Digital Processing

Of
Shallow Seismic Refraction Data
With
The Refraction Convolution Section
by
Derecke Palmer M Sc

A Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
School of Geology,
The University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia.
September, 2001

Declaration of Originality
I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my
knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another
person, nor material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the
award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational
institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any
contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW
or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis.
I declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work,
except to the extent that assistance from others in the projects design and
conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.

Derecke Palmer
26 September, 2001

Abstract
The refraction convolution section (RCS) is a new method for imaging shallow
seismic refraction data. It is a simple and efficient approach to full trace
processing which generates a time cross-section similar to the familiar reflection
cross-section. The RCS advances the interpretation of shallow seismic refraction
data through the inclusion of time structure and amplitudes within a single
presentation.
The RCS is generated by the convolution of forward and reverse shot records.
The convolution operation effectively adds the first arrival traveltimes of each pair
of forward and reverse traces and produces a measure of the depth to the
refracting interface in units of time which is equivalent to the time-depth function
of the generalized reciprocal method (GRM).
Convolution also multiplies the amplitudes of first arrival signals. To a good
approximation, this operation compensates for the large effects of geometric
spreading, with the result that the convolved amplitude is essentially proportional
to the square of the head coefficient. The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios of the RCS
show much less variation than those on the original shot records.
The head coefficient is approximately proportional to the ratio of the specific
acoustic impedances in the upper layer and in the refractor, where there is a
reasonable contrast between the specific acoustic impedances in the layers. The
convolved amplitudes or the equivalent shot amplitude products can be useful in
resolving ambiguities in the determination of wavespeeds.

The RCS can also include a separation between each pair of forward and
reverse traces in order to accommodate the offset distance in a manner similar to
the XY spacing of the GRM. The use of finite XY values improves the resolution
of lateral variations in both amplitudes and time-depths.
Lateral variations in the near-surface soil layers can affect amplitudes thereby
causing amplitude statics. Increases in the thickness of the surface soil layer
correlate with increases in refraction amplitudes. These increases are
adequately described and corrected with the transmission coefficients of the
Zoeppritz equations. The minimum amplitudes, rather than an average, should
be used where it is not possible to map the near surface layers in detail.
The use of amplitudes with 3D data effectively improves the spatial resolution of
wavespeeds by almost an order of magnitude. Amplitudes provide a measure of
refractor wavespeeds at each detector, whereas the analysis of traveltimes
provides a measure over several detectors, commonly a minimum of six. The
ratio of amplitudes obtained with different shot azimuths provides a detailed
qualitative measure of azimuthal anisotropy.
Dip filtering of the RCS removes cross-convolution artifacts and provides a
convenient approach to the study of later events.
The RCS facilitates the stacking of refraction data in a manner similar to the CMP
methods of reflection seismology. It can significantly improve S/N ratios.
The RCS is a simple extension of the GRM, which in turn is a generalization from
which most of the standard refraction inversion methods can be derived. The
RCS advances refraction interpretation through the inclusion of time structure
and amplitudes within a single presentation, which is similar to seismic reflection
data. Accordingly, the RCS facilitates the application of current seismic reflection
acquisition, processing and interpretation technology to refraction seismology.

Acknowledgements
This work would not have been possible without the support and encouragement
of my supervisor Geoff Taylor, and our head of school, Colin Ward. My focus on
the thesis in the last few years has resulted in some of my academic duties
receiving less than my full attention.
Much of the work for this thesis was carried out between 4:00 am and 6:00 am in
the morning, and it resulted in a number of innocent victims. My wife Coori, and
our two sons, Evan and Heath have had to accommodate an often sleepdeprived out-of-sorts partner or parent on more than one occasion.
The processing of this and other refraction data has been made possible by
Seismic Un*x developed by the Centre for Wave Propagation Studies at the
Colorado School of Mines. My sincere appreciation to John Stockwell and the
late Jack Cohen for its development, and to Ken Larner for introducing me to SU.
Jacques Jenny of W_Geosoft has generously provided a copy of Visual_SUNT.
Much of the data were acquired when I was an employee of the Geological
Survey of New South Wales. The data for the Mt Bulga 3D survey were acquired
with the assistance of Ross Spencer during a week in the spring of 1986 which
rapidly turned cold and damp. My memory of the survey is of two bedraggled
geophysicists who had forgotten their wet weather clothing wallowing in ankle
deep mud and becoming increasingly frustrated with a temperamental drill rig.
Ian Grierson of Encom Technologies demuxed many of the older field tapes.

Contents
Declaration of Originality ________________________________________ 2
Abstract ______________________________________________________ 3
Acknowledgements_____________________________________________ 5
Contents______________________________________________________ 6
Chapter 1______________________________________________________ 10
Introduction __________________________________________________ 10
1.1 - Recent Innovations in Reflection Seismology ___________________ 10
1.2 - Recent Innovations in Shallow Refraction Seismology ____________ 11
1.3 - Digital Processing with the Refraction Convolution Section_________ 14
1.4 Outline of Thesis _________________________________________ 19
1.5 - References______________________________________________ 21
Chapter 2______________________________________________________ 24
Inversion of Shallow Seismic Refraction Data A Review ____________ 24
2.1 - Summary _______________________________________________ 24
2.2 - Introduction _____________________________________________ 25
2.3 - Field Data Requirements ___________________________________ 26
2.4 - Undetected Layers ________________________________________ 27
2.5 - Incomplete Sampling of Each Layer __________________________ 27
2.6 - Implications for Model-Based Methods of Inversion ______________ 28
2.7 - Anisotropy ______________________________________________ 30
2.8 - The Need to Employ Realistic Models for Refraction Inversion ______ 30
2.9 - The Large Number of Refraction Inversion Methods ______________ 31
2.10 - Wavefront Reconstruction Methods __________________________ 31
2.11 - The Intercept Time Method ________________________________ 32
2.12 - The Reciprocal Methods __________________________________ 33
2.13 - Data Processing in the Time Domain_________________________ 33
2.14 - Accommodation of the Offset Distance with Refraction Migration ___ 35
2.15 - Using Refraction Migration to Recognize Artifacts_______________ 36
2.16 - Non-uniqueness in Determining Refractor Wavespeeds __________ 37
2.17 - Fundamental Requirements for Refraction Inversion_____________ 38
References __________________________________________________ 39
Chapter 3______________________________________________________ 47
Imaging Refractors with the Convolution Section ___________________ 47
6

3.1 - Summary _______________________________________________ 47

3.2 - Introduction _____________________________________________ 48
3.3 - The Large Variations in Signal-to-Noise Ratios with Refraction Data _ 50
3.4 - Full Trace Processing Of Refraction Data ______________________ 55
3.5 - Imaging The Refractor Interface Through The Addition of Forward And
Reverse Traveltimes __________________________________________ 58
3.6 - The Addition of Traveltimes With Convolution ___________________ 61
3.7 - The Effects of Geometrical Spreading on the Convolution Section
Amplitudes __________________________________________________ 65
3.8 - Effects Of Refractor Dip On Convolution Amplitudes______________ 69
3.9 - Conclusions _____________________________________________ 70
3.10 - References_____________________________________________ 72
Chapter 4______________________________________________________ 75
Starting Models For Refraction Inversion__________________________ 75
4.1 - Summary _______________________________________________ 75
4.2 - Introduction _____________________________________________ 76
4.3 - Inversion Of A Two Layer Model With The GRM Algorithms ________ 78
4.4 - Time Differences Between Starting Models _____________________ 83
4.5 - Agreement Between Starting Models And Traveltime Data_________ 86
4.6 - Discussion ______________________________________________ 87
4.7 - Conclusions _____________________________________________ 89
4.8 - References______________________________________________ 90
Chapter 5______________________________________________________ 93
Resolving Refractor Ambiguities With Amplitudes __________________ 93
5.1 - Summary _______________________________________________ 93
5.2 - Introduction _____________________________________________ 94
5.3 - Amplitude and Wavespeed Relationships ______________________ 95
5.5 - Mt Bulga Case History _____________________________________ 97
5.5 - Conclusions ____________________________________________ 104
5.6 - References_____________________________________________ 106
Chapter 6_____________________________________________________ 107
Efficient Mapping Of Structure And Azimuthal Anisotropy With Three
Dimensional Shallow Seismic Refraction Methods _________________ 107
6.1 - Summary ______________________________________________ 107
6.2 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 108
6.3 - Data Processing With The GRM ____________________________ 110
6.4 - Survey Details __________________________________________ 111
6.5 - Analysis of the In-line Traveltime Data________________________ 113
6.6 - Analysis of the In-line Amplitude Data ________________________ 121
6.7 - Analysis of the Cross-line Traveltime Data ____________________ 124
6.8 - The Cross-line Amplitude Data _____________________________ 128
6.9 - Discussion and Conclusions _______________________________ 132
6.10 - References____________________________________________ 134

Chapter 7_____________________________________________________ 137

Effects Of Near-Surface Lateral Variations On Refraction Amplitudes _ 137
7.1 - Summary ______________________________________________ 137
7.2 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 138
7.3 - Traveltime Results _______________________________________ 139
7.4 - Effects of Near-surface Lateral Variations on Amplitudes _________ 144
7.5 - Relationships Between Amplitudes and Refractor Wavespeeds ____ 151
7.6 - Discussion and Conclusions _______________________________ 153
7.7 - References_____________________________________________ 155
Chapter 8_____________________________________________________ 157
Enhancement of Later Events in the RCS with Dip Filtering _________ 157
8.1 - Summary ______________________________________________ 157
8.2 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 158
8.3 - Generation of Useful Events and Artifacts in the RCS____________ 159
8.4 - Removal of Cross-convolution Artifacts with Dip Filtering _________ 163
8.5 - Times for Near-surface Events in the Uncorrected RCS __________ 166
8.6 - Near-surface Wavespeeds from the Uncorrected RCS ___________ 168
8.7 - Conclusions ____________________________________________ 172
8.8 - References_____________________________________________ 172
Chapter 9_____________________________________________________ 173
Stacking Seismic Refraction Data in the Convolution Section________ 173
9.1 - Summary ______________________________________________ 173
9.2 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 174
9.3 The Cobar Stacked RCS Section ___________________________ 176
9.4 - The Static Geophone Spread_______________________________ 182
9.4 - Continuous Acquisition of Shallow Seismic Refraction Data _______ 183
9.5 Determination of Fold with RCS Data ________________________ 185
9.6 - Discussion and Conclusions _______________________________ 186
9.7 - References_____________________________________________ 188
Chapter 10____________________________________________________ 190
Discussion and Conclusions ___________________________________ 190
10.1 - Shallow Refraction Seismology for the New Millenium: A Personal
Perspective_________________________________________________ 190
10.2 - Conclusions ___________________________________________ 193
Appendix 1 ___________________________________________________ 198
Comments on A brief study of the generalized reciprocal method and
some of the limitations of the method by Bengt Sjgren.___________ 198
A.1 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 198
A.2 - The Use of Average Wavespeeds ___________________________ 199
A.3 - The Similarities Between The GRM and Sjogrens Approach ______ 201
A.4 - Recognizing And Defining Narrow Zones With Low Wavespeeds In
Refractors__________________________________________________ 203

A.5 - Use Of Alternative Presentations And Amplitudes For Determining

Wavespeeds In Refractors _____________________________________ 205
A.6 - A Systematic Approach With The GRM_______________________ 211
A.7 - The Need To Promote Innovation In Shallow Refraction Seismology 212
A.8 - References ____________________________________________ 213
Appendix 2 ___________________________________________________ 216
Model Determination For Refraction Inversion ____________________ 216
A.1 - Summary ______________________________________________ 216
A.2 - Introduction ____________________________________________ 217
A.3 - Model and Inversion Strategies _____________________________ 219
A.4 - Single Layer Constant Wavespeed Inversion Model _____________ 226
A.5 - Two Layer Constant Wavespeed Inversion Model ______________ 229
A.6 - Two Layer Wavespeed Reversal Inversion Model ______________ 231
A.7 - The Evjen Inversion Model ________________________________ 232
A.8 - Transverse Isotropy Inversion Model_________________________ 238
A.9 - Errors Related to the Optimum XY Value _____________________ 241
A.10 - Discussion and Conclusions ______________________________ 244
A.11 - References ___________________________________________ 247
A.12 - Appendix: Definition of Variable Wavespeed Media with the GRM 250
Appendix 3 ___________________________________________________ 252
Surefcon.c __________________________________________________ 252
Appendix 4 ___________________________________________________ 256
The Effects of Spatial Sampling on Refraction Statics ______________ 256