio signal transmission is called a tele'ision
channel. +6 signals are radiated at fre0uencies a"o'e 43 !48. +he fre0uency "ands that
ha'e "een assigned for the use of +ele'ision are as follo$s.
)nly "and # and ### are used for +6 transmission in #ndia. Each "and is di'ided in to a num"er
of channels. -ccording to the standards adopted in #ndia a channel is @!48 $ide. +6
358
transmitters are pro'ided in different places to cater the needs of the local population.
*epending upon the area to "e co'ered either a lo$po$er transmitter <5/+= or high po$er
transmitter <4/+= is installed. - high po$er transmitter <4/+= can ser'ice an area of around
123Fm and a lo$ po$er transmitter around 23Fm.
Television !eceive! cont!ols
!ost tele'isions especially ./( +6 $ill ha'e the "asic controls like .rightness, contrast,
channel selector and fine tuning, 'olume control and )L ),, s$itch. #n 1olour tele'isions in
addition to the a"o'e there $ill "e control for a 1olour. - typical figure sho$ing the different
controls are sho$n in ,ig 4.
+here are t$o types of tuning mechanisms a'aila"le in tele'ision $hich are as follo$s.
V!echanical tuner <+urret type or $afer type=
VElectronic tuner.
+urret type tuners are used mainly in ./( +6s $here a channel is selected "y rotating the
selector s$itch and then adjusting the clarity "y rotating the fine tuning ring. #n electronic
tuners there are ; to 12 s$itches called as program selectors. Each selector s$itch has a
separate "and selector and tuning facility. #ndi'idual selectors can "e tuned to different
channels% su"se0uently any pre tuned program can "e seen in the +6 just "y pressing the
re0uired selector s$itch. - picture of a program selector \ Electronic tuner front panel is
sho$n in ,ig 5.
359
+he "rightness control 'aries the "rightness le'el of the picture and contrast control helps to
get the desired gray tone and 'ariations on the picture. -ll the tele'isions $ill ha'e an &,
input socket for connecting the -ntenna ca"le, as sho$n in ,ig ?, in addition to that some
tele'isions especially the ne$ models ha'e #nput and )utput socket for -udio \ 6ideo.=
+he latest model tele'isions are pro'ided $ith remote control facility $ith $hich one can
operate the controls of the tele'ision from a distance $ith out touching the tele'ision.
8LOCM 'IA3RAM O% COLO)R TELE:ISION
360
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 5ist 'arious stages of a colour +6
2. 2tate the "road functions of the indi'idual stages
3. 2tate the names of important components in the stages
4. 5ist the components of composite signal
5. Explain s$itch mode po$er supply.
- reference "lock diagram of an #++ <9erman= 1+6 recei'er is sho$n at the end of this
361
lesson. +his has "een chosen as a reference "ecause of its simple circuit $hich $ill help in
understanding the concepts of 1+6 and flo$ of signals easy for the "eginners.
+he "asic functions of the indi'idual "locks are as follo$s.
Antenna
-ntenna recei'es the electromagnetic $a'es and con'erts them into corresponding &,
signals $hich is fed to the tele'ision set.
Magi antenna is commonly used in 64,/74, range for its simple construction and lo$ air
resistance.
Tune!
+he main functions of the tuner are
+o select the desired station and rejects others.
+o con'ert the &, signal into intermediate fre0uency <#,= "y mixing it $ith local
oscillator fre0uency.
+o pro'ide gain to the $eak input signal picked up "y the antenna.
to isolates the local oscillator from the feeder circuit to pre'ent undesired radiation
through the antenna
+o match the antenna $ith input circuits of the recei'er and to pre'ent the appearance
of ghost image.
+o reject the image fre0uency $hich also causes the ghost image along $ith the
picture[
+he &, tuner selects &, signals of desired station, amplifies and con'erts them into #,
signals. +he main "locks of the tuner are &, amplifier, oscillator and mixer stage.
:I% stage
=ideo pre-"mplifier
#t amplifies the #, signal o"tained from the tuner. #1 233<25 1433= is used in this stage.
+his stage of amplification is necessary "ecause the gain of recei'er is reduced "y the use of
SA, ilte!.
:I% Am&liie!
+his stage has the "locks of 'ideo #, amplifier, 'ideo detector, -utomatic gain control<-91=
and -utomatic fre0uency tuning<-,+= circuit. +hese stage has "een constructed around
#1231<+*-4423=.
Soun# section
#1 232<+*-1@31= performs the function of complete sound section accommodating sound #,
amplifier <2#,=, ,! detector, -udio dri'er and audio output.
Luminance an# C-!ominance Luminance #ela" line /Y #ela"1:
,rom "uffer amplifier, 1fsignal passes through a delay line to Mamplifier stage. +he delay
line delays the M signal "y approximately ?3Ps. +he delay line is a 'ery thin metallic coil $ith
'ery high 'alue of inductance and distri"uted capacitance, so that the speed of the signal
through the delay line is greatly reduced. #f this delay is not introduced, luminance signal $ill
362
reach to the picture tu"e earlier than 1hrominance signal.
+he t$o main reasons re0uired for delay in Msignal are as follo$s:
1. 1hrominance signal has to pass through relati'ely complex circuit of the decoder and for
this reason it is functionally delayed as compared to Msignal.
2. +he "and$idth of Msignal is more than that of 1hrominance signal. +he narro$er
"and$idth signals take longer time to tra'el a particular distance.
T-e main luminance /Y1 am&liie!:
-fter the delay line the 1fsignal is fed to the main M amplifier. +he circuit used is also called
emitter follo$er $hich acts as "uffer amplifier to pre'ent any mutual interference "et$een
contrast control and "lack le'el clamp circuits. +he output signal 'oltage from M amplifier is
fed to the matrix $here it is added $ith color difference signals to produce original red, green
and "lue color. +he hori8ontal and 'ertical "lanking pulses deri'ed from hori8ontal and
'ertical output stages are also fed to M amplifier stage. +hese pulses ensure that the Msignal
fed to the matrix is held at "lack le'el during retrace periods. +he a'erage 'alue of luminance
signal fed to the matrix unit determines the mean "rightness of the picture appearing on the
screen. +he contrast control is used for adjusting the amplitude of the luminance signal
o"tained from the amplifier.
C-!ominance:
#1;@3/+*-35?1 is used in this section, </-5 *ecoder=
1omposite color 'ideo signal o"tained from 'ideo #, section is gi'en to this amplifier. #t
isolates the 'ideo #, section from the other sections, composite 'ideo signal output is taken
from the emitter circuit $hich contains.
+he luminance or Msignal
+he color su"carrier carrying red and "lue chroma signals
+he hori8ontal and 'ertical sync pulses and
+he color "urst signal
4ere the di'ision of the luminance and chroma separation takes place. ,rom here composite
color 'ideo signal is coupled to chroma "andpass amplifiers through chroma filter, sync
separator and the luminance delay line.
> and = signal demodulators
+he function of 7 and 6 demodulators are to detect 7 <.M= and 6 <&M= modulating signals
from the 7 and 6 chroma signals.
Each demodulator has t$o input signals
1hroma signal, $hich is to "e demodulated and
- constant amplitude output from the su"carrier oscillator.
-fter modulation 7 <.M= and 6 <&M= modulating color difference signals are fed to the matrix
from $here separated &, 9 and . color 'ideo signals are a'aila"le. Msignal <luminance= is
also fed to the matrix.
:i#eo out&ut
363
+he color 'ideo signals &, 9 and . are fed to respecti'e cathodes of the picture tu"e after
one stage of amplification. 6ideo output circuits for each color signal are identical. +ransistors
A2 /73A3 is used for all the three 'ideo output circuits.
.o!iEontal section
+his section includes sync separator, -,1, hori8ontal oscillator dri'er and output stage. +his
stage has "een constructed around #1 ?31<+*-1A43,=.
.o!iEontal #!ive! stage:
+he signal o"tained from hori8ontal oscillator is 'ery $eak. #n this stage 'oltage amplification
is pro'ided and sent to the hori8ontal output stage through the hori8ontal dri'er transformer.
+ransistor +@14 <., 3A3= is used in this circuit as hori8ontal dri'er.
.o!iEontal out&ut stage
+his stage consists of a transistor +@1? <.7 23;= and Extra high tension transformer <E4+=/
line output transformer <5)+=.
/o$er amplification is pro'ided to the hori8ontal scanning signal "y this stage. +he 15?2548
signal is sent to the hori8ontal deflection yoke <4*1= and E4+/ hori8ontal output transformer
:e!tical section
#1431 <+*-1;@3= is used in 'ertical section. +his section consists of 'ertical trigger cum
'ertical oscillator or sa$ tooth generator, 'ertical dri'er and output.
:e!tical out&ut
#t pro'ides the sufficient po$er amplification to the 'ertical deflection signal and then it is sent
to the 'ertical deflection yoke <6*1=. 6ertical "lanking signal is also achie'ed from this stage
and is fed to the 'ideo output section.
S+itc- mo#e &o+e! su&&l" /SM$S1
#n this reference circuit only transistors are used in 2!/2 section. !ains supply is fed to the
"ridge rectifier through the line filter and &, interference suppression capacitor. +he mains
supply is also connected to the degaussing coil through a thermistor </+1= to acti'ate the
degaussing function for fe$ seconds. +he rectified 'oltage is gi'en to the collector of
s$itching transistor through a 2- fast acting fuse. 2ample *1 output 'oltage and reference
'oltage o"tained from -1 mains are gi'en to the comparator. #t compares these 'oltages and
a control 'oltage is o"tained at the output $hich controls the $idth of oscillator pulses. +he
pulses from pulse $idth oscillator are also gi'en to the s$itching transistor+@15 <.753?=.
+his transistor $orks as pulse $idth regulator. (idth of the s$itching pulses ensures the on
time of this transistor. +he fre0uency of s$itching pulses is as high as hori8ontal fly"ack
pulses such as 15?25 c/s. +he collector of s$itching transistor is connected $ith the primary
of the 2!/2 transformer <pulse transformer=. .ecause of transformer action 'oltage is
de'eloped across the secondary. +hus 'arious -1 'oltages are o"tained. +hese 'oltages are
rectified and filtered to o"tained steady *1 supply 'oltage for 'arious sections.
364
365
COLO)R $ICT)RE T)8E
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Lame the parts of a color picture tu"e
2. Explain the constructional details of color picture tu"es
3. *escri"e the degaussing of color picture tu"e
4. Explain the functions of purity and con'ergent magnets
5. *ifferentiate "et$een monochrome and color picture tu"es.
366
5ike a monochrome picture tu"e as sho$n in ,ig1, a color picture tu"e has also three major
parts as <i= screen <ii= funnel <iii= neck. #n a "lack and $hite picture tu"e the inside surface of
the screen is coated $ith a 'ery thin layer of light emitting phosphor material. (hen this
phosphor is excited "y electron "eam it produces 'arying intensities of $hitelight, the
intensity of the light "eing determined "y the density of current flo$ in the "eam.
#n colour picture tu"es, the screen is coated $ith three different types of phosphor $hich can
produce red, "lue and green illuminations (hen excited "y electron "eam. - cuta$ay 'ie$ of
a deltagun colour picture tu"e, using colour phosphor dots is sho$n in ,ig 2.
+he three guns employed in the electron gun assem"ly are la"eled as red gun, green gun
and "lue gun. -lso the screen possess three different color emitting phosphor dots red,
green and "lue arranged in an orderly manner of small triangular groups sho$n in ,ig 3.
367
Each triangular group is called as a triad, $hich contains a green emitting dot, a red emitting
dot and a "lueemitting dot. - color picture tu"e has a"out 433,333 triads i.e., 1,233,333
phosphor dots on the screen. #n a triad, the three dots are "unched so close together that the
light they produce com"ines and appears to the eye as one uni0ue color.
+he deflection yoke mounted on the neck of the color picture tu"e is similar to the deflection
yoke used in "lack and $hite recei'ers. +he yoke design in color recei'er is more complex
"ecause three "eams are to "e deflected instead of one. ,ig 4 sho$s the purity magnet
assem"ly, to "e mounted on the neck of the picture tu"e to adjust the axis of each electron
"eam so that it strikes the appropriate phosphor dot of the triad.
/roper "eam con'ergence is an important aspect of deltagun picture tu"e operation. +hus,
to ensure that each "eam strikes only one type of phosphor dot, a mask, called a shado$ or
aperture mask, is inserted "et$een the electron guns and the phosphor dot screen <see ,ig
2=. +he mask is positioned infront of and parallel to the screen. #t contains circular holes,
e0ual in num"er to the dot triads. Each hole is so aligned $ith respect to its group that any
one of the approaching "eams can UseeU and therefore strike only one phosphor dot. +he
remaining t$o dots of the triad are hidden "y the mask% that is the t$o other dots are in the
Ushado$U of the mask opening hence the name shado$ mask as sho$n in ,ig 5. 2hado$
mask picture tu"es are trigun, tricolor $ith deltaguns. +he three guns are 123E apart in a
circle as sho$n in ,ig ?a. 4o$e'er the con'ergence adjustments must correct for the guns in
368
different planes of three "eams at a single hole as in ,ig ?".
+he pro"lem of con'ergence has "een simplified "y the use of the color picture tu"es ha'ing
inline cathodes. (ith the inline tu"es, many con'ergence circuit components and
adjustments needed to align the three electron "eams are eliminated. - precision $ound,
toroid deflection yoke is installed and cemented into place at the factory. +he design and
placement of this yoke is the key to the tu"es Uself con'ergenceU capa"ility. #n addition, a
369
magnet assem"ly for purity adjustments and static con'ergence is also cemented to the tu"e
neck. +he position of the yoke and magnet is critical, thus the cementing. +he yoke and
magnet assem"ly is sho$n in ,ig 4.
+here are also other "asic designs of color picture tu"es. +hey are
1. threegun inline type, using slotted aperture mask $ith 'ertical color stripes
2. 2ingle gun $ith threeinline cathodes, using aperture grill mask $ith 'ertical color stripes.
- simple comparison of the three "asic types of colour picture tu"es is sho$n in ,ig@.
,ig ;a and ;" illustrates the manner in $hich the 'ertical color stripes are related to the
aperture grille. +he aperture grille has one 'ertical slot corresponding to each set of red,
green and "lue 'ertical phosphor stripes. Each green phosphor stripe is centered in a 'ertical
slot% the green electron "eam is in the centre of the three "eams as they s$eep hori8ontally.
+hus each time the three "eams pass through a 'ertical slot, they are capa"le of illuminating
small portions of red, green and "lue 'ertical phosphor stripes. )f course, the actual intensity
of illumination depends upon the strength of the applied 'ideo signals. #nline guns and
'ertical phosphor stripes eliminate the need for 'ertical con'ergence. 4ori8ontal con'ergence
is achie'ed through the use of a tilta"le, con'ergence correction, deflection yoke. +he yoke
axis may "e tilted slightly in the hori8ontal and 'ertical planes to con'erge the three electron
"eams. +rinitron picture tu"e is the first inline tu"e designed "y 2)LM 1orporation. #t
employs a single gun assem"ly $ith three cathodes. 2ee ,ig ;a as the source of three
"eams. #t uses 'ertical phosphor stripes, and it has no con'ergence yoke "ecause
electrostatic con'ergence is used. +he aperture grille does not ha'e holes like shado$ mask,
370
"ut instead the grille has one 'ertical slot for each set of red, green and "lue stripes <see ,ig
;= slotted grille allo$s o'er 33Q more of the "eam current to reach the screen than does a
shado$mask tu"e of e0ui'alent si8e. +rinitron gi'es a much "righter and sharper picture and
greatly reduces the pro"lems of miscon'ergence. -nother successful picturetu"e $ith three
hori8ontal inline guns is called the precisioninline. #t has many ad'antages such as it
re0uires no adjustment for con'ergence or color purity. -nd also any picture tu"e can "e fitted
$ith any deflection yoke on the same system.
%ilament /-eate!1
1olourpicture tu"es ha'e three heaters. 4o$e'er, these are parallel to one pair of t$oplug
pins. +he heater 'oltage is ?.3 6 -1 and dra$s a current of A33m-, "ut some 1olour tu"es
dra$ as much as 1A33m-.
Ano#e
+he anode 'oltage <or Uhigh 'oltageU= is responsi"le for most of the electron "eam<s=
acceleration in picture !/ tu"es. #t ranges from approximately 22k6 to 32k6 and dra$s a
current of 1?33p-. 1olourpicture tu"es generally ha'e either 13 or 14 pin "ases. +herefore,
the manufacturers diagram should "e consulted in each case. -n example for this 13 pin
"ase and its legend is sho$n in ,ig A.
371
'egaussing colo! &ictu!e tubes
*egaussing means Udemagneti8ingU. +he purpose of degaussing is to remo'e the magnetic
flux from metals that ha'e "ecome magneti8ed. #n color +6 set the steel chassis/and internal
frames that holds the shado$ mask and the mask itself are all su"ject to induced magnetism.
+hese local magnetic fields can affect the path of electrons in the picture tu"e, causing errors
in "eam landing $hich result in contamination of color purity of the picture appearing on the
screen. *egaussing circuit is employed to demagnetic the picture tu"e e'ery time the
recei'er is s$itched on. - degaussing coil is placed around the core area of the color picture
tu"e as sho$n in fig 13. - po$erful alternating current is made to flo$ through the
degaussing coil for a second after the set is s$itched on. +he alternating positi'e and
negati'e field thus produced, discharge any residual magnetism left $ithin the tu"e itself and
reduce it to 8ero "efore the picture appears. +he /.+.1. resistor in series $ith degaussing coil
allo$s current of se'eral amperes initially $hich decays to a fe$ milliamperes "y the time the
picture is 'isi"le. +he *1 resistance of /.+.3 $ill "e 'ery lo$ at normal temperature and 'ery
high at high temperature. +he *1 resistance of the degaussing coil is 23 ohms.
372
373
SM$S STA3E O% COLO)R T: RECEI:ER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the different le'els of 'oltages re0uired for a +ele'ision
2. 2tate the ad'antages of 2!/2 po$er supply
3. Explain the $orking of a 2!/2 po$er supply
4. Explain the $orking of fly"ack 2!/2 po$er supply.
374
+he *1 'oltage re0uirements of 'arious sections of all solid state +6 recei'ers ranging
magnitude from 126 to a"out 1?3 6 and for the final anode of picture tu"e from 12F6 to
nearly 25 k6. +he use of 'oltage regulator is necessary "ecause of the #1s and other
sensiti'e components $hich are sensiti'e to 'oltage. +he con'entional 'oltage sources uses
"ulky transformer and occupies more space $hich has lead to the de'elopment of 2!/2
po$er supplies. #n this po$er supplies *1 is chopped at a 'ery fast rate and energy transfer
to the load circuits is regulated "y sensing and control circuits. +he total po$er dra$n from
-1 mains in earlier hy"rid recei'ers $as more than 123 (atts "ut modern solid state
recei'ers up to 51 cm screen consume only a"out @5 (atts. +he s$itched mode po$er
supply is essentially a *1 to *1 con'erter $here energy transfer is controlled to o"tain out
put 'oltage regulation. +he "lock diagram of such a system suita"le for +6 recei'ers is sho$n
in ,ig 1 . the single ended s$itching con'erter chops unregulated dc <'1= at a 'ery fast rate in
the form of current pulses that flo$ through primary $inding of a 2!/2 transformer +1.
+he transfer of energy is "y electromagnetic induction from primary to secondary side and
thus there is complete isolation "et$een the regulated and unregulated *1 supplies. +he
error 'oltage induced in the sensing $indings used to control the )L ),, periods of the
con'erter to regulate transfer of energy from primary side to load circuits and this results in
regulation of the output 'oltages. +he 'oltage o'erload circuit is designed to "lock the
con'erter in case the out put 'oltages tend to o'ershoot for any reasons. 7nlike the /ass
transistor in the series regulator, the de'ice in the con'erter is s$itched on for periods
depending on load side demands and this makes the 2!/2 highly efficient. #n addition, the
2!/2 transformer is of much smaller si8e "ecause the fre0uency of current pulses is chosen
to "e 0uite high.
Mains Su&&l" %ilte!s
+he sharp rise and fall of s$itching current that induces high 'oltages, $hich create se'eral
375
pro"lems of interference "oth in the recei'er and in other installations. +he rapid s$itching at
near 15 k48 creates interference pulses ha'ing high fre0uencies, some of $hich e'en lie
$ithin the fre0uencyacceptance range of the tuner. +he 'isi"le effects of such an
interference results as "lack stripes and dots on the picture tu"e screen.
#nterference can "e a'oided "y careful layout of the printedcircuit "oard $hich holds the
2!/2 circuitry. Electrolytic capacitors of large 'alue perform $ell at the fundamental
fre0uency of the 2!/2 s$itching rate "ut are ineffecti'e at higher fre0uencies. +he solution
adopted is to connect a lo$ 'alue capacitor in parallel $ith the electrolytic type thus offering
lo$ reactance, to "oth lo$ and high fre0uency interfering components.
+he type of lo$'alue capacitor used for this purpose is made of polycar"onate and has a
capacitance "et$een 3.31 !, and 3.32!,. +his type of capacitor is also used as an &,
"ypass capacitor in mains rectifier sections of the 2!/2, often in conjunction $ith the 51
filter. -nother techni0ue for reducing interference, particularly pollution to the 2!/2 as sho$n
in fig 2 +he inducti'e part of the filter consists of t$o small inductors $ound on the same core
and mutually coupled in such a direction that magnetic field produced "y each cancel out.
Me!its an# 'eme!its o SM$S
"dantages:
+he main merits of s$itched mode po$er supplies are:
V2maller physical si8e
V9reater efficiency "ecause the s$itching transistor is >on> only for periods that are
necessary to meet load currents.
V5o$ heat dissipation in the regulatory transistor.
V#solation from mains supply.
VLo need for a large 53 48 mains transformer,
V.oth lo$ and intermediate 'oltage supplies can "e generated simultaneously.
V-ll the outputs are sta"ili8ed and protected against open circuit and short circuit conditions
at the load terminals.
V#nterference to other circuits is greatly reduced "y synchroni8ing the chopping rate $ith line
fly"ack pulses.
376
'isadantages:
V+he rapid s$itching of chopping current generates strong interfering signals.
V4igher harmonics or oscillatory currents due to trapped energy lie in the radio fre0uency
range and can enter the tuner circuit to cause dot interference on the picture tu"e screen.
V2trong induced 'oltages get fed "ack to the mains thus polluting supply to other appliances
in use near"y.
+he a"o'e demerits can "e minimi8ed "y ela"orate 0uenching circuits, careful component
layout, use of mains filter and rigorous shielding. - typical 2!/2 stage of reference #++
circuit diagram is gi'en at the end of this lesson, the functioning of the circuit is explained
"elo$. +he -1 mains 'oltage is rectified through a "ridge rectifier <*?54 to *?5@= and is
filtered through a capacitor 1?5; 153 !fd/353' to get a 333' *1 'oltage. 2$itching transistor
+@15 .753? and the 2!/2 transformer +&@11 forms a "locking oscillator. (hen the circuit is
s$itched on, the "ase of +@15 <.753?= recei'es a 5348. 2tart up 'oltage 'ia &?54 <4F@= and
1?53 <22 Fpf= from the mains input. -fter the startup the $inding <ef= of the transformer
+&@11 "ecomes effecti'e and from point >f> a positi'e feed"ack 'oltage is gi'en 'ia $inding 2
of 5)+ , &@22 <4.@N=, 1@14 <.4@!fd=, &@23 <33 N=, 5@11 to the "ase of +@15. (hen line
output stage starts functioning, it locks 2!/2 oscillator fre0uency 'ia $inding 12 of 5)+ to
the line fre0uency. ,rom $inding ef of s$itched mode transformer after rectification and
filtering "y *@12 <.-15@= and 1@11 <4.@!fd= a negati'e *1 'oltage $ith respect to floating
earth is deri'ed. /art of this 'oltage is taken off from &@13 <4.@F= preset and is gi'en through
&@12 <13F= to the "ase of the control transistor +@11 <.123;.=. +he emitter of this transistor
is clamped to 13'olt "y *@11 <8ener 13'=. +he mains 'oltage 'ariation results in proportional
changes of the "ase 'oltage of +@11 <.123;;= and also 1@13 <.132;= 2!/2 dri'er. +his
results in pulse $idth change at the collector of +@15. (ith the input mains 'oltage
increasing, the s$itching pulses, at the collector of +@15 "ecome smaller, $hile, $ith the input
mains 'oltage decreasing, the s$itching pulses at the collector of +@15 "ecome $ider. +his
results in creating a constant d.c 'oltage on the s$itching mode po$er supply, charging
capacitor 1@1? <13!fd=. (hen the transistor +@15 off 1@1? is charged through *@14 from
the stored energy in the s$itched mode transformer. #t is kno$n as fly$heel diode. +he output
supply should "e fixed to 115' "y &@13 <4.@F=. +o pre'ent damages due to o'erloading the
s$itch mode po$er supply features a protection transistor +@12 <.123;-=. (hen excess
current passes through &@24 <2.2N= due to o'er load or short the 'oltage across it increases
sharply. +his 'oltage is sensed at the "ase of +@12 $hich is normally nonconducting making
it to conduct. +his result in the conduction of +@13 <.132;= dri'er $hich reduces the
conduction of +@15 thus reduces the load current to a safe 'alue. Lormal functioning of the
1#6 is thus interrupted as long as the o'er load is present. ,urther protection against o'er
'oltages are o"tained from the fuse diode *?5; $hich shorts $hen the 'oltage exceeds
1236 acti'ating +@12 fuse transistor or "lo$s the 1 amp fuse. ,use diode can also "e "lo$n
due to transient conditions or .723;* collector scre$s not tightened properly or due to dry
solder. .ecause all electrical energy is deri'ed from s$itched mode po$er supply, operating
'oltages are all automatically sta"ili8ed. +his ensures trou"le free operation o'er a $ide
mains fluctuation. +he negati'e po$er supply should ne'er "e connected to the chassis
earth.
377
378
379
TELE:ISION T)NER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the importance of tuner in a +ele'ision
2. *ifferentiate "et$een mechanical and electronic tuners
3. Lame the different terminals of a tuner
4. Explain the functions of a tuner
5. Explain -utomatic fine tuning <-,+=.
380
&., re0uirement of "oth "lack and $hite and color recei'ers are nearly same% "ut, for color
reception fre0uency response and tuning of 'arious resonant circuits o'er the channel
"and$idth is more critical. Electronic tuners are more suited for this purpose, $hose tuning is
done "y 'aractor diodes and channel selection "y s$itching diodes for .and#, .and### and
74, "and channels. #n a digital tuning system, potentiometers are not used to o"tain tuning
'oltages. #nstead, a computeri8ed solid state memory stores digital e0ui'alents of the
re0uired or each channel. 2imilarly, fine tuning is eliminated "y the use of a phase locked
loop </55= circuit $hich controls the local oscillator fre0uency steady at the desired 'alue
depending on the selected channel.
T)NER
- tele'ision tuner
1. selects a desired channel fre0uency
2. produce a common #, fre0uency for the in coming fre0uencies
3. -mplifies the in coming signal $ith a lo$ 2ignal to noise ratio.
+he 64, tuners are designed to co'er "and # and "and ### these can "e either mechanical or
electronic. #n mechanical tuners, there are turret type and $afer type differentiated "ased on
their construction. - turret type tuner is sho$n in ,ig1 $here coils are s$itched in and out of
the tuned circuit as the selectors are mo'ed from channel to channel. #n $afer type, the coils
for &, amplifier, oscillator and mixer stages are on separate $afer s$itches ganged on
common shaft. +he $afer type tuners are also called incremental tuners "ecause the change
of channels accomplished "y progressi'e shorting of sections of the total inductance.
- simplified "lock diagram of the 64, +6 tuner is sho$n in ,ig 2.
8alun T!anso!me!:
+he tuner must ha'e input impedance e0ual to the impedance of the antenna feeder for
maximum signal transfer to the tuner. +he "alun matches the t$in ri""on feeder impedance
381
of 333 ohms to the @5 ohm input impedance of the &, amplifier.
.i5&ass ci!cuits an# t!a& ci!cuits:
7n$anted signals are rejected "y the trap circuits, the 4/ filters rejects the all the fre0uencies
"elo$ the cutoff fre0uency.
R% Am&liie!
+he &, amplifier is designed to pro'ide ade0uate gain to $eak signals. +he &, stage is "est
suited for -91 "ecause the signal a -mplitude is small and gain control is most effecti'e $ith
least distortion. +he -91 is relayed to &, amplifier in order to maintain good 2/L ratio for
$eak signals. +he &, amplifier should ha'e a /ass "and, "road enough to pass the selected
channel and allo$ small 'ariation in the tuned circuit fre0uencies as sho$n in ,ig 3.
Local oscillato!
+he local oscillator generates an unmodulated sinusoidal 'oltage that is heterodyned in the
mixer $ith the in coming &, signal to affect its fre0uency translations to the #, "and.
+he local oscillator fre0uency is changed $hene'er a different channel is selected to maintain
a difference e0ual to the intermediate fre0uency "et$een local oscillator fre0uency and the
tuned carrier channel fre0uency. +he fine tuning control allo$s the oscillator fre0uency to "e
'aried o'er a narro$ range. 2ince the sta"ility of the local oscillator is highly essential in color
tele'ision, the tuners of color tele'isions are pro'ided $ith automatic fre0uency tuning <-,+=
circuits for strict control of the oscillator fre0uency.
Mi7e!
+he function of this circuit is to con'ert the in coming &, signal fre0uencies from different
channels into a common #, /ass"and of the recei'er. +his is achie'ed in the mixer "y
heterodyning, the mixer stage com"ined $ith a local oscillator may "e considered as
fre0uency con'erter.
:a!acto! tune# :.% tune!
+he modern recei'ers employ electronic tuners $here channel selection is done "y s$itching
diodes and tuning "y 'aractor diodes. +he &, amplifier is constructed o'er a !)2,E+ for its
high input impedance and less noise. #ts dual gate in put allo$s the !)2,E+ to "e used in
cascade mode for "etter gain and pro'ides separate means of applying &, signal and -91
'oltages to the amplifier.
).% tune!
- simple "lock diagram of a 'aractor tuned 74, tuner is sho$n in ,ig 4.
382
+he 74, antenna signal is coupled to a !)2,E+ &, amplifier. +he &, amplifiers gain is
controlled "y -91 'oltage. +he circuits are tuned "y three tracking 'aractors. +he outputs of
&, amplifiers and 74, )scillators are together applied to the diode mixer. +he #, output from
the mixer is then applied to #, "uffer amplifier. +he "uffer amplifier stage helps to sta"ili8e the
mixer fre0uency response across the 74, "and channels. ,rom the #, "uffer amplifier the
signal goes to the in put of 64, mixer $hich functions as an #, amplifier $hen recei'ing 74,
channels. -lso, the 64, tuner oscillator and &, amplifier are inoperati'e, $hen any 74,
channel is selected. !odern tele'isions employ single unit tuners $hich ha'e 64, and 74,
tuners sections as single compact shielded assem"ly. +he 64, tuner in its 74, setting acts
as an #, amplifier to "oost the input to the 1
st
#, amplifier in the #, su" 2ystem $hich thus
recei'es nearly e0ual signal strength for 64, and 74, channels.
Elect!onic tune!
-n out line of an electronic tuner is sho$n in >,ig 5+he mechanical tuners $ere used in color
+6s in the early days. .ecause of its demerits the electronic tuners ha'e no$ "ecome
popular in "oth .\( and color +6s. +he electronic tuners ha'e "oth 64, and 74, "ands
and hence any desired channel in 1st, # ###
rd
and 74, "ands can "e selected. +he electronic
tuner is a complete electronic de'ice and functions "ased on 'arious supply 'oltage a'aila"le
to its terminals.
383
(hen tuners are to "e replaced it is necessary to confirm these terminals are placed in the
same order in the ne$ tuner and if not these terminals are to "e manually $ired accordingly.
Tuning cont!ol an# 8an# selection:
+o select a desired "and out of 1,111 and 7 a single pole 3 $ay s$itch is used as sho$n in
,ig ?. +he actual s$itch connections are sho$n in ,ig 5". +he tuning is done through a
'aria"le resistor $hich is operated through a gear arrangement so that 'ery minute 'oltage
'ariations are possi"le. +he tuning action of electronic tuner entirely depends on the 6+
'oltage. +he "and selector and the tuning control comes as compact unit as sho$n in ,ig ?.
#n +6s there are around ; to 12 such units $hich are arranged in such a manner that only
one of these selectors is s$itched on at any particular time. Each of these selectors is tuned
to 'arious "and and channels of preference so that just "y pressing a selector a particular
channel is 'ie$ed.
384
'igital tune!:
#n digital tuning method of channel selection, a fre0uency synthesi8er is employed. #t
generates a num"er of sta"le fre0uencies using a single crystal. +hese sta"le reference
sources are used to lock the tuner oscillator fre0uency for each channel and its correct 'alue
"y a phaselocked #oop </55= control system.
/haselocked 5oop 1ontrol
+he /55 control compares t$o signals and de'elops a control 'oltage proportional to the
fre0uency or phase difference "et$een them. +he output from the comparator is filtered to
o"tain a *1 control 'oltage $hich is applied to the high fre0uency 'oltage controlled crystal
oscillator. +his control 'oltage forces the oscillator to lock $ith the crystals sta"le fre0uency
< usually 23F48= the /55 control thus ena"les crystal accuracy output from 'oltage
controlled oscillator. - similar circuit is used in electronic tuners employing fre0uency
synthesi8ed control to accurately select any 64, or 74, channel. - reference #++ tuner
circuit is gi'en as a 1hart at the end of the lesson. +he entire turner section consists of three
main 'ital sections such as &.,.-mplifier, )scillator and !ixer. +ransistor +131 <.,A?1= is a
!etal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor <!)2,E+= and it acts as &.,.-mplifier.
&.,.signals recei'ed from antenna is fed to gate Lo.1 of !)2,E+ 'ia 52, 5132, 5133,
1apacitor <13/f= and resistance &113 <133F=. -91 control 'oltage is o"tained from collector
of transistor +231 <.123;.= and is fed to gate Lo.2 of !)2,E+ 'ia resistance &112 <133F=.
1apacitor 113; <1 Fpf= is used for -91 decoupling. - supply 'oltage of 12.35' is applied to
*rain of !)2,E+ 'ia &13@ <4@N=, 1oil 513A, 1oil 513@ and 1oil 513?. +his supply is
connected to source end of +131 'ia resistance &13? <1F=. .iasing is pro'ided "y resistance
&13? and &13@ <333 N=. -mplified &.,.signals of !)2,E+ +131 <.,A?1= is fed to gate Lo.1
of !)2,E+ +132 <.,A;1=. +ransistor +133 <.,A3A= $orks as a local oscillator and 12'
385
supply is gi'en to the emitter 'ia &141 <3AF=. +ransistor +133 <.,A3A= is a /L/ transistor
and a supply 'oltage of 12.35' is gi'en to the "ase of the transistor 'ia &142 <33F=.
,re0uency generated from the collector of transistor +133 <.,A3A= is fed to gate Lo.2 of
!)2,E+ +132 'ia capacitor 112A <2.@/f=. +he signals o"tained from !)2,E+ +131 are fed
to gate Lo.1 of !)2,E+ +132. 9enerated fre0uency from local oscillator is also o"tained at
gate Lo.2 of transistor +133. +hus !)2,E+ +132 $orks as a mixer. &e0uired po$er supply
of 12.?' is gi'en to the drain of !)2,E+ +132 'ia &12A <223F= 1oil 523? and 5231. #.,
signals are o"tained at the end of mixer stage. +he signals o"tained at the drain of !)2,E+
1132 are fed to /in Lo.5 of #1 251433 <'ideo #, /reamplifier=. 2$itching diodes are used for
proper operation of "and 1 and 3 of tuner. (hile "and Lo.1 is in operation a "ias 'oltage is
gi'en at gate Lo.1 of !)2,E+ +131 'ia &113 <133F=, &13A <153F=, 513;, &13@ <4@ N= and
resistance &13A <153F= and &111 <133F= forms a potential di'ider circuit. *uring this
process, a negati'e 'oltage is o"tained at the anode of s$itching diode *113 <.-243-=, *111
<.-243-=, *112, *113 <2x.-243-=, *114 and *115 <.-2;3=, thus diodes stop conducting.
6aractor diode *123 <..122= is used in the path of input signal, <(hich is connected to gate
Lo.1 of !)2,E+ +131=. !)2,E+ +131 'aractor diode pro'ides proper fre0uency "y 'arying
'oltages applied on it. +his type of 'aractor diodes are also used in mixer stage $hich is
connected $ith the input tuned circuit of !)2,E+ +131. 6aractor diode *125 is connected
$ith the input tuned circuit of !)2,E+ +131. (hen "and 3 is selected, positi'e 'oltages are
o"tained at the anode of s$itching diode and these diodes are for$ard "iased. *ue to this
fre0uency is changed.
)0.0%0 /)lt!a -ig- !e*uenc"1 section
7.4.,. section consists of:
+ransistor +1 <.,?@A= $orks as &.,.-mplifier and +2 <.,?;1= $orks as a mixer and oscillator
transistor. &.,.signals recei'ed from the antenna goes to the emitter of &.,.-mplifier
transistor +1 <.,?@A= 'ia 11 <3/5=, 53 12 <2/5=, 54, 13 <5/f=. - 'oltage of 12.35' is gi'en to
the emitter of transistor +1 <.,?@A= 'ia 51A, *? <#L414;=, &2 <13N= and &1 <12F=. -.9.3
'oltage is fed to the "ase of transistor +1 for controlling the gain. +hese -91 'oltages are
gi'en to the "ase of transistor +2 'ia resistance &4 <1 F=. -mplified signals are o"tained at
the collector. +he fre0uency of these signals is controlled "y 'aractor diodes *3 and *4
<..121-=. 6aractor diode *3 and *4 recei'es tuning 'oltage from 523, &12 <4@F=, &5 <;F2=
and 5;. -mplified signals from the collector of transistor +1 is gi'en to the emitter of transistor
+2 <.,?;1= 'ia 55, 1? <2@/,=, 1oil 5A, 1oil 511 and capacitor 113 <123/,=. - supply 'oltage
of 12.35' is gi'en to the emitter of +2 'ia coil 5A, resistance &@ <2F@= and &; <2F2=.
&esistance &@ is connected to 12.35' supply line and &; is connected to earth. 1omponents
associated $ith collector 114 <4/f= coil and capacitor 113 <1.5/f= forms a feed "ack circuit
and this is applied from collector to the emitter of transistor. #.,. signal is o"tained at the
collector of transistor +2 <.,?;1=. ,rom here this signal is applied to gate Lo.1 of !)2,E+
1132. (hen 7.4.,. tuner is in operation then !)2,E+ 132 $ill act as #.,. preamplifier.
Tune! Mo#ule
+his section incorporates electronic turner $ith .and #, ### and 74,, 'ision #.,. and $ith sound
#.,. and sound <com"ined #1= output. 1hip capacitors and resistances are used. !ore care is
to "e taken $hile rectifying the faults in tuner "ox. /lain &aster, Lo picture <only sno$= picture
drifting, top flutter, -.,.1. pro"lem, Lo sound, 5o$ sound, *istorted sound, 5o$ gain, <picture
$ith sno$, #ntermittent picture= etc. are likely to occur if the tuner "ox is defecti'e. &. ,. input
is fed at the top of the tuner "ox. -n external "alun transformer matches the impedance of
antenna to the tuner "ox.
386
387
:I'EO I% AN' 'ETECTOR SECTION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 2tate important "locks of a 'ideo #, stage
2. 2tate the functions of the #1 251433 and +*-4423
3. !ention the input signal sources to the #1s +*- 251433 and +*-4423
4. !ention the output signals from this stage and their target
5. Explain flo$ of signal through different stages in the #1.
388
I% subs"stem
+he #, su"system consists of "and shaping filter circuits <2-( filter=, #, amplifiers <-91
controller= -91, -,+ <or -,1=, intercarrier sound #, detector, 'ideo detector and "uffer 'ideo
amplifier. +he signal that "ecomes a'aila"le across the detector load has all the components
that constitute the composite color signal that is luminance and 1hrominance signals along
$ith synchronous pulses and color "urst.
,rom the output of "uffer amplifier, the composite 'ideo signal "ranches off into the follo$ing
four paths:
1. 5uminance or Mchannel
2. 1hroma decoder
3. -91 circuit
4. 2ynchronous separator and raster circuits.
Com&osite vi#eo signal
#n monochrome tele'ision the composite 'ideo signal consists of light 'ariations in the
picture, "lanking pulses to make the retrace in'isi"le and synchroni8ing pulses to keep
scanning in recei'er in step $ith the transmitting end. #n color tele'ision the 'ideo signal has
additional information a"out colors in the scene and color sync <"urst= to synchroni8e color
reproduction in the recei'ed picture. .oth the color <chroma= signal and color "urst are
contained $ithin the same channel $idth. ,ig l a and 1 " sho$s the composite signal details
of three different lines each corresponding to a different "rightness le'el of the "lack and
$hite scene, the 'ideo signal is constrained to 'ary "et$een certain amplitude limits. (hen
the picture is transmitted the maximum $hite to "e handled is referred as peak $hite le'el.
+his is fixed at 13 to 12.5 percent of the maximum signal 'alue as indicated in ,ig 1 ", the
"lack le'el corresponds to a"out @2 percent sync pulses are added at @5 percent le'el called
as "lanking le'el.
389
+he difference "et$een the "lack le'el and the "lanking le'el is kno$n as pedestal. +hus the
picture information may 'ary "et$een 13 percent to a"out @5 percent of the composite signal
depending upon the relati'e "rightness of the picture at any instant. +he darker the picture
the higher $ill "e the 'oltage $ith in those limits, #n order to minimi8e noise effects. *1
component of 'ideo signal is an a'erage 'alue or *1 component corresponding to a'erage
"rightness of the scene. +he *1 'alue is for the complete frame rather than line since the
picture indicates the "rightness of the scene. /edestal height is the distance "et$een the
pedestal le'el and the a'erage 'alue <*1 le'el= axis of the signal. #t indicates ho$ much
a'erage 'alue differs from the "lack le'el. .lanking pulses makes the retrace lines in'isi"le.
+he 'ideo detector supplies composite color signal to "oth, the >M> channel and color decoder
through a "uffer amplifier. +he luminance signal at the output of M channel and the 7 and 6
signals at the output of /-5 decoder com"ine in the matrixing circuit to produce &, 9 and .
color dri'e signals. +he use of a delay line in the Mchannel ena"les exact time
correspondence of color and "rightness information of picture elements. +he automatic
fre0uency tuning <-,+= ensure exact #, outputs from the tuner. +his is necessary to keep the
encoded chroma signal that is located at the upper end of channel, $ithin the pass "and #.,
amplifiers. - typical reference #++ 1ircuit of a 'ision #, section is sho$n in 1hart 1. #t has
follo$ing stages:
i. #, preamplifier stage using #1233 <251433=%
ii. (a'etraps stage using 2urface -coustic (a'e ,ilter ,231 <2-( 1@3=% and
iii. #, amplifiers and 'ideo detector stage using #1231 <+*- 4423=.
I% $!e5Am&liie!
+he #, signals from output of &, tuner stage is applied at pin 5 of #1233 'ia coil 1231 and
capacitors 1232 and 1233. +he coil 5231 is tuned at 3;.A !48, i.e., the fre0uency of desired
390
channel 'ideo #, signal. +his #, preamplifier stage is necessary in #, amplifiers using 2-(
,ilter "ecause of the attenuation caused "y the sa$ filters. +he #1 251433 has ; pins dualin
line. +he *1 supply 'oltage is applied at pin 1 and 4 from a 12.?6 supply. +he pin ? is
connected to negati'e terminal of supply <ground=. +he amplified output of #1 251433 is
a'aila"le "et$een pins 2 and 3. ,rom here signal is applied "et$een pins 4 and 2 of
2-(1@3. +he tuner -91 control 'oltage is also proportional to signal strength at pin. 3. ,rom
pin 3, it is applied at "ase of L/L transistor +231 'ia capacitor 1234 and diode *233. +he
-91 control 'oltage for &, tuner is taken from collector of transistor +231.
Sa+ ilte!
!any +6 recei'ers employ 2urface -coustic (a'e ,ilter <2-(= in 'ision #, section to replace
the $a'e traps 51 circuit. +he use of 2-( filter pro'ides ideal "and pass characteristics and
eliminates the cum"ersome and time consuming alignment. 2urface -coustic (a'e ,ilter
<2-(= is a ne$ fre0uency selecti'e de'ice $hich can replace the tuned 51 circuit. #t has no
inducti'e or capaciti'e parts. +hese are manufactured to pro'ide exactly the re0uired
response and $hich need no adjustment at all during the $orking life of the recei'er in $hich
it is put.
2-( filter pro'ides 4? d" and 43 d" attenuation at 31.A !48 and 43.4 !48 respecti'ely as
sho$n in ,ig 2. +hese are fre0uencies of upper adjacent channel 'ision #, and lo$er adjacent
channel sound #,. +he pass "and also suffers attenuation. +he loss is of the order of 15 d".
+his is comparati'ely higher than that in case of tuned 51 circuits. +his loss is compensated
"y using additional #, preamplifier stage <#1233=.
I% am&liie!s an# :i#eo #etecto!
391
,rom output of 2-( filter <pins 5 and 1=, the #f signals are applied "et$een pins 1 and 1; of
#1 231 <+*-4423=. +his is an 1; pin dualinline #1. +his #1 +*-4423 incorporates #,
amplifiers, 'ideo detector and stage for separating composite 'ideo signal from ne$ sound #,
at 5.5 !48. +he internal "lock diagram of the #1 is sho$n in ,ig 3
+he output composite color 'ideo signal is taken from pin 13 and is passed through a 5.5
!48 ceramic trap ,233. ,rom here the 'ideo signal is applied at "ase of transistor +;?3
<.123;.=. +he sound #, signal at 5.5 !48 is a'aila"le from pin 14 of +*-4423. ,rom here
the signal is passed through a ceramic filter ,232. +his filter is a tuned circuit at 5.5 !48.
,rom here the sound #, signal is applied at "ase of #1. +he *1 supply 'oltage is applied at
pin 15 of +*-4423 from a 12.?6 supply 'ia coil 5213. +he negati'e terminal of supply is
connected to pin 3 <ground=.
/in details of #1 +*- 4423
392
393
394
395
SO)N' SYSTEM O% A COLO)R T: RECEI:ER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the important "locks of a sound system
2. Explain the functions of the indi'idual "locks
3. Explain the use and ad'antage of ceramic filter
4. Explain the *1 'olume control.
396
+he functions of the sound section of the color +6 recei'er are the same as those of a "lack
and$hite +6 recei'er. +hey are
+o amplify the intercarrier sound #, <5.5 !48=
+o limit and detect the fre0uency modulated sound #,, and
+o amplify the output of the detector to a le'el sufficient to dri'e the
loudspeaker.
+he sound section can utili8e an #1 in the sound #, su"system and another in the sound
output section, or a single #1 for the complete sound section, or an #1 in the sound #,
su"system $ith a transistori8ed sound output stage.
+his stage employs a 12pin dualinline #1 +*-1@31 a sho$n in ,ig 1. +a"s "et$een pins 3
and 4 in one ro$ and "et$een pins A and 13 in second ro$ are connected to ground. +his
forms heat sink for the #1. +he #1 +*-1@31 incorporates sound #, amplifiers, ,! detector
circuit, audio preamplifier and audio output stage. -s sho$n in the "lock diagram ,ig 2.
+he actual reference #++ circuit diagram of a sound section is gi'en in 1hart 1.
+he 5.5 !48 inter carrier sound #, signal from pin 14 of +*-4423 is passed, through a
ceramic filter ,232 tuned at 5.5!48. 1eramic filters are small in si8e and are "etter than
397
circuits employing coils and capacitors. 1eramic filters do not re0uire any alignment and can
"e mass produced at a 'ery cheap rate. +he inter carrier sound #, signal 5.5!48 is applied at
pin 1 of +*-1@31 'ia capacitor 1222. +he sound #, signal gets necessary amplification and
is fed to ,! detector circuit inside the #1. +he internal circuit "et$een pins 4 and 5 and
external components 1225, 122? and 523A form ,! detector stage.
+he detected audio signal from output to ,! detector is amplified "y audio preamplifier
stage and finally dri'es audio output stage. +he audio output signal is a'aila"le at pin A and is
fed to speaker 'ia capacitor 122A. +he audio output signal for recording is taken from pin 3
'ia resistor &233. +he tone control circuit is connected to pin 12. +he 20uelch 1ircuit is
connected to pin 2. +he 'olume control is joined to pin ? 'ia resistor &235. +he s0uelch circuit
mute the audio output during the a"sence of 'ideo signal to pre'ent the un$anted noise
$hen there is no 'ideo signal. ,or example if the transmission of the signal is interrupted due
to po$er at the transmitter the recei'ersZ audio le'el $ill "ecome 8ero. +his $ill automatically
come "ack to its set le'el once the transmission is restored.
*etails of the #1 1@31 used in the sound section
398
399
SYNC SE$ARATOR4 A%C AN' .ORIBONTAL OSCILLATOR
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 2tate the use of sync separator, -,1, hori8ontal oscillator section in a +6
2. 2tate the functions of the #1 +*-1A43,
3. !ention the input signal sources to the #1 +*-1A43,
4. !ention the output signals from this stage and their target
5. Explain flo$ of signal through different stages in the #1.
400
Television &ictu!e
+ele'ision picture elements are created in frames "y means of scanning process. +o present
the picture smooth and continuous the characteristic called persistence of 'ision is employed.
(hen ner'es of the eyes retina are stimulated "y incident light, the stimulation persists for
1/1?
th
of a second e'en after the remo'al of the stimulation. +hus if the scanning rate per
second is more than sixteen the eye is a"le to integrate the change in le'el of "rightness.
4ence $hen picture elements are scanned rapidly enough, they appear to the eye as
complete picture.
Scanning
2canning is a process in +6 $here the electron "eam <spot= is made to mo'e o'er the entire
area of the screen from left to right and up and do$n as $e read a text on a "ook. +he left to
right mo'ement of the "eam is called as hori8ontal scanning and top to "ottom mo'ement is
called 'ertical scanning. ?25 line hori8ontal scanning, one "elo$ the other constitutes one
frame or a picture. 25 such frame is created in duration of a second to create the illusion of
continuous motion.
Inte!lace# scanning
#n tele'ision pictures an effecti'e rate of 53 'ertical scan per second is utili8ed to reduce
flicker. +his is accomplished "y increasing the do$n$ard rate of tra'el of the scanning
electron "eam, so that e'ery alternati'e line gets instead of e'ery successi'e line.. (hen the
"eam reaches the "ottom of picture frame it 0uickly returns to the top to scan those lines that
$ere missed in the pre'ious scanning thus the total num"er of lines are di'ided in to t$o
groups called fields. Each field is scanned alternately. +his method of scanning is called
interlaced scanning as sho$n in ,ig 1, it reduces flicker to an accepta"le le'el since the area
of screen is co'ered at t$ice the rate. +his is like reading alternate lines of page from top to
"ottom once and the going "ack to read the remaining lines do$n to the "ottom.
401
#n tele'isions the num"er of frames per second has "een chosen as 25 <in motion picture it is
24 frames/second= to make the field fre0uency e0ual to the po$er line fre0uency of 53 48.
+his helps to reduce undesired effects due to any pick up from the mains.
.o!iEontal scanning
,ig 2 sho$s the trace and retrace of se'eral hori8ontal lines. +he linear rise of current in the
hori8ontal line deflection coils ,ig 3 deflects the "eam across the screen $ith a continuous
uniform motion for the trace from left to right. -t the peak of its rise the sa$ tooth $a'es
re'erses its direction and decreases rapidly to its initial position. +he fast re'ersal produces
the retrace or fly"ack. +he start of hori8ontal trace is at the left edge of raster. +he finish is at
the right edge and then the fly "ack produces retrace "ack to left edge. #n ,ig 3 that UupU on
the sa$ tooth $a'e corresponds to hori8ontal deflection to the right the hea'y lines in fig1
indicate useful scanning time and dashed lines correspond to the retrace time.
+he composite color signal from emitter of +;?3 <.123;.= is applied to pin 11 of +*-1A43,
'ia resistor &?33. +he +*- 1A43 , is a 1; pin dualinline #1 incorporates sync separator,
hori8ontal oscillator and oscillator phase control circuit <-,1= the "lock diagram of the #1 is
gi'en in ,ig 4. +here is also the pro'ision to s$itch off the s0uelch circuit <muting circuit as
$ell as a time constant s$itch on for 61& operation=. +he circuit diagram of sync separator,
-,1 and hori8ontal oscillator using #1 +*-1A43, is sho$n in 1hart 1.
402
- typical reference #++ circuit diagram of a sync separator, -,1, hori8ontal oscillator section
is sho$n in 1hart 1. #nside +*-1A43, 'ertical sync pulses are separated from composite
color signal. +he 'ertical sync pulses are a'aila"le at pin A. +hese are integrated "y lo$ pass
filter &?3? and 1?33, and the 5348 integrated pulses are applied to pin 5 of the 'ertical
section #1 +*-1;@3. +he external circuit at pin ? and pin 13 of #1 control the fre0uency and
phase of hori8ontal oscillator. +he resistor &?11 is 'aria"le and $orks as hori8ontal hold. +he
'oltage from centre point of &?11 decides "ias 'oltage of pin 13. +he styroflex condenser
1?35 <13kpf= connected at pin 15 determines the fre0uency of #1sinternalhori8ontal
oscillator. +he @36 hori8ontal fly"ack pulse from hori8ontal output are applied at pin 3 of +*-
1A43,. +hese fly"ack pulses are taken from pin ? of hori8ontal output transformer. +he "urst
"lanking pulses are a'aila"le from pin 4 and is sent to color decoder circuit for processing of
color signal. +hese composite pulses are also called sandcastle pulses, "ecause of its shape.
#t is a t$ole'el pulse $hich is used to gate the color "urst pulses and to operate the /-5
s$itch flipflop. +he s$itching transistor +?31 <.133;-= for muting circuit is controlled "y
output from pin @. +his /L/ transistor gets collector "ias from a O12.56 supply a'aila"le from
line output section. +he hori8ontal deflection current at 15?25 48 is a'aila"le from pin 2 of #1
+*-1A43,. +his deflection current is "locked automatically, in case mains 'oltage "ecomes
too lo$. +he #1 re0uires 12.?6 for operation at pin 14. Legati'e terminal of supply is
connected to pin 1 <ground=. +he supply 'oltage is a'aila"le from 236 supply deri'ed directly
from main supply, through resistor &?3? and transistor +?32 <.123;-=. +he transistor +?32
forms the start circuit. (hen hori8ontal output section is operating, pin 14 gets 'oltage from
12.?6 a'aila"le from hori8ontal output. +he 'oltage is applied at pin 14 through coil 5?31 and
diode *?34. +his 'oltage is also applied at emitter of +?32. (hen the 'oltage at emitter of
+?32 "ecomes more then 'oltage at "ase of +?32, i.e., emitter"ase junction gets re'erse
"ias and transistor +?32 stops conduction. +hus pin 14 gets 12.56 supply from, hori8ontal
output section. +he diode *?34 a'oids an e'entual increase current operation.
403
404
405
.ORIBONTAL O)T$)T SECTION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the use of hori8ontal output section in a +6
2. Explain the functions of the s$itching transistor
3. 2tate 'arious outputs from E4+ transformer
4. 2tate the input signal to the 4ori8ontal output section
5. 2tate the output signals from this stage and their target
?. Explain flo$ of signal through different stages in the "lock.
406
E.T /E7t!a -ig- tension voltage1 o! Colou! $ictu!e Tubes
+he method of generating E4+ potential, as used in monochrome recei'ers "y an o'er $ind
on the 5.).+ is not satisfactory "eyond 1? k6 "ecause of pro"lems like flash o'er, high
impedance and poor regulation. +ill recently a 'oltage tripler arrangement $as used to o"tain
near 25 k6 for the final accelerator. +his needs many high 'oltage capacitors and se'eral
diodes. #t has no$ "een superseded "y $hat is kno$n as the >diode split addition> techni0ue.
2/5#+ -**#+#)L> is illustrated in ,ig1 $here three layers of secondary $indings are sho$n
$ound round the ferroxide core of the 5.).+. (hile the three sections are sho$n separately,
in actual practice these are $ound one a"o'e the other and are thus concentric. Each
$inding is identical to the other and has the same num"er of turns. +he same magnitude of
'oltage $ill therefore "e induced in each section e'ery time the fly"ackderi'ed input pulse
gets applied to the primary $inding.
.ecause of the close proximity of indi'idual layers, an interlayer capacitance exists "et$een
each of them. #t is indicated in the diagram "y capacitors in dottedchain form "ecause these
are no physical capacitors. #f a diode is connected "et$een the end of one layer of $inding
and the start of the next, the -1 'oltages induced in each layer can "e made to charge up all
the interlayer capacitance>s to the same 'oltage. 2ince the capacitance>s are effecti'ely in
series, the total 'oltage appearing at the output terminal is the sum of all the 'oltages
appearing across all of them. +he diodes sho$n connected in series "et$een the layers are
physically em"edded in the $indings and form an integral part of the transformer. +he three
$indings are so designed that 'oltage induced in each layer form the fly"ack transformer is
;.33 k6. +his makes the total potential e0ual to 25 k6 and forms the E4+ supply source. #n
some designs, four layers of $indings are used and each layer pro'ides a 'oltage e0ual to
?.;k6.
%i!st Ano#e /3<1 $otential
-s sho$n in 1hart, fly"ack pulses for o"taining potential for the screen grid are o"tained
separately from the collector connection of output transistor. +hese are rectified "y a separate
diode and filtered "y capacitor $hich has a 'ery high 'oltage rating. +he output is a *1
'oltage that ranges from 553 to ;33 'olts. +he ad'antages of deri'ing 'oltage for screen grid
in this $ay, instead of directly from the line output transformer is that the screen of picture
tu"e is automatically protected from ha'ing a 'ertical line "urnt into it in the e'ent of line
scanning coils "ecoming open circuited. -ny failure of screen grid potential means no "eam
current and hence no spot is produced on the screen. #t may "e recalled that a similar guard
407
circuit protects the tu"e screen from hori8ontal line "urn in the e'ent of a loss of 'ertical
deflection current. - potentiometer of the preset type is al$ays used to adjust screen grid
'oltage for optimum "rightness.
%ocus Ano#e $otential
+he focus potential re0uired for the third grid <focus= <93= of a color picture tu"e usually lies
in the range of ?.5k6 to @.5k6. #t is o"tained from first of the three diodes of the diodesplit
$inding circuit just explained. 2ince each stage produces potential in excess of ; k6, it is
suita"le for feeding a potential di'ider to o"tain necessary *1 'oltage. +he potentiometer as
sho$n in 1hart is the focus control. +he purpose of using large resistance 'alues in the
di'ider net$ork is to sta"ili8e the magnitude of current flo$ through the potential di'ider and
thus reduce any 'oltage changes $hich might "e caused in the E4+ and focus potentials "y
sharp 'ariations in "rightness of the scene at the studio. 2ome +6 recei'ers achie'e sta"ility
of focus "y using a 'oltage dependent resistance <6*&= instead of a potentiometer for
connecting 'oltage to focus grid.
-s is $ell kno$n, a 6*& offers high resistance to a steady *1 current "ut a lo$ resistor to
small changes in such a current. +he small changes in current flo$ through the focus control
net$ork that may "e caused "y 'ariations in temperature or in scene "rightness $ill,
therefore, ha'e a negligi"le defocusing effect on the , displayed picture "ecause of the lo$
'oltage de'eloped across corresponding lo$ resistance of the 6*&. +he hori8ontal oscillator
in the gi'en reference #.+.+ color +6 recei'er circuit is incorporated in +*-1A43,, the "lock
diagram of #1 +*-1A43, is gi'en in ,ig 2. +he 15?2548 hori8ontal deflection current is
a'aila"le from pin 2 of the #1 and is fed to hori8ontal output stage. - typical reference #++
circuit diagram of the hori8ontal output stage is sho$n in 1hart. +his stage uses t$o
transistors 1@14 and 1@1?. +he L/L transistor +@14 <.,3A3= $orks as hori8ontal dri'er and
the L/L transistor +@1? <.723;*= $ork as hori8ontal output. +he transistor .723;* has an
integrated diode "et$een the collector and emitter, "ecause of that the suffix e*> has "een
added. +hus, the transistor .723;* cannot "e su"stituted "y the transistor .723;. +he
hori8ontal output transistor +@1? $orks as a line s$itch $ith integrated energy reco'ery
diode. +he 15?25 48 hori8ontal deflection current from pin 2 of #1 +*-1A43, is fed to "ase of
408
hori8ontal dri'er +@14 through &?2;, &@33 and 1@23 and &@2@. +his L/L transistor
amplifier $orks in common emitter configuration. +he collector "ias 'oltage is a'aila"le 'ia
primary of hori8ontal dri'er transformer +r@12 from a O1156 supply deri'ed from the main
supply. +he "ase "ias is a'aila"le from a O236 supply also deri'ed directly from 2!/2. +he
transistor +@14 is operated as an electronic s$itch. #t is triggered into conduction "y positi'e
pulses applied at its "ase from the line oscillator stage. +he triggering occurs <s$itchon=
exactly at line fre0uency. (hen +@14 conducts, the 'oltage across its collector and emitter
are at nearearth potential. .ut at s$itch off state, the collector 'oltage rises to a"out the
supply 'oltage <1156=. +he amplified signal is a'aila"le at collector of +@14 and is applied to
"ase of transistor 1@1? 'ia dri'er transformer +r@12, and coil 5@12. +he 1oil 5@12 smoothen
the "ase s$itch current. +he transformer +r@12 is designed to match the high output
impedance of +@14 to the lo$ impedance of "ase circuit of +@1?. +he line output transistor
1@1? is operated as an electronic s$itch. +he collector "ias 'oltage for 1@1? is made
a'aila"le from 1156 through coil 5531 and line output transformer +r531. +he output current
from collector of +@1? is fed to deflection coils directly 'ia coil 5@13. 2ince the output
impedance of hori8ontal deflection coil is lo$, the transistor can control the deflection. +he
capacitor 151; in parallel $ith series com"ination of &512, 5532 and 151@ pro'ides proper
$a'e shaping. ,rom collector of transistor +@1?, hori8ontal deflection fre0uency is also
applied at pin ; of line output transformer +r531 as sho$n in the circuit. 4igh 'oltage of the
order of 23F6 is applied at final anode of picture tu"e. +he transformer +r531 pro'ides focus
'oltage for picture tu"e. +he 'oltage at pin 1 of 1&+ is ?.; k6 and is a'aila"le from
transformer +r531 'ia focus control pot &1331 and resistor &1334.
3ene!ation o E.T
+he method of E4+ production, employed in this circuit, is called *iode2plit-ddition. +his is
the latest method of E4+ production and has many special features like greater relia"ility,
smaller si8e, and lo$er cost. +he secondary of +r531 has three layers of $indings $ound
separately on top of one another. Each $inding is identical to the other t$o% therefore, the
same magnitude of 'oltage $ill "e induced in each layer of $inding. *iode is connected
"et$een the end of one layer of $inding and start of the next. +he diodes connected in series
"et$een the layers are physically em"edded in the secondary $indings of the transformer.
+hese "uilt in diodes are integral part of the transformer. +he three indi'idual layers of
secondary $inding are in close proximity. #nterlayer capacitance exists "et$een the layers.
+he interlayercapacitors are effecti'ely in series. +hus the total 'oltage appearing at the
output terminal <connected to final anode of 1&+= is sum of 'oltage appearing across each
interlayer capacitor. +he four separate $indings are so designed so that the 'oltage induced
in each layer from the fly"ack pulses applied to secondary is ?.; k6. .ecause of diode in
series, $ith the four $indings, the interlayer capacitances are charged to the same 'oltage.
+hus the output 'oltage is a"out 25k6. 6oltage for filament of picture tu"e is a'aila"le from
pin 12 of +r+531 and is applied at pin 4 of picture tu"e 'ia fusi"le resistor &513. -nother
filament pin no.5 of 1&+ is grounded. #n the hori8ontal output section, auxiliary 'oltage of
O1536, O256, O12.?6 and O12.56 are also a'aila"le. +he O1536 supply <marked 6#= is
o"tained from pin @ of transformer +r531 and rectified "y diode *534 and filtered "y capacitor
153?. +he O25 6 supply is o"tained from pin 11 of transformer +r531 are rectified "y diode *
53; and filtered "y capacitor 1515. +he output of pin A of the transformer +r531 is rectified "y
diode *53@ and filtered "y capacitor 1513. - O1@6 is a'aila"le across 1513. +his 'oltage is
applied at pin 1 of #1 +**1?132, $hich $orks more or less like a 12.?6 8ener diode. ,rom
pin 3 of +**1?132, supply 'oltages of O12.?6 <marked 6= and O12.5 <marked 6###= are
o"tained. ,rom pin ? of +r531, @36 positi'e going fly"ack pulses are applied to pin 3 of +*-
409
1A43,. +hese pulses are employed inside the #1 to control the fre0uency and phase of $a'e
generated "y hori8ontal oscillator. +he 'oltage at pin ; of +r531 is rectified "y rectifier diodes
*532 and *533 <2 x 2E 15A= and filtered "y capacitor 1532. - 'oltage of the order of O;336
is a'aila"le at cathode of diode *533. +his is the "oost supply. &esistors &534, &535 and
&53? from a potential di'ider circuit across this supply. ,rom centre of &53? <'oltage range
4336 to ;336= the 'oltage is applied at grid 2 <pin ;= of 1&+ 'ia resistors &53A and &1333.
+he preset &53? is employed to adjust the maximum "rightness of the raster.
410
411
$ROCESSIN3 O% :I'EO SI3NAL
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the functions of the #1 +*- 35?1
2. 5ist the input signal sources to the #1 +*- 35?1
3. 5ist the output signals from this stage and their target
4. Explain flo$ of signal through different stages in the #1.
412
Y5signal c-annel
+he foundation on $hich the full color picture gets "uilt is the luminance or "lack and $hite
image. *uring monochrome reception or $hen the color control is turned to 8ero, only a
negati'e going M signal gets applied at the three cathodes of color picture tu"e. +he
reproduced picture is then a neutral that is "lack and $hite image. +o o"tain full luminous
resolution of the M amplifier, a notch filter <trap= turned to reject 4.43 !48 is generally inserted
in the Mamplifier chain.
Luminance #ela" line
2ince the M signal path is $ide"and that extends least up to 4 !48 and that of the chroma
signal is narro$"and restricted to nearly 1.5 !48 a relati'e time delay occurs $hile the t$o
signals pass through their respecti'e amplifiers. +he color signal is delayed or says the M
signal arri'es a "it too soon $ith respect to &, 9 and . signals. +herefore the M signal needs
to "e delayed so that "rightness and color information are reproduced at the same time for
any element of the picture. .ased on the "and$idths of the t$o channels, the necessary time
delay is approximately ?3p2, is pro'ided "y the. *elay line constructed on the principle of
distri"uted 51element is inserted in "et$een the t$o 'ideo amplifiers.
Cont!ast an# b!ig-tness
1ontrast in the picture can "e 'aried "y changing amplitude of the Msignal. 2imilarly, a'erage
"rightness of the scene can "e changed "y increasing or decreasing steady *1 component
of the M signal. +his pro'ision is made in the output circuit of 2nd 'ideo amplifier.
C-!oma #eco#e!
+he "lock diagram of /-5* decoder is sho$n in ,ig 1. )ther important "locks of the decoder
are the reference oscillator to generate 4.433?1;@5 !48 1( output at the su"carrier
fre0uency, "urst gate and discriminator circuit for fre0uency control, "urst gdent circuit for 6
channel s$itching and color killer circuit to "lock the chroma channel during the "lock and
$hite receptions. +he main function of chroma or color decoder is to reco'er 7 and 6 color
difference signals $hich are later com"ined $ith M to o"tain &, 9 and . 'ideo signals. ,or
this the decoder has to perform the follo$ing function
1. 1hroma signal separation and amplification.
2. 2eparation of 7 and 6 phasors "y employing delay line techni0ue.
413
3. *emodulation of 7 and 6 phasors to reco'er color difference signals.
4. 9eneration of suita"le su"carriers for the t$o demodulators.
5. +o de'elop U#ndentU signal for 6 channel s$itching and "ias 'oltage for color killer circuit.
-ll modern recei'er% employ an #1 in the chroma section to carryout the a"o'e functions, also
perform matrixing function and deli'er &, 9 and . signals directly as its output.
-s sho$n in ,ig 2 the chroma signal and color "urst are separated from the incoming
composite color 'ideo signal "y the chroma signal selection circuit )n separation, the <time
and "urst signals are amplified "y the first chroma amplifier, $hich is again controlled "y the
*1 'oltage de'eloped "y the automatic chroma control <-11= amplifier.
+he output from the 1st chroma amplifier goes to "oth the second chroma amplifier and "urst
preamplifier. +he second chroma amplifier incorporates color saturation control circuit. +he
output of color killer also feeds into it. +he output of 2nd amplifier stage is fed to the /-5
delay line and also simultaneously addition and su"traction circuits. 1hrominance signal
a'aila"le at the output of delay line circuitry consists of t$o suppressed carrier amplitude
modulated components designated 7 and 6. +hese corresponds to the t$o color difference
signals $ith 0uadrature modulation, ha'e a phase difference of .tA3E at any instant $ith
respect to each other. +hus, $hen one is passing through its positi'e or negati'e peak, the
other is passing through 8ero. - "asic synchronous demodulation circuit arrangement is
suita"le for 7 signal demodulation. +he 6 demodulator functions in the same $ay as far the 7
demodulator except that the input chroma signal is A3E out of phase $ith the 7 signal and its
polarity re'erses on alternate lines. +hus the reference su"carrier fed to it is also shifted "y
A3E and re'ersed in phase on successi'e lines "y a 1;3E electronic s$itch that is
synchroni8ed "y the indent signal de'eloped from the "urst synchronous pulses. +he 7
modulation product on separation is fed to the 7 demodulator and 6 to the 6 demodulator.
+he generated color su"carrier fre0uency of 4.433?1;@5 !48 is controlled "y "urst phase
discriminator, $hich is sensiti'e to "urst pulse only. #t is designed to detect any difference
$hich might exist "et$een the phase of "urst pulse and that of the reference oscillator. #t
produces at its output *1 'oltage, $hose magnitude and polarity are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the detected phase difference. +he control circuit is represented
"y the -/1 loop in the "lock diagram. - second output from the gated "urst amplifier is
con'erted to a *1 'oltage "y a rectifier circuit and then fed to the -11 amplifier. +he
magnitude of the 'oltage so fed "ack is proportional to the amplitude of chroma signal. #t is
used to control gain of the first stage of chroma amplifier in such a $ay as to ensure constant
chroma signal amplitude at its output. -nother output from the "urst phase discriminator is
fed to a circuit $hich is a"le to identify phase relationship of the color "urst, $hich ena"les
the decoder to differentiate "et$een 7 and 6 signals. )ne of the outputs of "urst phase
identification circuit is used to control operation of the 1;3E electronic s$itch $hich
periodically in'erts the $a'eform fed from the reference oscillator to the 6 signal
demodulator. #t is important to note that this s$itching is done in the correct phase and in
synchronous $ith a similar s$itching operation of the transmitting end and hence the need for
such a circuit. +he second output of ./# net$ork is fed to the color killer circuit. #t produces a
steady *1 potential from the succession of "urst pulses. +his *1 potential is fed to the
second chroma amplifier to keep it operati'e there"y allo$ing the chroma signal to reach the
t$o demodulators. (hen a monochrome picture is "eing transmitted, the "urst pulses are
missing $hich results in no *1 potential a'aila"le for 2nd chroma amplifier, and hence 2
nd
chroma amplifier is inhi"ited <"locked=. +he ad'antage of this is that color noise $ill "e pre
'ented from appearing on the picture tu"e screen $hen a "lack and $hite picture is "eing
recei'ed. )n o"taining 7 and 6 color difference signals as outputs from the decoder and M
414
signal from the luminance channel it is no$ necessary to de'ise means for dri'ing the picture
tu"e electrodes $ith appropriate color 'oltages. +his in'ol'es t$ostage matrixing first to
extract <9M= from 7 and 6 signals and second to o"tain &, 9 and . signals for feeding
corresponding guns in he picture tu"e. #n &9. matrix arrangement the color difference
signals are com"ined $ith Min the dri'er amplifier in such a $ay that the outputs are &, 9 and
. 'ideo signals. +hese are negati'e going and of sufficient amplitude to dri'e cathodes of
picture tu"e directly. #n the latest chroma #1s all functions including matrixing and pre
amplification of &, 9 and . signals are done $ithin the integrated module. +he dri'e
amplifiers simply amplify these signals for feeding to the cathodes of color guns. +he raster
forming circuits of a color recei'er are same as in "lack and $hite recei'er. (ith the more
common use of integrated circuits to generate dri'es for the deflecting coils, the synchronous
separator is a part of an #1 $here the composite 'ideo signal is sliced to separate
synchronous information. +he pulse train thus o"tained is suita"ly shaped "efore feeding to
the 'ertical deflection section and -,1 circuit in the line dri'e section. +he 'ertical oscillator
can "e a multi'i"rator, "locking oscillator. +he dri'er has lineari8ation and 'ertical height
circuitry. +he output stage is a part of the #1 or a discrete type amplifier. +he amplifier also
feeds 'ertical "lanking pulses to the dri'e circuitry. (hen compared $ith 'ertical section, the
design and mode of operation of hori8ontal deflection circuit is 0uite different. +he -,1 and
oscillator circuits of #1 'ersions form part of the same #1 that has corresponding 'ertical
deflection circuits. #n some recent #1s for the deflection section the hori8ontal oscillator is of
the 61) type, $ith clock oscillator operating at 31.253 F48 pro'ides line fre0uency of 15?25
48 after a di'ision "y 2, and 'ertical fre0uency of 53 48 "y a chain of "inary di'ider circuit.
2ince hori8ontal and 'ertical scanning fre0uencies are deri'ed from the same source $hich is
locked $ith the incoming synchronous pulses "y the -,1 circuit, no hori8ontal or 'ertical
controls are necessary. +he main #1 of this stage has 'arious "locks such as chroma
-mplifier, luminance amplifier, and saturation color control etc. $hich are sho$n in ,ig 1.
- typical reference #++ circuit of 'ideo signal processing is gi'en in chart: 1 and explained
"elo$.
+he composite color 'ideo signal from pin 13 of +*-4423 is applied to "ase of transistor
+;?3 <.123;.= 'ia resistor &215% a 5.5 !48 trap circuit formed "y &24@, 523; and ceramic
filter ,233 and resistor &;52. +he transistor +;?3 $orks as emitter follo$er and its main
function is impedance matching. +his L/L transistor gets collector "ias from a 12.56 supply
and emitter "ias is de'eloped across series resistors &;?3 and &;?2. +he 'ideo signal
reaches the "ase of transistor +;?3 <.123;.= 'ia &;52, 1;51, 1;52, &;53 and1;54. 4ere
1;51 and 5;51 and 1;52 and 5;52 from t$o stages of high pass filter. ,urther coil 5;53 and
1;53 form a trap circuit for lo$ fre0uency 'ideo signals. +hus only chroma 'ideo signals <i.e.,
4.43!48 modulated signals=, reach "ase of +;?3. ,rom emitter of +;?3 chroma signal
de'eloped across &;5? is applied at pin 3 of /-5 color decoder #1 +*-35?1 'ia decoupling
capacitor 1;5@. +he transistor +;?3also gets collector "ias from a 12.56 supply. +he "ase
"ias is pro'ided "y potential di'ider arrangement &;54 and &;?5. +he emitter "ias is
de'eloped across resistor &;5?.
2econdly, the 'ideo signal reaches pin 13 of +*-35?1 'ia &;?3, &;?3, &;?4, M5;?3 and
1;?5. 4ere capacitor 1;?3 and coil 5;?3 form at 4.43 !48 color su"carrier trap. +hus only
Msignal or luminance signal reaches the delay line, M5;?3 <*5133@5=. +he delay line
pro'ides ?3ps delay to the Msignal. -s already discussed, the delay line is re0uired for t$o
main reasons, <a= the 1hrominance signal has to pass through relati'ely complex circuit of
the decoder "efore reaching picture tu"e and is thus fractionally delayed as compared to M
signal, and <"= the "and$idth of Msignal is more than 1hrominance signal. Larro$er
415
"and$idth signals al$ays lag the $ider "and$idth signals.
$AL colo! #eco#e! /T'A 2IH;1
+he #1 +*-35?1 is a monolithic integrated color decoder for the /-5 standard. #t com"ines
all functions re0uired for the identification and demodulation of /-5 signals. ,urthermore, it
contains a luminance amplifier, an &9. matrix and amplifier. +hese amplifiers supply &, 9
and . output signals up to 56 peaktopeak <picture information signals &, 9, .= ena"ling
direct dri'e of output stages. +he chroma input signal at 4.43 !48 is fed at pin 3 of #1
+*-35?1 as sho$n in chart1. +he chroma signal is coupled to the input pin 3 'ia capacitor
1;5@. +he amplitude of signal should "e "et$een 55m6 to 133m6 peaktopeak. +he
luminance input signal ha'ing peaktopeak amplitude of 3.456 is coupled to input pin 13 'ia
a capacitor 1;?5. +he output signals from #1 are &, 9 and . 'ideo signals, a'aila"le from
pins 12, 14 and 1? respecti'ely. +hese output signals are 2.56 56 for nominal input signals
and control settings. +he functions of 'arious pins of +*-35?1 are descri"ed "elo$.
$in ;0 ;<: &o+e! su&&l": +he #1 can "e operated from a supply 'oltage range "et$een ;6
and 13.26. +he supply 'oltage used in #.+.+. <9erman= +6 recei'er is 12.56 and is applied
"et$een pin 1 and 2@. +he current taken "y de'ice at 12.56 is typically ;;m-.
$in <0 Cont!ol voltage o! i#entiication: +he pin 2 re0uires a detection capacitor of 333kpf
<1;A?= for correct operation. +he 'oltage a'aila"le at nominal input signal is 56.
$in 20 C-!ominance in&ut: +he chroma input signal a'aila"le from emitter of +;5? is
coupled 'ia capacitor 1;5@.
$in G0 Ree!ence voltage A0C0C0 #etecto!: +he pin 4 is decoupled "y capacitor 1;A5.
$in I0 Cont!ol voltage A0C0C: +he -.1.3 is o"tained "y synchronous detection of the "urst
signal follo$ed "y a peak detector. 9ood noise immunity is o"tained in this $ay and an
increase of the color for $ork input signals is pre'ented. - capacitor 1;A4 is connected
"et$een pin 4 and pin 5.
$in H0 Satu!ation cont!ol: +he saturation control range is in excess of 53d.. +he control
'oltage range is 26 to 46. 2aturation control is a linear function of the control 'oltage. +he
color intensity control is connected to pin ? 'ia resistor &A22.
$in Q0 Cont!ast cont!ol: +he contrast control is connected to pin @ 'ia resistor &A1@. +his
pin gets supply 'oltage from O12.56 'ia resistor &A1?. +he contrast 'oltage range is 23d. for
a control 'oltage from 26 to 46.
$in N0 San#castle an# iel# blan@ing in&ut: +he sandcastle pulse <or color "urst= from pin 4
of +*- 1A43, is applied to pin ;. #f the amplitude of input pulse is "et$een 26 and ?.56, it
indicates that transmission is "lack and $hite. +hen no output signals are a'aila"le at pins
12, 14 and 1?.
#f the amplitude of input pulse at pin ; exceeds a le'el of @.56, the "urst gate and clamping
circuits are acti'ated. +he higher part of sandcastle pulse should start just after the sync
pulse to pre'ent clamping of 'ideo signal on the sync pulse. +he $idth should "e a"out 41.1
for proper -.1.1. operation.
416
$in R0 :i#eo5#ata s+itc-ing: ,or normal operation this pin is connected to the negati'e
supply. #f input pulse "et$een 16 and 26 is applied at pin A, the internal &, 9, . signals are
supplied to the output amplifiers.
$in ;=0 Luminance signal in&ut: +he Msignal of peaktopeak amplitude of 3.456 is coupled
to pin 13 'ia capacitor 1;?5. +he input current is 1 microampere. - 1F ohm luminance delay
line <*5133@5= is inserted in this path so that luminance input impedance is made 'ery high.
1apacitor 1;?3 and coil 5;?3 from 4.43 !48 trap in Msignal line.
$in ;;0 8!ig-tness cont!ol: +he pin 11 gets supply 'oltage from potential di'ider formed "y
&A11, &A13 and &A13 across O12.56 supply. 1ontrol &A13 is "rightness control. .y 'arying
control &A13, the "lack le'el of the &, 9, . outputs can "e set.
$in ;<4 ;G & ;H0 R4 3 & 8 out&uts: +he &, 9 and . 'ideo outputs signals are taken from
pin 12, 14 and 1? respecti'ely. +he signals are then fed to &, 9 and . output amplifiers.
$in ;24 ;I & ;Q0 In&uts o! e7te!nal R4 3 & 8 signals: +he external &, 9 and . signals are
capacitor coupled to pins 13, 15 and 1@ respecti'ely. (hen external signals are not used as
in circuit sho$n=, the coupling capacitors are connected to ground.
$in ;N4 ;R & <=0 8lac@ level clam& ca&acito!s: +he "lack le'el clamp capacitors 1;A1,
1;A2 and 1;A3 for &, 9 and . channels are connected to pins 1;, 1A and 23 respecti'ely.
$in <; & <<0 In&uts /85Y1 an# /R5Y1 #emo#ulato!s: +he input chroma signals to .M and &
M demodulators inside the #1 are automatically fixed to the re0uired le'el. -lso, the "urst
applied differentially to pins 21 and 22, is kept constant "y the -.1.1. <inside #1=, the color
difference signals automatically ha'e the correct 'alue.
$in <2 & <G0 8u!st &-ase #etecto! out&uts: -t these pins the output of the "urst phase
detector <inside #1= is filtered and controls the reference oscillator.
$in <I & <H0 Ree!ence oscillato!: J;@5 is crystal for su"carrier oscillator. +he fre0uency of
oscillator can "e adjusted "y the 'aria"le capacitor 1;@5 and is set at ;.;? !48. ,or
fre0uency adjustment pins 23 and 24 are interconnected. +he fre0uency can "e measured "y
connecting a suita"le fre0uency counter at pin 25.
$in <Q0 Negative te!minal o su&&l": /in 2@ is grounded. Legati'e terminal of supply is also
grounded.
$in <N0 Out&ut o c-!oma am&liie!: .oth "urst and chroma signals are a'aila"le at the
output. +he output signal is typically 1.@6.1oils 5;;1 and 5;;4 are phase delay lines.
417
418
419
:I'EO AM$LI%IER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. Explain the functions of the 'ideo output stage
2. 5ist the input signal sources to the 6ideo output transistor
3. 5ist the output signals from this stage and their target
4. Explain flo$ of signal through the 'ideo amplifier stage
5. 2tate the different controls associated $ith this stage.
420
+he color 'ideo signals &, 9 and . are fed to respecti'e cathodes of the picture tu"e after
one stage of amplification. 6ideo output circuits for each color signal are identical as sho$n in
,ig1. +ransistors A2 /73A3 is used for all the three 'ideo output circuits.
- typical reference #++ circuit of 'ideo amplifier is explained "elo$. +he &, 9 and . chroma
signals from output of #1 +*-35?1 are applied to "ase of respecti'e output amplifier
transistors, as sho$n in 1hart1.+he & signal is applied to "ase of transistor +1314
<A2/73A3=% the 9 signal is applied to "ase of transistor +1321 <A2/73A3= and the . signal is
applied to "ase of +1331 <A2/73A3=. +he & 'ideo output signal from collector of transistor
+1314 is applied to &ed cathode of picture tu"e <pin @= 'ia coil 51311 and resistor &1315.
2imilarly, 9 'ideo output signal from collector of transistor +1321 is applied to 9reen cathode
of picture tu"e <pin A= 'ia coil 51321 and resistor &132A. -lso, . 'ideo output signal from
collector of transistor +1331 is applied to .lue cathode of picture tu"e <pin 3= 'ia coil 51331
and resistor &133A. +$o controls are associated $ith each output amplifier. +he controls
associated $ith & output amplifier are &ed .rightness -djustment control &1311 and &ed
4alftone -djustment control &1315. 2imilarly controls associated $ith 11and . output
amplifiers are &1321 and &1325 and &13 and &1335 respecti'ely. +he 'ideo output
amplifiers are operated from O1536 supply a'aila"le from hori8ontal output section. +he
operating 'oltage for collector of transistors +1311 is a'aila"le from O1536 supply 'ia coil
51331 and resistor &131;. 2imilarly, supply 'oltages for collector of transistors +1321 and
+1331 are a'aila"le from O1536 supply 'ia coil 51331, as $ell as, 'ia resistors &132; and
&133; respecti'ely. +he colour picture tu"e has three separate cathodes <pin @, A and 3= for
applying red, green and "lue 'ideo signals. +he signals from collectors of respecti'e 'ideo
output amplifiers is applied directly to the cathodes i.e., no coupling capacitors are used. -ll
the three control grids of picture tu"e are internally shorted and connected to pin ?. 2imilarly,
all the three screen grids are also internally shorted and connected to pin ;. +he operating
*1 'oltage for screen grid is a'aila"le from hori8ontal output section. -ll the three focus grids
are also internally shorted and connected to pin 1 of 1&+. +he operating 'oltage for focus
grids <pin 1= is also a'aila"le from hori8ontal output section 'ia focus control &1331 and
421
resistor &1334.
422
423
COM$ACT 'ISC $LAYER
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 2tate the physical specification of a 1*
2. Explain the ad'antages of digital recording
3. 2tate the different steps in the manufacturing of the final commercial 1*
4. Explain the principle of reproduction of sound from 1*
5. 5ist the ad'antages of 1* o'er con'entional recording system.
424
Com&act 'isc
-s digital circuits offer almost complete immunity to noise, efforts $ere made to record sound
in digital form. +hese efforts resulted in 'ideo recording disc, called laser 'ision. 4o$e'er,
different countries $ere using different 'ideo systems $hich $ere not compati"le $ith each
other% a 'ideo disc could not "e used internationally. /hilips and 2ony started $orking on a
de'elopment project to record digiti8ed sound only so that the disc could "e used uni'ersally
$ithout the pro"lem of compati"ility. +hese efforts resulted, in the "irth of >compact disc>
system.
O&tical !eco!#ing on #isc
- compact disc contains record of digital audio signals in the form of pits of 1Pm depth and
3.5Pm $idth "ut of 'aria"le length <'arying from 1 Pm to 3 Pm=. /itch of the tracks <separation
"et$een adjacent tracks= is 1.? mm. *imensions are sho$n in ,ig 1.
&ecording is done on a resist master disc <&!*= $ith the help of po$erful laser "eam as
sho$n in ,ig 2. +he laser "eam is modulated "y digiti8ed audio signal. +he audio signal is
sampled at the rate of 44.1 k48. +he 0uantum le'els pertain to 1? "its. +hus the "its per
second are @35,?33. +o these "its are added "its for correction, controlling and modulating
the signals. +he digital input signal is so encoded that $hene'er a 1 appears in the signal, it
causes transition from )L to ),, and ),, to )L. +hese pulses are then made to modulate
the laser "eam in )L),, mode. (hen laser "eam is )L, a pit is formed, and $hen ),,, a
flat is formed. .lock diagram of the recording system is sho$n in ,ig 3. +he laser "eam is
focused and the sharply focused "eam is incident on the master disc.
425
Maste! #isc
+he !aster disc sho$n in ,ig 4 is the original disc on $hich audio signal is first recorded.
+he master disc is made of an optically ground glass disc. +he glass is polished and is
spotlessly clean. #t is coated $ith a photoresist compound. +he coating is 3.12 mm thick and
is distri"uted uniformly. +his is kno$n as &esist !aster *isc <&!*= or simply !aster *isc.
(hen the modulated laser "eam strikes the master disc, it reacts $ith the photoresist. +he
disc is no$ de'eloped "y a process similar to one as in photography. +his results in
microscopic si8e pattern of pits and flats. +he de'eloped master is coated $ith sil'er to make
it electrically conducti'e.
426
%at-e! #isc
+he next step is nickel plating. -fter plating, the nickel is peeled off the master disc and then it
is called >,ather disc>. #t is a negati'e replica of the glass master disc sho$n in ,ig 4.
Mot-e! #isc
,ather disc is again plated and remo'al of the plating produces the mother disc $hich is
identical in form $ith the master disc. 9enerally, ten mother discs are o"tained from a single
master disc. !others are in'erted and cannot "e used for producing final discs.
Son #isc o! stam&e!
+he mother discs are plated <+he third plating in the process= and the plating $hen remo'ed
gi'es son disc or stamper $hich is identical $ith the >,ather disc>. 2e'eral sons can "e
o"tained from a single mother. 2on disc is also called negati'e nickelplated stamper.
Consume! #isc o! inal com&act #isc
1onsumer discs for play"ack are o"tained "y pressing on the son disc. - consumer disc is
made of polycar"onate. - thin layer of aluminium is added to the disc to make it reflecti'e.
+he consumer disc is protected "y adding a transparent layer of lac0uer. &ecording is done
from the centre to$ards edges. - hole is punctured in the centre of the disc. #t is then packed
in a plastic case. *etails of a compact disc are gi'en "elo$
'etails of compact disc
/iameter 6 1$cm
Thic2ness 6 1.$mm
427
+otation 6 1nti-cloc2wise
7otion of pic2up 6 Linear from centre towards
edges
Velocity of scanning 6 1.$ to 1.( m.s
8peed 6 $ 9 : r.p.m
Playing time 6 ; minutes < error correction
time $ minutes
Trac2s pitch 6 1.; mm
Pic2up 6 8olid state laser using
1luminium 4allium 1rsenide #a semiconductor=
Transducer 6 Photo-diode
5re0uency of sampling 6 ((.1 2>?
@uanti?ation 6 1; bit
3umber of levels 6 ;:,:%; per channel
,it rate in 7 bits.second 6 (.%$1A
!rror correction bits 6 %:(A
$la"bac@ &!ocess
5aser "eam produced "y solid state laser of semiconductor aluminium gallium arsenide <@;3
mm $a'elength= is incident on the compact disc through a half sil'ered mirror. +he mirror
allo$s the "eam to pass through itself "ut does not allo$ the returning "eam to pass. +he
returning "eam is reflected from aluminium flat surface and represents digit one. +here is only
a little reflection from pit, and it represents 3. +hus, the returning laser "eam is the replica of
the original laser "eam modulated "y "inary digits of audio signals. +he optics of the
reflection process is sho$n in ,ig 5. +he process is 0uite complicated and only the "asic
process is sho$n in the figure.
5ight is not reflected from the pit and is fully reflected from the flat surface. +hus "inary digits
are reproduced $hen this )L),, reflected light falls on a photosensiti'e diode. +he digital
output of the diode is processed and con'erted into original analogue signal. .lock diagram
428
of detection or diagram of detection or decoding circuit is sho$n in ,ig ?.
1ontrol signals allo$ any com"ination of tracks to "e played in any se0uence $ith the help of
a key"oard. -lso, a display of the text is pro'ided to mirror the music "eing played. 1lock
signal is o"tained from the disc itself. #t is compared $ith a crystal oscillator signal. -ny
discrepancy results in generation of a correction signal $hich is applied to the ser'o system.
-s it is a 'ery high fidelity system it incorporates stereo sound. 2tereo signals are multiplexed
"efore modulation of the laser "eam. -fter detection these signals are demultiplexed to gi'e
t$o separate channels of stereo system.
2canning of the tracks "y laser "eam is done from the centre proceeding to$ards the edge.
,or this purpose the disc is rotated and the laser is mo'ed from centre to edge. -s the
circumference of the outer spirals is larger than of the inner spirals, the track speed is made
constant <constant linear 'elocity= "y 'arying the rotational speed of the disc from 533 r.p.m.
at the centre to 233 r.p.m at the outermost edge. 2canning speed is a"out 1.2 m/s. +otal track
length is ? km. +his gi'es playing time of ?3 minutes plus a"out 23 minutes time for error
correction. ,re0uency response of a compact disc is from 23 48 to 23 k48 and signal to
noise ratio is A3 d.. 1omparison of the performance characteristics of compact disc 's. the
con'entional analogue disc is sho$n "elo$
+he a"o'e comparison sho$s that a compact disc is 'ery superior to the con'entional disc
and approaches 'ery near to ideal fidelity and is much "etter than the con'entional 4i,i 6inyl
429
discs <records=.
A#vantages o com&act #iscs
1. -s it is co'ered "y transparent plastic or transparent lac0uer, the tracks and recordings
remain safe and are not affected "y dust, grease and scratches. 1ompact disc is immune to
the surface contamination.
2. 2ignal to noise ratio is high as high as A3 d. and impro'ement of 33 d. o'er con'entional
high fidelity disc.
3. *ynamic range is high, as high as A3 d. an impro'ement of 53 d. o'er con'entional high
fidelity discs.
4. 1hannel separation is high, as high as ;3 d., an impro'ement of 53 d. o'er con'entional
discs.
5. (o$ does not exist.
?. ,lutter does not exist.
@. +otal distortion is lo$.
;. ,re0uency response is excellent and co'ers complete audio range from 23 48 to 23 k48
$ithin only 3.5 Rd..
A. 2i8e is 0uite small.
13. *rop outs up to 2.5nm of disc <4333 "its= are not felt due to error correction codes and
distortion due to scratches is also automatically corrected.
11. -s the audio signals are con'erted into "inary digits, the system has all the ad'antages of
digital systems o'er analog ones, for example,
<i= /ulses can "e regenerated and hence, any noise introduced is automatically eliminated
and
<ii= Lo e0uali8ation is re0uired as pulses are free from noise.
T"&es o C's
Au#io C'
+his type of 1* format consists only audio for play"ack. - piece of music or a song usually
occupies one track of the 1*.
:i#eo C' :e!sion ;0=/;0;
+hese types of 1* format consist of motion picture $ith audio. #t only supports linear
play"ack function.
:i#eo C' :e!sion <0=
+his format of 61* 2.3 is similar to 61* 1.3/1.1. in addition to it some extra features that
make it more intelligent and interacti'e to user. *uring normal play"ack, 61* 2.3 is capa"le
of changing its play"ack se0uence according to user>s desire, this is kno$n as /lay"ack
1ontrol </.1= functions and also pro'ides high resolution still picture.
Ma!ao@e C'
+his type of 1* format is a'aila"le "oth in 61*1.1 and 61*2 1ertain Faraoke 1* support
selection menu for direct selection of tracks and 2election on music $ith or $ithout 'oice is
on either side of speaker <left/right=.
430
Saet"
&ead the manual carefully "efore operating the unit.
*o not attempt to disassem"le the unit to a'oid electric shocks or damage to the eyes due to
laser "eams.
*o not install the unit at the follo$ing places.
V#nclined position
VExcessi'e 'i"ration/shock
V4igh temperature, high humidity, sudden changes of temperature.
1* player uses s$itch mode po$er supply
Installation
1. +urn off the po$er "efore connecting or disconnecting any components
2. 7se the 1omposite -udio / 6ideo 1onnector to connect the 6ideo and -udio output of the
player to the +6.
3. /lug in the -1 supply cord to the mains.
4. 2$itch on the mains for the +6 and the player.
5. 2$itch the +6 to the appropriate -/6 mode.
?. /ress the U/)(E&U "utton on the ,ront /anel or the &emote 1ontrol of the player.
@. +he player is no$ ready for operation.
O&e!ational cont!ols4 s+itc-es an# soc@ets
+he front panel controls of a 61* player is sho$n in ,ig @ the functions of these controls are
as follo$s.
O&en/close
/ress the )pen/1lose "utton. +he tray $ill open. /lace the *isk on the 1* 4older.
!ake sure the la"el side of the 1* facing up. /ress )/EL/15)2E "utton again. +he +ray
$ill close and &ead the 1*.
$la"
/ress the /5-M "utton to play the 1*.
Sto&
/ress the 2+)/ "utton and the player $ill stop playing the disk.
$!evie+
431
/ress the /&E6#E( "utton to go "ack to the "eginning of the playing +rack.
Ne7t
/ress the LEY+ "utton to skip one +rack for$ard.
Rev
/ress the &E6 .utton to fast "ack$ard 2earching !ode. +here are @ speeds in the follo$ing
se0uence: Y1, Y2, Y3 Y4 Y5, Y?, and Y@.
%,'
/ress the ,(* "utton to fast ,or$ard searching mode. +here are @ speeds in the follo$ing
se0uence: Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5, Y?, and Y@.
L/R
/ress the 5/& .utton to s$itch the -7*#) 1hannels in the follo$ing se0uence: !)L) 5eft,
!)L) &ight, 5E,+/ &#94+, 2+E&E).
'isc vie+
/layer allo$s display of multiple #mages from the disc. #f the disc has one track, *isc 6ie$ $ill
display ? #mages $hich are e0ually di'ided of the time )f the *isc. #f the disc has more than
one track, *isc 6ie$ $ill display #mages of each track. #f the disc has more than ? track,
/ressU LEY+ U to 'ie$ the remaining +racks.
$8C
61* 2.3 discs allo$ na'igation menus. +he /.1 "utton allo$ the user the flexi"ility of playing
61* 2.3 disc in linear play"ack mode like 61* 1.1 disc <$ithout menus=
/ress /.1 and the player $ill stop the current operation and go to stop mode. +he +6 screen
$ill display /.1 ),,. /ress again to go "ack to /.1 )L mode. +o find out the format of the
disc press )2* <on screen display=.
Re&eat
+he feature allo$s user to repeatedly $atch a point of the disc from the first point <-= to the
second point <.=.
Slo+
/ress 25)( !)+#)L key. +here are @ speed in the follo$ing order : : Y1, Y2, Y3, Y4, Y5,
Y?, Y@. /ress the /5-M key to resume normal play "ack.
OS' /On Sc!een 'is&la"1
+o sho$ the *isc information on the +6 screen.
O&tion
/ress the )/+#)L to choose L+21 or /-5 mode, /ress again the )/+#)L "utton to adjust
'olume,
Ma!ao@e
2ome 61* can play F-&-)FE. 1onnect a microphone to the player. -djust the !#1 'olume
to the lo$est le'el then insert the microphone to !#11 and !#12 jacks separately. -djust the
!#1 'olume. 2elect the accompanying track. 2ing along $ith the music.
432
Note
1. *isconnect the !#1 $hen not using it and make sure the 'olume of !#11 and !#12 is set
to the lo$est position.
2. (hen ho$ling results
Feep the !#1 a$ay from the +6 or amplifier. 5o$er do$n the +6 and amplifier.
5o$er do$n the !#1 or multiplex le'el. #nterconnection diagram for connecting a -udio 1*
player to an audio amplifier is gi'en in ,ig ;
#nterconnection diagram for connecting a 'ideo 1* player to a +6 is gi'en in ,ig A.
+hese are similar to connecting 61/ to +6 and -udio deck to an -mplifier.
433
SIN3LE RAN3E ANALO3 METERS AN' ITS CALI8RATION
Objectives
On completion of this lesson you shall be able to
1. 5ist different standards
2. Explain the -pplications of different standards
3. Explain the different types of errors
4. Explain $hy cali"ration is necessary
5. 5ist the t$o simple method of cali"ration porta"le instruments
?. Explain the general considerations for cali"rating instruments
@. 1alculate percentage of error and a'erage percentage of error.
434
Stan#a!#s o measu!ement
+he standards are classified according to their function and application as,
-= #nternational standards
"= /rimary standards
c= 2econdary standards
d= (orking standards
Inte!national stan#a!#s
are periodically e'aluated and checked "y a"solute measurements in terms of fundamental
units. +hese standards are maintained at the #nternational .ureau of $eights and measures
and are not a'aila"le to ordinary user of measuring instruments for the purpose of
comparison and cali"ration.
$!ima!" stan#a!#s
are maintained "y national standard la"oratories in different parts of the $orld. /rimary
standards are independently cali"rated "y a"solute measurement at each national la"oratory
and these are used in 'erifying \ cali"rating secondary standards. /rimary standards are not
a'aila"le for use outside the national la"oratories.
Secon#a!" stan#a!#s
are the "asic reference standards used in industrial measurement la"oratories. +he
responsi"ility of maintenance and cali"ration of the secondary standards rests entirely $ith
the industrial la"oratory it self. +hese standards are sent to the national la"oratories
periodically for cali"ration and comparison against the primary standards.
,o!@ing stan#a!#s
are the principal tools of a measurement la"oratory. +hey are used to check and cali"rate
general la"oratory e0uipments for accuracy and performance or to carry our comparison
measurements.
IEEE stan#a!#s:
- slightly different standard is pu"lished and maintained "y #nstitute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, #EEE. +his is an engineering society $ith its head0uarters in Le$ Mork.
+hese standards are not physical items that are a'aila"le for comparison and checking of
secondary standards "ut are standard procedures, nomenclatures, definitions etc. +hese are
'arious standards concerning the safety of $iring for po$er plants \ industrial "uildings,
standards for components $ith respect to current \ 'oltage rating and standard
representation of schematics \ logic sym"ols
Accu!ac"4 Tole!ance & $!ecision
"ccuracy:
+he amount of conformity $ith the true 'alue.
Tolerance:
+he maximum limits of pro"a"le error from the true 'alue.
,recision:
+he 0uality of "eing sharply defined usually indicated "y the num"er of significant figures
o"tained for the measured 'alue.
,rom a"o'e it is clear that the precise 'alue that can "e o"tained from a highprecision
instrument does not necessarily mean that a high degree of accuracy has "een o"tained
unless is paid to closeness of cali"ration and the limitations in the measuring procedures.
E!!o!s & Classiication
2ince no measurement is made $ith complete <133Q= accuracy, study of errors is important
in finding $ays to reducing the errors and finding means of estimating the relia"ility of final
result. - 0uantity is measured in terms of a standard, $hich itself may not "e perfect. #n
435
addition, errors can and do occur in the process of measurement and comparison.
7easurement errors may be grouped under three headings as given belowB
3!oss e!!o!s:
+his classification mainly co'ers mistakes in the reading and recording of data. +he
responsi"ility usually lies $ith the $orker $ho makes and records the measurement. ,or
example he may read 12.3 as 12.; and record. Errors of this type may "e of any amount and
are not su"ject to mathematical treatment for correction. +$o things may "e done to a'oid
this type of errors% first to exercise great care in reading and recording of data. 2econdly, to
make repeated measurements of the same 0uantity to a'oid rereading the same error.
S"stematic e!!o!s:
+his may "e further categori8ed as%
i= #nstrument errors
a= *ue to shortcomings of the instrument. manufacture tolerance \ ageing.
"= *ue to misuse or loading effect of the instrument. 7nintelligent $ay of using and loading.
ii= En'ironmental errors <errors due to external conditions=. +emperature, gra'ity, stray fields,
etc.
iii= )"ser'ational errors. &eading angle and parallax errors.
Ran#om e!!o!s:
#t is found repeatedly that the data/ 'alues o"tained from measurements sho$ 'ariations from
reading to reading, e'en after paying attention to all kno$n sources of errors discussed
a"o'e. 4ence, such types of errors are sometimes called UaccidentalU or residual errors.
+hese kno$n errors are caused largely "y a num"er of small effects, so that they are additi'e
in some cases and su"tracti'e in some cases in their o'erall effect on the measured 0uantity.
CALI8RATION o Inst!uments
(hile the tolerance figures are generally specified, this $ill not "e true if the instrument is in
use for a reasona"ly long time. +he main reason for this could "e the aging of the instrument.
+herefore, to ha'e complete confidence in the instrument used for measurement, it is
necessary to U1ali"rateU the instrument regularly. #f an instrument is left uncali"rated, the
same reading taken sometime "ack $ill "e different not "ecause of the any fault in the
manufacturer>s specification, "ut "ecause its cali"ration might not ha'e "een checked $ithin
the recommended period. 1ali"ration is a routine procedure at stated inter'als and is
performed against preser'ed and trust$orthy standards. +he inter'als for cali"ration depends
on se'eral factors such as the type of instrument, place of use, accuracy and so on. 4ence,
most instrument manufacturers specify the inter'al for cali"ration and they suggest the
procedure.
Calib!ation o :oltmete!s an# Ammete!s
-mong the se'eral methods of cali"ration for 'olt meters and current meters, the t$o simple
and popular methods are%
1ali"ration "y potentiometer method
1ali"ration "y comparison method.
/otentiometer method is the fundamental method of cali"ration and is necessarily used for
the "asic standard instrument. .ut this method is too slo$ for the general run of cali"ration
and is more precise than needed. 4ence the usual porta"le instruments are cali"rated "y
comparison $ith a high grade standard instrument of suita"le range. -t the present scenario
high precision digital instruments can "e used as standard instrument $hile cali"rating analog
6olt/current/ohm meters.
3ene!al consi#e!ations in calib!ating inst!uments
(hen an instrument is recei'ed for cali"ration it should first "e checked carefully for condition
436
to ensure that there is no defect that $ould pre'ent satisfactory functioning after it has "een
cali"rated. 2ome of these checks are discussed "elo$%
#. <eneral examination
+he instrument should "e inspected for signs of damage, such as injury to the case or
discoloration of the scale "y o'erheating, and for looseness of the glass $indo$ or the
"inding posts. -ny trou"le of this sort should "e corrected "efore the instrument is cali"rated.
*. Examination for friction
+his instrument should "e connected in an appropriate circuit, so that the deflection can "e
controlled smoothly o'er the entire scale. #ncrease the reading slo$ly from 8ero to full scale
and "ack to 8ero, mean$hile $atching for irregular motion of the pointer. 2top at se'eral
points on the scale and tap the case gently $ith the finger% friction is indicated "y a jump of
the pointer upon tapping. ,riction may "e the result of a $orn or deformed pi'ot or of a
cracked je$el, either of $hich may "e caused "y a "lo$ or "y rough handling. 2ometimes
sticking of the pointer is caused "y the paper scale coming loose from the metal "acking and
"uckling up "ecause of humidity. Excessi'e friction may also "e caused "y a damping 'ane
of an airdamping system "ecoming slightly deformed and ru""ing on the surface of the
damping cham"er. #n dc instruments, trou"le is sometimes experienced "y dirt entering the
air gap and interfering $ith the motion of the mo'ing coil. 2uch dirt is hard to remo'e if it is
magnetic in nature. +he trou"les caused "y dust and dirt gi'e point to an item of ad'ice% if the
case of an instrument must "e opened, the $ork should "e done in clean surroundings, and
great care should "e taken to pre'ent the entry of dirt. +he instrument should not "e allo$ed
to stand open and unco'ered for a long period. #f the test a"o'e indicates excessi'e friction,
the cause should "e found and the trou"le corrected "efore a cali"ration is attempted. #f the
pi'ot or je$el is defecti'e, it must "e replaced, $hich an operation is calling for an
experienced instrument repairman. 2ome of the other difficulties mentioned a"o'e may "e
cured more easily.
/. Examination for balance
+he pointer of an instrument may ha'e "een "ent "y a hea'y o'erload or re'erse kick and
then restored to 8ero "y means of the 8eroadjuster. -fter this e'ent, ho$e'er, the mo'ing
system is not in "alance as it should "e, $hich may cause considera"le error if the instrument
is used $ith its axis hori8ontal. +he cali"ration may also "e affected "ecause of the difference
of pointer and mo'ing element position as compared $ith the original condition. -n
instrument should "e checked for correctness of "alance "efore it is cali"rated. +o check the
"alance, set the pointer on 8ero, turn the instrument in the hori8ontal plane until the pointer
points directly a$ay from you, lift the instrument to the 'ertical plane, and o"ser'e $hether
the pointer stays on 8ero. &eturn the instrument to the hori8ontal plane and turn it so that the
pointer is directed to your left% then again raise the instrument to the 'ertical and o"ser'e
8ero. #f the pointer stays on 8ero in "oth cases, the instrument mo'ement is in "alance. #f not,
examine the mo'ement, straighten the pointer if necessary, and re"alance "y adjustment of
the counter $eights until the test indicates correct "alance.
4. ,recautions in calibration
437
+he pointer should "e set carefully on 8ero "efore cali"ration is "egun. 2et the 8ero, and then
tap the case lightly to insure a true 8ero free of any slight frictional effect. .e sure that
connections to shunts make good contact and that contact surfaces are clean. 5eads used
$ith milli'oltmeters during cali"ration should "e the same that $ill "e used in actual ser'ice
or, if this is impossi"le, they should "e standard leads of the same resistance.
Electrostatic effects of stray origin should "e a'oided. *o not ru" the glass $indo$ of the
instrument or the ru""er case just "efore a reading is to "e taken, as the electrostatic charge
thus induced may affect the position of the pointer. <.reathing on the glass helps to dissipate
the charge.= Electrostatic forces "et$een the current and potential coils of a. $attmeter
should "e a'oided "y making connections <as indicated "y the polarity markings= so that the
coils are at the same potential. #n the original cali"ration of an instrument, the position of the
main, or UcardinalU, points is found "y test measurement, and the intermediate points are
determined "y a proportionaldi'iding arrangement. +he scales on all "ut the small, cheap
instruments are handdra$n. #ndi'idual instruments may, of course, differ in the 0uality of
draftsmanship% hence it is ad'isa"le "efore cali"ration to inspect the scale of regularity of the
di'isions. #f the scale appears irregular and if the instrument must "e used for precise $ork,
the cali"ration should "e checked at a greater num"er of points.
2. Effect of stray fields
2tray fields are particularly likely to "e trou"lesome in testing in industrial plants, $here there
are many circuits carrying hea'y currents. +he possi"ilities of such difficulties should "e kept
in mind, not only for such testing, "ut in cali"ration $ork as $ell. +he effects of *1 and -1
fields may "e considered separately. - stray *1 field affects the indication of an unshielded
permanentmagnet instrument and causes an e0ual percentage error all along the scale. +he
presence of a stray field may "e detected "y turning the instrument to different positions $hile
it is carrying a steady current. -n unshielded, or poorly shielded, instrument may ha'e its
cali"ration permanently affected if it is located near a "us "ar that is su"jected to a hea'y
shortcircuit. -n -1 field affects a *1 instrument only if it is great enough to make a change
in the strength of the permanent magnet. -n -1 field affects the indication of an. -1
instrument, depending on the type of mo'ement and its shielding. -n electrodynamometer
instrument <unshielded= is affected differently at different parts of the scale, depending on the
angle "et$een the mo'ing coil and the stray field. - check may "e made "y turning the
instrument 1;3E $hile it is carrying a current of constant strength. - 'oltmeter or an ammeter
of the mo'ingiron type usually has a coil $ith axis parallel to the instrument shaft and so is
su"ject to error from fields in this direction. &otation of the instrument a"out its axis $ill not in
general disclose the presence of the stray field. #t is important in cali"ration to a'oid the effect
of stray fields. #nstruments should not "e placed too close to conductors that carry hea'y
currents, and the leads to the instruments should "e carefully placed and prefera"ly t$isted
together if they carry large currents. #nstruments should not "e placed too close together nor
placed on a sheet of iron or a steeltopped "ench. )n the other hand, instruments that are
intended for mounting in a steel panel should "e mounted in a similar panel for testing and
cali"ration unless the completeness of internal shielding remo'es the necessity for such
precaution.
Calib!ation o voltmete!s an# ammete!s b" com&a!ison met-o#
#n the case of 'oltmeters, the unkno$n is connected in parallel $ith the standard and
supplied $ith po$er, if necessary using a potential di'ider $ith an additional rheostat for fine
438
adjustment. +he 'oltage is "uilt up to the first point at $hich a reading is to "e made, the
setting is usually made to place the unkno$n exactly on the di'ision mark, so that the reading
of the correct 'oltage can "e made on the standard, $hich presuma"ly has a more finely
di'ided scale than the unkno$n. &eadings are made at the cardinal points until full scale is
reached and, again, in decreasing order to pro'ide check points for any effect of spring set.
+he instrument may "e tapped gently "efore a reading is taken to eliminate any slight
frictional effect. +he cali"ration of *1 ammeters follo$s the same pattern as the foregoing,
except that the unkno$n and standard meters are placed in series $ith one another and $ith
suita"le coarse and fine rheostats to a steady lo$'oltage supply. +he circuits for comparison
of -1 ammeters or 'oltmeters $ith the standards may "e similar to those descri"ed a"o'e for
direct current, except that 'aria"le transformers may "e used instead of rheostats to control
instrument settings. +he 'aria"le transformer gi'es a desira"le com"ination of smooth control
and a minimum of heat dissipation in the e0uipment. (hile cali"ration the de'iations in
reading are o"tained and Q of error is calculated to "e applied to indi'idual readings to get
correct reading.
+he percentage of error in a meter for a particular reading can "e calculated using the
formula
+he a'erage percentage error is calculated "y adding the /ercentage of error of indi'idual
reading and di'iding the total "y the num"er of readings.
439