Chapter Four

PERFORMANCE

Impact
The introduction of FRP and FRP sandwich materials into the boating industry has led to
lighter, stiffer and faster boats. This leads, in general, to reduced impact performance, since
higher speeds cause impact energy to be higher, while stiffer structures usually absorb less
impact energy before failure. Thus, the response of modern FRP composite marine structures
to impact loads is an important consideration.
The complexity and variability of boat impacts makes it very difficult to define an impact load
for design purposes. There is also a lack of information on the behavior of the FRP composite
materials when subjected to the high load rates of an impact, and analytical methods are, at
present, relatively crude. Thus, it is difficult to explicitly include impact loads into the
structural analysis and design process. Instead, basic knowledge of the principles of impact
loading and structural response is used as a guide to design structures with superior impact
performance.
The impact response of a composite structure can be divided into four categories. In the first,
the entire energy of the impact is absorbed by the structure in elastic deformation, and then
released when the structure returns to its original position or shape. Higher energy levels
exceed the ability of the structure to absorb the energy elastically. The next level is plastic
deformation, in which some of the energy is absorbed by elastic deformation, while the
remainder of the energy is absorbed through permanent plastic deformation of the structure.
Higher energy levels result in energy absorbed through damage to the structure. Finally, the
impact energy levels can exceed the capabilities of the structure, leading to catastrophic failure.
The maximum energy which can be absorbed in elastic deformation depends on the stiffness of
the materials and the geometry of the structure. Damage to the structural laminate can be in
the form of resin cracking, delamination between plies, debonding of the resin fiber interface,
and fiber breakage for solid FRP laminates, with the addition of debonding of skins from the
core in sandwich laminates. The amount of energy which can be absorbed in a solid laminate
and structural damage depends on the resin properties, fiber types, fabric types, fiber
orientation, fabrication techniques and rate of impact.

Impact Design Considerations

The general principles of impact design are as follows. The kinetic energy of an impact is:
K . E. =

m v2
2

(4-1)

where:
v = the collision velocity and m is the mass of the boat or the impactor,
whichever is smaller.
The energy that can be absorbed by an isotropic beam point loaded at mid-span is:
K . E. =

M2
ds
2EI

(4-2)

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Impact

where:
L = the span length
M = the moment
E = Young's Modulus
I = moment of inertia
For the small deformations of a composite panel, the expression can be simplified to:
S2 A L r2
K . E. =
6 E c2

(4-3)

where:
S = the stress
A = cross-sectional area
r = the depth of the beam
c = the distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the beam
From this relationship, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Increasing the skin laminate modulus E causes the skin stress levels to increase.
The weight remains the same and the flexural stiffness is increased.;

Increasing the beam thickness r decreases the skin stress levels, but it also
increases flexural stiffness and the weight; and

Increasing the span length L decreases the skin stress levels. The weight
remains the same, but flexural stiffness is decreased.

Therefore, increasing the span will decrease skin stress levels and increase impact energy
absorption, but the flexural stiffness is reduced, thus increasing static load stress levels.
For a sandwich structure:
M =

SI
d

(4-4)

b t d2
2

(4-5)

where:
S = skin stress
d = core thickness
b = beam width
t = skin thickness
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Chapter Four

PERFORMANCE

Thus the energy absorption of a sandwich beam is:

K . E. =

S2 b t L
4E

(4-6)

From this relationship, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Increasing the skin laminate modulus E causes the skin stress levels to
increase. The weight remains the same and the flexural stiffness is
increased.;

Increasing the skin thickness t decreases the skin stress levels, but it also
increases flexural stiffness and the weight;

Increasing the span length L decreases the skin stress levels. The weight
remains the same, but flexural stiffness is decreased; and

Core thickness alone does not influence impact energy absorption.

Therefore, increasing the span will decrease skin stress levels and increase impact energy
absorption, while the flexural stiffness can be maintained by increasing the core thickness.
An impact study investigating sandwich panels with different core materials, different fiber
types and different resins supports some of the above conclusions. [4-24] This study found
that panels with higher density foam cores performed better than identical panels with lower
density foam cores, while rigid cores such as balsa and Nomex did not fare as well as the
foam. This indicates that strength is a more important property than modulus for impact
performance of core materials. The difference in performance between panels constructed of
E-glass, Kevlar, and carbon fiber fabrics was small, with the carbon fiber panels performing
slightly better than the other two types. The reason for these results is not clear, but the
investigator felt that the higher flexural stiffness of the carbon fiber skin distributed the impact
load over a greater area of the foam core, thus the core material damage was lower for this
panel. Epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester resins were also compared. The differences in
performance were slight, with the vinyl ester providing the best performance, followed by
polyester and epoxy.
Impact performance for the different resins followed the
strength/stiffness ratio, with the best performance from the resin with the highest strength to
stiffness ratio. General impact design concepts can be summarized as follows:

Impact energy absorption mechanisms;

Elastic deformation;

Matrix cracking;

Delamination;

Fiber breakage;

Interfacial debonding; and

Core shear.

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The failure mechanism is usually that of the limiting material in the composite, however,
positive synergism between specific materials can dramatically improve impact performance.
General material relationships are as follows:

Kevlar and S-glass are better than E-glass and carbon fibers;

Vinyl ester is better than epoxy and polyester;

Foam core is better than Nomex and Balsa;

Quasi-isotropic laminates are better than Orthotropic laminates.;

Low fiber/resin ratios are better than high; and

Many thin plies of reinforcing fabric are better than a few thicker plies.

Theoretical Developments
Theoretical and experimental analysis have been conducted for ballistic impact (high speed, small
mass projectile) to evaluate specific impact events. The theory can be applied to lower velocity,
larger mass impacts acting on marine structures as summarized in Figure 4-7 and below.
1.

Determine the surface pressure and its distribution induced by the impactor as a function
of impact parameters, laminate and structure properties, and impactor properties.

2.

Determine the internal three dimensional stress field caused by the surface pressure.

3.

Determine the failure modes of the laminate and structure resulting from the internal
stresses, and how they interact to cause damage.
Projectile

Target

Impact Induced
Pressure
(time dependent)

Resultant
Stresses

Failure
Caused by
Stresses

Figure 4-7 Impact Initiation and Propagation [Jones, Impact Analysis of Composite
Sandwich Panels as a Function of Skin, Core and Resin Materials]

190