Hilbert's Third Problem

Inna Zakharevi h

Polygons

Denition 1 Two polygons with equal area are CAC (Congruent After Cutting) if they an

be ut up into a nite number of ongruent parts. Equivalently, two polygons are CAC if one
an be ut up into a nite number of polygons and rearranged into the other. The notation
F ' G will be used when two polygons F and G are CAC.

For example, the following illustrates that a triangle an be CAC with a re tangle:

1/2 h

1/2 h

1/2 h
1/2 h

1/2 h

1/2 h

1.1 Transitivity

Theorem 1 For three polygons A; B; C if A ' B and B ' C then A ' C .

To show this, take B and ut it up into pie es that an be rearranged to form C . Over
those uts, make the ones that an be rearranged to form A. Then, out of the resulting
pie es both A and C an be formed. This shows that A ' C .

1.2 Triangles
Theorem 2 Any triangle is CAC to some re tangle.
The pi ture above an be dupli ated for any triangle. From the vertex with the largest
angle draw the altitude to the other side, and the medial line parallel to that side. Cutting
along these lines, and rearranging the pie es as in the above pi ture yeilds that any triangle
is COC to some re tangle.

1.3 Re tangles
Theorem 3 Any two re tangles of equal area are CAC.
Consider any two re tangles OAED and OCF B with equal area. Then, if the dimensions
of OAED are b1 ; h1 and the dimensions of OCF B are b2 ; h2, b1 h2 = b2 h2.

1
C
h

b1

1
K

b1

1
O

b2

F
h2

Case 1

B
b2

Case 2

Sin e b1h1 = b2 h2 , hb21 = hb12 , so triangles OAB and OCD are similar. Thus AB kCD. Also,
be ause re tangle OCXD is part of both re tangles, the areas of re tangles CAEX adn
DXF B are equal, so (h1 h2 )b1 = (b2 b1)h2 . Thus h1h2h2 = b2b1b1 , so triangles OCD and
XEF are similar. So AB kEF .
Sin e AEF K is a parallelogram, AE = KF . Also, sin e AEXC is a re tangle AE =
CX . Thus KF = CX . Sin e their sides are parallel, and AC = EX 4ACK 
= 4EXF .
4
EXF
.
Also,
sin e
AE
=
KF
,
EL
=
F
B
,
and
AK
= LB ,
Analogously, 4LDB 
=

4AEL = 4KF B .
If line AB interse ts re tangle OCXD that means that AB  CX + KF , so 2b1  b2.
In this ase it is lear that re tangles OAED and OCF B are CAC, sin e they both onsist
2

of the shaded pentagon, one of the ongruent regions marked \1", and one of triangles AEL
or KF B .
If line AB doesn't interse t re tangle OCXD then a dierent onstru tion is ne essary.
Mark o segment OD on OB as many times as is ne essary so that the midpoint of OB is
inside the marked o area. Then break up segment AO into that many segments, and ut
re tangle OAED onto smaller re tangles at those marks. Rearrange those along the marked
o segments on OB . The result is a re tangle, in whi h 2b1  b2, and that re tangle an be
ut up into equal parts with re tangle OCF B . By transitivity of CAC, OAED ' OCF B .
Thus any two re tangles are CAC.

1.4 Polygons
Theorem 4 Any two polygons of equal area are CAC.
Any polygon an be ut into triangles, and ea h of those triangles is CAC to some
re tangle. For an arbitrary length x ea h re tangle is CAC to some re tangle with one side
equal to x. Thus the polygon is CAC to some re tangle with one side equal to x.
If two polygons have equal area A, then ea h will be CAC to a re tangle with one side x
and the other Ax . Thus they are CAC to one another.

Polyhedra

Denition 2 Two polyhedra with equal volume are CAC if they an be ut up into a nite
number of ongruent polyhedra.

After proving that any two polygons of equal area are CAC, it is natural to ask the same
question about polyhedra. So,
If P and Q are two polyhedra of equal volume, are they CAC?
This is Hilbert's Third Problem, and the rst to be solved.

2.1 Note on Congruen y

When dis ussing polygons, it is ustomary to onsider two polygons with ongruent if they
an be pla ed on one another by a series of rotations, translations, and re e tions. However,
this be omes more ompli ated when dealing with polyhedra, for there are two ways to dene
ongruen y.

Denition 3 The group D is the group of all rigid motions of R3. The group D0 is the

group of all rigid motions of

R3 that preserve orientation.

3

Denition 4 Two polyhedra are G- ongruent if they an be mapped to one another with
the motions in group G. Two polyhedra are G-CAC if they an be ut up into a nite number
of polyhedra whi h are G- ongruent.
Theorem 5 If two polyhedra are D- ongruent then they are D0 -CAC.
Sin e the polyhedrons are D- ongruent they an be ut into pie es that are D- ongruent.
Suppose that one of these is A (with it's D- ongruent pair A0 ) and it has a plane of symmetry.
Let f 2 D be the motion that maps A to A0, and let s be the re e tion of A in it's plane
of symmetry. Then one of f and f s preserves orientation, and is thus is in D0 . However,
sin e s maps A to A, f s also maps A to A0. So A and A0 are D0 - ongruent.
Thus if it an be shown that any polyhedron an be ut into polyhedra that have a plane
of symmetry then the theorem will be proven.
In order to do this, rst ut the polyhedron along the planes that ontain its fa es, to
obtain some onvex polyhedrons. Ea h of these an be ut into pyramids by sele ting any
point inside the polyhedron and utting it into pyramids that have that point as the vertex
and a fa e for the base. Then, ea h of those pyramids an be ut up into tetrahedrons by
triangulating hte base and making pyramids with ea h triangle as the base and the vertex
of the pyramid as a vertex. So it su es to show that any tetrahedron an be ut into
polyhedra that have a plane of symmetry.
Take a tetrahedron ABCD, and the sphere ins ribed in it. Let A0; B 0 ; C 0; D0 be the
tangen y points of the sphere to the fa es of the tetrahedron (with A0 opposite A, et .), and
let O be the enter of the sphere. Cut the tetrahedron into onvex polyhedrons OA0 B 0CD,
OA0 BC 0D, OA0 BCD0, OAB 0C 0D, OAB 0CD0 , OABC 0D0 . Consider polyhedron OA0 B 0CD.
Sin e O is equidistant from the planes ontaining ACD and BCD it is in the plane ontaining
edge CD and bise ting the dihedral angle at that edge. Thus A0 and B 0, the proje tions
of O onto ACD and BCD are also symmetri a ross that plane, and so that is a plane of
symmetry of that polyhedron.
This poves the theorem.
A orrolary of the theorem is that it does not matter for the dis ussion of CAC whether
D or D0 is used. From here on, D0 -CAC will be referred to as just CAC.

2.2 Notation and Denitions

Denition 5 A set of numbers M = fx1; x2; : : : ; xk g will be alled dependent if there exist
n1 ; n2 ; : : : ; nk 2 Z not all zero, su h that
n1 x1 + n2 x2 +


+ nk xk = 0:

Denition 6 Let S be a set of real numbers. A fun tion f : S ! R is additive if, for any
dependent subset M of S
n1 f (x1 ) + n2 f (x2) +


+ nk f (xk ) = 0:
4

In polyhedron A, the set fa1 ; a2 : : : ; ar g will denote the set of lengths of edges, and the
set f1; 2 ; : : : ; r g will denote the set of dihedral angles of the polyhedron, su h that i is
the measure of the angle at edge ai.

Denition 7 If f is some additive fun tion, then

f (A) = a1 f (1 ) + a2f (2 ) +


+ ar f (r ):

2.3 Additive Fun tions on Polyhedra

Theorem 6 Suppose that an additive funtion f su h that f ( ) = 0 is dened on the set of
dihedral angles of polyhedra P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn and A, and suppose
A = P1 + P2 +


+ Pn :
Then

f (A) = f (P1 ) + f (P2 ) +


+ f (Pn ):

Cut A up into P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn . Call any pla e where two edges meet, or where there is
a vertex of A or some Pi a vertex. Call any edge of one of the polyhedra onne ting two
verti es a "link". If l is the length of a link, and  is sun of the dihedral angles of the
polyhedrons at that link, then let lf () be the weight of that link.
Suppose that n polyhedra meet at a link with length l and with dihedral angles 1; 2 ; : : : ; n .
Then the weight of that link is lf (1 + 2 +


+ n ) = lf (1) + lf (2 ) +


+ lf (n ), whi h
is the sum of the weights of that link with respe t to ea h of the polyhedra. If an edge of A
with dihedral angle  is made up of n links with lengths l1 ; l2; : : : ; ln then the weight of that
edge would be (l1 + l2 +


+ ln )f () = llf () + l2 f () +


+ ln f (), whi h is also the sum
of the weights of the links.
Thus the sum of the weights of the links lying along the edges of A is learly f (A), so all
that is left to prove is that the sum of the weights of all of the other links is 0. There are
two other pla es that there an be links: on the fa es of A, and on the interior of A. If a
link is on the fa e of A then the sum of the dihedral angles around it is  , so it's weight is
0. If a link is on the interior of A then the sum of the angles of the polyhedrons around it
is 2 , so the weight of that link is 0. Thus the sum of the weights of all of the links is f (A).

2.4 Dehn's Theorem

Theorem 7 For two polyhedra A and B , if there exists an additive fun tion f on the dihedral
angles of the polyhedra su h that f ( ) = 0 and f (A) 6= f (B ) then A and B are not CAC.
Suppose that there exists su h a fun tion but A and B are CAC. Cut them up into the
polyhedrons P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn that an be rearranged into them both. Then

f (A) = f (P1 ) + f (P2 ) +


+ f (Pn ) = f (B ):

This is a ontradi tion. Thus A and B are not CAC.
5

2.5 Examples
Example 1 A ube and a regular tetrahedron are not CAC.
The proof of this requires the proof of another theorem rst.
Theorem 8 For any natural number n  3 the number 1 ar os n1 is irrational.
Let ' = ar os n1 . Suppose that '= = l=k , with k; l integers. Then k' = l , whi h
means that os k' = 1, a.k.a. that it is an integer. By the addition law for osines,
and sin e os ' = n1

os(k + 1)' + os(k

os(k + 1)' =

1)' = 2 os k' os ';

os k' os(k 1)':

n
Case 1: n is odd. Then os k' = nak with (a; n) = 1. This will be proven with indu tion on k .
2
When k = 1 os ' = n1 and when k = 2 os 2' = 2 os2 ' 1 = 2 n2n . Then
2a bn2
=
n nk nk 1
nk+1
and sin e (a; n) = 1 and (2; n) = 1 (2a bn2 ; n) = 1, proving the hypothesis.
os(k + 1)' =

2 a

Case 2: n is even. Then n = 2m where m  2. os k' = 2ma k with (a; 2m) = 1. This an be
proven with an indu tive step similar to the indu tion above.
This shows that os k' an never be an integer, and so ' an nver be rational.
Now let  = ar os 31 . This is the dihedral angle between two of the sides of the regular
tetrahedron. Then the set on whi h the fun tion f needs to be dened is f; 2 ; g. Dene
f by

f ( ) = 0; f ( ) = 0; f () = 1:
2
If there is some dependen y n1  + n2
2 + n3  = 0 with n3 6= 0 we get that
n1 + n22
1 
1
ar os = =

3 
n3
whi h ontradi ts theorem ??. So n3 = 0, and so learly n1 f ( ) + n2 f ( 2 ) + n3 f () = 0,
whi h means that f is additive. Let the length of the edges of the ube is l and the length
of the edges of the tetrahedron be m. Then


f ( ube) = 12lf ( ) = 0:

and

f (tetrahedron) = 6mf () = 6m 6= 0

so the ube and the tetrahedron are not CAC.

6

Example 2 A ube and a right tetrahedron are not CAC.

Let  be the angle between the largest fa e of the right tetrahedron and another fa e.
Sin e os  = p13 , it an be shown (with an indu tion similar to that in theorem ??) that
 = 1 ar os p1 is always irrational. If f is on e again dened by


3


f ( ) = 0; f ( ) = 0; f () = 1
2

then f ( ube) = 0. If the length

ispl, then the
p of the shorter edges of the right tetrahedron
p
length of the other three is l 2, and f (tetrahedron) = 3lf ( 2 ) + 3l 2f () = 3l 2 6= 0.