Flow separation

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Airflow separating from a wing at a high angle of attack
All solid objects traveling through a fluid (or alternatively a stationary object exposed to a moving fluid)
acquire a boundary layer of fluid around them where viscous forces occur in the layer of fluid close to the
solid surface. Boundary layers can be either laminar orturbulent. A reasonable assessment of whether the
boundary layer will be laminar or turbulent can be made by calculating theReynolds number of the local
flow conditions.
Flow separation occurs when the boundary layer travels far enough against an adverse pressure
gradient that the speed of the boundary layer relative to the object falls almost to zero.
[1][2]
The fluid flow
becomes detached from the surface of the object, and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices.
In aerodynamics, flow separation can often result in increased drag, particularlypressure drag which is
caused by the pressure differential between the front and rear surfaces of the object as it travels through
the fluid. For this reason much effort and research has gone into the design
of aerodynamic and hydrodynamic surfaces which delay flow separation and keep the local flow attached
for as long as possible. Examples of this include the fur on a tennis ball, dimples on a golf
ball, turbulators on a glider, which induce an early transition to turbulent flow regime; vortex generators on
light aircraft, for controlling the separation pattern; and leading edge extensions for high angles of attack on
the wings of aircraft such as the F/A-18 Hornet.
Boundary layer separation is the detachment of a boundary layer from the surface into a broader
wake.
[3]
Boundary layer separation occurs when the portion of the boundary layer closest to the wall or
leading edge reverses in flow direction. The separation point is defined as the point between the forward
and backward flow, where the shear stress is zero. The overall boundary layer initially thickens suddenly at
the separation point and is then forced off the surface by the reversed flow at its bottom.
[4]

Contents
[hide]
1 Adverse pressure gradient
2 Influencing parameters
3 Internal separation
4 Effects of boundary layer separation
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 External links
Adverse pressure gradient[edit]
The flow reversal is primarily caused by an adverse pressure gradient imposed on the boundary layer by
the outer potential flow. The streamwise momentum equation inside the boundary layer is approximately
stated as

where are streamwise and normal coordinates. An adverse pressure gradient is
when , which then can be seen to cause the velocity to decrease along and
possibly go to zero if the adverse pressure gradient is strong enough.
[5]



Graphical representation of the velocity profile in the boundary layer. The 3rd picture represents reverse flow
which shows separated flow.
Influencing parameters[edit]
The tendency of a boundary layer to separate primarily depends on the distribution of the adverse or
negative edge velocity gradient along the surface, which in turn is directly related
to the pressure and its gradient by the differential form of the Bernoulli relation, which is the same as
the momentum equation for the outer inviscid flow.

But the general magnitudes of required for separation are much greater
for turbulent than forlaminar flow, the former being able to tolerate nearly an order of magnitude
stronger flow deceleration. A secondary influence is the Reynolds number. For a given
adverse distribution, the separation resistance of a turbulent boundary layer increases
slightly with increasing Reynolds number. In contrast, the separation resistance of a laminar
boundary layer is independent of Reynolds number a somewhat counterintuitive fact.
Internal separation[edit]
Boundary layer separation can occur for internal flows. It can result from such causes such as a
rapidly expanding duct of pipe. Separation occurs due to an adverse pressure gradient
encountered as the flow expands, causing an extended region of separated flow. The part of the
flow that separates the recirculating flow and the flow through the central region of the duct is
called the dividing streamline.
[4]
The point where the dividing streamline attaches to the wall again
is called the reattachment point. As the flow goes farther downstream it eventually achieves an
equilibrium state and has no reverse flow.
Effects of boundary layer separation[edit]
When the boundary layer separates, its displacement thickness increases sharply, which modifies
the outside potential flow and pressure field. In the case of airfoils, the pressure field modification
results in an increase in pressure drag, and if severe enough will also result in loss of lift and stall,
all of which are undesirable. For internal flows, flow separation produces an increase in the flow
losses, and stall-type phenomena such as compressor surge, both undesirable phenomena.
[6]

Another effect of boundary layer separation is shedding vortices, known as Krmn vortex street.
When the vortices begin to shed off the bounded surface they do so at a certain frequency. The
shedding of the vortices then could cause vibrations in the structure that they are shedding off.
When the frequency of the shedding vortices reaches the resonance frequency of the structure, it
could cause serious structural failures.