Chapter Chapter 11 Chapter Chapter 1 1

Introduction to Hydraulics Introduction to Hydraulics

Engineering Engineering
Dr. Tewfik Mahdi Dr. Tewfik Mahdi
Tmahdi@sharjah.ac.ae Tmahdi@sharjah.ac.ae
Offi E t Offi E t 2943 2943 Office Ext.: Office Ext.: 2943 2943
Introduction Introduction
The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word
((hydraulikos hydraulikos) meaning Study of pipe. in applied ) meaning Study of pipe. in applied (( yy ) g y p p pp ) g y p p pp
engineering the study of water or other fluids at rest or in engineering the study of water or other fluids at rest or in
motion. motion.
Hydraulic Hydraulic topics range through most science and topics range through most science and
engineering disciplines. In water resources engineering it engineering disciplines. In water resources engineering it
covers concepts such as dam design river works flood covers concepts such as dam design river works flood covers concepts such as dam design, river works, flood covers concepts such as dam design, river works, flood
control, sediment and erosion control, pressurized pipe control, sediment and erosion control, pressurized pipe
system, hydropower, flow measurement and free surface system, hydropower, flow measurement and free surface
hydraulics such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes, hydraulics such as occurring in rivers, canals, lakes,
estuaries and seas. estuaries and seas.
Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives
Fundamentals of fluid mechanics Fundamentals of fluid mechanics Fundamentals of fluid mechanics Fundamentals of fluid mechanics
Basic hydraulic system components Basic hydraulic system components
D i f W t Di t ib ti S t D i f W t Di t ib ti S t Design of Water Distribution Systems Design of Water Distribution Systems
Turbomachines Turbomachines
Design of free surface canals (i.e., storm Design of free surface canals (i.e., storm
water systems) water systems) y ) y )
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics
A A fluid fluid is a substance that flows under the action of is a substance that flows under the action of
shearing forces If a fluid is at rest the forces on it shearing forces If a fluid is at rest the forces on it shearing forces. If a fluid is at rest the forces on it shearing forces. If a fluid is at rest the forces on it
are in balance. are in balance.
AA i fl id th t i ibl A i fl id th t i ibl A li id li id ii A A gas gas is a fluid that is compressible. A is a fluid that is compressible. A liquid liquid is a is a
fluid that is hard to compress or incompressible. fluid that is hard to compress or incompressible.
A A free surface free surface is formed as a boundary between a is formed as a boundary between a
liquid and a gas above it (e.g. water and air). liquid and a gas above it (e.g. water and air).
Basic of Fluid Properties Basic of Fluid Properties
Pressure and Force Pressure and Force :: Pressure Pressure
P P is defined as the amount of is defined as the amount of
force force FF exerted on a unit area exerted on a unit area AA
ff b t (i fl id) b t (i fl id)
A
F
P =
Force, {F}={M.L.T
-2
} ={N}
Pressure= {P}={M.L.T
-2
} /{L
2
}
2
of a of a substance (i.e., fluid). substance (i.e., fluid).
A
={N}/m
2
}={Pa}
1p
a
= 10
5
Nm
-2
1psi =6895Pa
Density Density (rho) is the amount (rho) is the amount
m
{}={M/L
3
}
Density Density (rho) is the amount (rho) is the amount
of of Mass Mass per per Unit Volume Unit Volume of of
fluid: fluid:
V
m
=
{}={M/L
3
} ,
SI: {Kg/m
3
} or
Slugs/ft
3
in the GB system
Specific weight (gamma)
also known as Unit Weight is
defined as the amount of
V
W
=
{KN/m {KN/m
33
} or } or
lb/ft lb/ft
33
in GB system in GB system
defined as the amount of
weight of fluid per unit volume
of the fluid:
g
V
. =
yy
C C
Sg
w
s
w
s
0 0
4 @ 4 @

= =
Specific Gravity (S
g
) is the ratio of the
weight of the body to the weight of an
equal volume of standard substance
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
The pressure at any given point of a non The pressure at any given point of a non--moving (static) fluid moving (static) fluid
is called the is called the hydrostatic pressure hydrostatic pressure
Pressure is function of the fluid properties and directly Pressure is function of the fluid properties and directly
proportional to the height of the proportional to the height of the fluid column above the fluid column above the
area area of concern. of concern.
h p A = A .
is the specific weight
h is the height of the water column g
SI Unit for pressre: Pa, kPa, Psi, Bar, N/m
2
F: is the hydrostatic force
A . h F
cg
. =
The pressure at a given depth in a continuous, static body of liquid is constant.
p
1
p
3
p
1
= p
2
= p
3
4 4 September September 2012 2012 66 Dr. Tarek Merabtene Dr. Tarek Merabtene
p
2
Law of Conservation of Mass
F di i l i ibl F di i l i ibl t d Fl RTT RTT For one dimensional incompressible For one dimensional incompressible steady Flow RTT RTT
reduces to: Outflow = Inflow. At constant density the reduces to: Outflow = Inflow. At constant density the
equations is known as the equations is known as the continuity or flow rate continuity or flow rate equations is known as the equations is known as the continuity or flow rate continuity or flow rate
Equation: Equation:
n n n n


= = = =
= =
n n n n
1 i
out i i
1 i
in i i
1 i
out
1 i
in
) A . (v ) A . (v or Q Q
}}

= = = =
= =
1 i
out i i i
1 i
in i i i
1 i
out
1 i
in
) A . v . ( ) A . v . ( or m m

v v is called the is called the flow average velocity flow average velocity : : vv
av av
=Q/A= =Q/A= 11//AA }}((vv.n). .n).dA dA
For pipes of constant diameter and incompressible For pipes of constant diameter and incompressible
flow average velocity flow average velocity vv
avg avg
stays the same down the stays the same down the g y g y
avg avg
yy
pipe, even if the velocity profile changes pipe, even if the velocity profile changes
Fluid Dynamics: The Bernoulli Equation
To solve for the flow rate (Q) we need dynamic approach to Fluid Mechanics
Assuming that fluid motion is governed only by pressure and gravity forces,
applying Newtons second law, F = ma, leads us to the Bernoulli Equation.
P/ + V
2
/2g + z along a streamline .
2g
v
z

p
2
1
1
1
Cst = + +
(P=pressure =specific weight V=velocity g=gravity z=elevation)
A streamline is the path of one particle of water Therefore at any two points
2g
A streamline is the path of one particle of water. Therefore, at any two points
along a streamline, the Bernoulli equation can be applied to evaluate unknown
flows and pressures using a set of engineering assumptions.
At any two points on a streamline:
1
2
2 2
2g
v
z

p
2g
v
z

p
2
2
2 1
1
1
+ + = + +
Reynolds Number defines the flow regime Reynolds Number defines the flow regime
Laminar Laminar vs vs Turbulent flow Turbulent flow
Critical Reynolds number (Re Critical Reynolds number (Re
cr cr
) for flow in a ) for flow in a
round pipe round pipe
Definition of Reynolds number
D . D . .
Re
v v
= =
round pipe round pipe
Re < Re < 2300 2300 laminar laminar
2300 2300 Re Re 4000 4000 transitional transitional
Re > Re > 4000 4000 turbulent turbulent
y
u
Note that these values are approximate. Note that these values are approximate.
For a given application, R For a given application, R
ee
depends upon depends upon
v: velocity
D di
Pipe roughness Pipe roughness
Vibrations Vibrations
Upstream fluctuations, disturbances (valves, Upstream fluctuations, disturbances (valves,
elbows, etc. that may disturb the flow) elbows, etc. that may disturb the flow)
D: diameter
: density
u: kinematic viscosity
: Dynamic viscosity
, y ) , y )
: Dynamic viscosity
Friction and Minor Losses in pipe Friction and Minor Losses in pipe
Total head loss Total head loss hh
T T
in a system (i.e., the pipe sections) is in a system (i.e., the pipe sections) is
comprised of friction losses ( comprised of friction losses (hh
LL
) and the minor losses ( ) and the minor losses (hh
mm
) )
(in the hydraulics components): (in the hydraulics components): hh
T T
= h = h
L L
+ h + h
mm
v v
2
j
2
i

i
K
L
f h
ff: friction factor (friction loss coefficient) K: Minor loss coefficient : friction factor (friction loss coefficient) K: Minor loss coefficient
2g 2g
j
i

+ =
) components ( j
j
) pipe ( i
i
i
i T
K
D
f h
ff: friction factor (friction loss coefficient), K: Minor loss coefficient , : friction factor (friction loss coefficient), K: Minor loss coefficient ,
D: diameter [m], L: length [m], v: velocity [m/s] D: diameter [m], L: length [m], v: velocity [m/s]
The total energy equation with head loss becomes: The total energy equation with head loss becomes:
2g
v
2g
v
2g
v
2g
v
2
j
2 2
2
i i

+ + + + = + +
) components ( j
j
) pipe ( i
i
i
i
i
i
K
D
L
f
P
z
P
z

hh
pp
: pump head (energy) in meter (if any) : pump head (energy) in meter (if any)
g g g g
) components ( j ) pipe ( i
i

Energy Equation in a pipe with friction and Energy Equation in a pipe with friction and
Minor losses, Pump and turbine Minor losses, Pump and turbine , p , p
When a piping system involves pumps and/or turbines, When a piping system involves pumps and/or turbines,
pump and turbine head must be included in the energy pump and turbine head must be included in the energy
ti ti equation equation
The useful head of the pump (h The useful head of the pump (h ) or the head ) or the head The useful head of the pump (h The useful head of the pump (h
pump,u pump,u
) or the head ) or the head
extracted by the turbine (h extracted by the turbine (h
turbine,e turbine,e
), are functions of volume ), are functions of volume
flow rate, i.e., they are not constants. flow rate, i.e., they are not constants.
Operating point of system is where the system is in Operating point of system is where the system is in Operating point of system is where the system is in Operating point of system is where the system is in
balance, e.g., where pump head is equal to the head balance, e.g., where pump head is equal to the head
losses. losses.
Simple Piping System Simple Piping System
Two general Two general types: types:
Pi i i Pi i i Pipes in series Pipes in series
Volume flow rate is constant Volume flow rate is constant
Head loss is the summation Head loss is the summation Head loss is the summation Head loss is the summation
of parts of parts
Pipes in parallel Pipes in parallel
Volume flow rate is the sum Volume flow rate is the sum
of the components of the components
Pressure loss across all Pressure loss across all Pressure loss across all Pressure loss across all
branches is the same branches is the same
Energy (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) Energy (EGL) and Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
The fall of the EGL reflects the energy losses in the system EGL drops slowly due to The fall of the EGL reflects the energy losses in the system. EGL drops slowly due to
friction losses and it drops sharply due to a major loss (a valve or transition) or due to
work extraction (to a turbine). The EGL can rise only if there is work addition (as from a
pump). HGL is obtained as EGL minus the velocity head V
2
/2g above a datum.
The EGL and HGL slope downward in the direction of the flow due to the head loss in
the pipe. A sudden change occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever a loss occurs due
to a sudden geometry change as represented At points where the HGL passes through g y g p p p g
the centerline of the pipe, the pressure is zero. If the pipe lies above the HGL, there is a
vacuum in the pipe, a condition that is often avoided, if possible, in the design of piping
systems; an exception would be in the design of a siphon.
Computational model of the Computational model of the
friction factor friction factor ff friction factor friction factor ff
Moody chart was developed for circular pipes, but can be used Moody chart was developed for circular pipes, but can be used
for non for non--circular pipes using hydraulic diameter circular pipes using hydraulic diameter for non for non circular pipes using hydraulic diameter circular pipes using hydraulic diameter
Colebrook equation is a curve Colebrook equation is a curve--fit of the data which is convenient fit of the data which is convenient
for computations. for computations.
Both Moody chart and Colebrook equation are accurate to Both Moody chart and Colebrook equation are accurate to 15 15% %
d t h i i t l fitti f d t d t h i i t l fitti f d t
Implicit equation for f which can be solved using
simple numerical model
due to roughness size, experimental error, curve fitting of data, due to roughness size, experimental error, curve fitting of data,
etc. etc.
Modified Energy Equation Modified Energy Equation
The total kinetic energy at the section using average The total kinetic energy at the section using average The total kinetic energy at the section using average The total kinetic energy at the section using average
velocity is given by velocity is given by V V
33
AA. Therefore, the correction factor . Therefore, the correction factor
is ( is (
AA
vv
33
dA) dA)/(V /(V
33
A) or A) or 11/A /A
AA
( (vv/V) /V)
33
dA dA. .
If we have a defined velocity distribution function we can If we have a defined velocity distribution function we can
find the correction factor analytically. find the correction factor analytically.
For inviscid flows it is For inviscid flows it is 11, for laminar flow it is , for laminar flow it is 2 2 and for and for
turbulent flows it varies between turbulent flows it varies between 11..03 03 and and 11..3 3 with Reynolds with Reynolds
Number. Number. Number. Number.
Thus, the real flows calculation using Bernoulli Equation Thus, the real flows calculation using Bernoulli Equation
must be written as: must be written as:
2g
v
K
D
L
f
2g
v P
z
2g
v
P
z
2
2
j
j
i
i
i
i
2
2
2
2
2 2 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + = + +

o o

2 pipe in components : j ; pipe in tions sec : i

g g g
j i
i
2
. \

Assignment Assignment 11
Your are called to design a water slide as shown in the figure to be installed in a swimming Your are called to design a water slide as shown in the figure to be installed in a swimming
pool. Your client insist on the satisfaction and safety of his customers ( pool. Your client insist on the satisfaction and safety of his customers (i.e i.e, ensure their , ensure their
happiness but without burning their bottoms). Your researcher ends to recommend a happiness but without burning their bottoms). Your researcher ends to recommend a
continuous water flow of continuous water flow of 1 1..39 39 L/s (about L/s (about 22 22 gal/min) down the slide. To be on a safe side you gal/min) down the slide. To be on a safe side you
decide to use an decide to use an 80 80%%--efficient pump under the slide, submerged efficient pump under the slide, submerged 1 1 m below the water surface m below the water surface
to feeds a to feeds a 5 5--mm--long, long, 44--cm cm- -diameter hose, of roughness diameter hose, of roughness 0 0..008 008 cm, to the slide. The hose cm, to the slide. The hose
discharges the water at the top of the slide, discharges the water at the top of the slide, 4 4 m above the water surface, as a free jet. Ignore m above the water surface, as a free jet. Ignore
minor losses and assume = minor losses and assume = 1 1..06 06. Find the brake horsepower needed to drive the pump. For . Find the brake horsepower needed to drive the pump. For
water take = water take = 998 998 kg/m kg/m
3 3
and = and = 0 0..001 001 kg/ kg/mmss. Write the steady . Write the steady--flow energy equation from the flow energy equation from the
water surface ( water surface (11) to the outlet ( ) to the outlet (2 2) at the top of the slide: ) at the top of the slide:
Assignment Assignment 22
A 200mm Diameter pipeline of 5000m long and effective roughness 0.03 mm, A 200mm Diameter pipeline of 5000m long and effective roughness 0.03 mm, p p g g , p p g g ,
delivers water between two reservoirs where the minimum difference of water level delivers water between two reservoirs where the minimum difference of water level
is 40 m. is 40 m.
(a) (a) Determine the steady discharge between the two reservoirs (include friction losses Determine the steady discharge between the two reservoirs (include friction losses
d th i l t th t d it f th t k ) d th i l t th t d it f th t k ) and the minor losses at the entrance and exit of the tanks). and the minor losses at the entrance and exit of the tanks).
Ans. 43.52 l/s Ans. 43.52 l/s
(a) (a) If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head, If the discharge is to be increased to 50 l/s without increase in gross head,
determine the length of a 200 mm diameter pipe of effective roughness 0.015 mm to determine the length of a 200 mm diameter pipe of effective roughness 0.015 mm to
be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction losses. be fitted in parallel. Consider only friction losses.
Ans 1645m Ans 1645m Ans. 1645m Ans. 1645m
Assignment Assignment 33
A four pump A four pump--turbine units of pumped storage hydro turbine units of pumped storage hydro--electric scheme are each to electric scheme are each to p p p p p p g y p p g y
supplied by a high supplied by a high--pressure pipeline of length pressure pipeline of length 2000 2000 m. The minimum water head m. The minimum water head
level between the upper and lower reservoirs is level between the upper and lower reservoirs is 310 310 m and the maximum is m and the maximum is 340 340m. m.
The upper reservoirs has a usable volume of The upper reservoirs has a usable volume of 33..25 25xx10 10
66
mm
33
which could be released which could be released
t th t bi i i i i d f t th t bi i i i i d f 44 hh to the turbines in a minimum period of to the turbines in a minimum period of 4 4 hours. hours.
Max. Power output required/turbine = Max. Power output required/turbine = 110 110 MW MW
Turbo Turbo--Generator Efficiency = Generator Efficiency = 80 80 %%
Eff ti h f i li Eff ti h f i li 00 66 Effective roughness of pipeline = Effective roughness of pipeline = 00..6 6 mm mm
Taking Minor losses in the pipeline, power station and draft tube to be Taking Minor losses in the pipeline, power station and draft tube to be 33..0 0 m: m:
(1) (1) Determine the minimum diameter of the pipeline to enable the maximum specified Determine the minimum diameter of the pipeline to enable the maximum specified
power to be generated power to be generated Ans : Ans : 22 66mm 22 77 mm power to be generated. power to be generated. Ans.: Ans.: 22..66mm--22..7 7 mm
(2) (2) Determine the pressure head to be developed by the pump Determine the pressure head to be developed by the pump--turbines when reversed turbines when reversed
to act in the pumping mode to deliver a total volume of to act in the pumping mode to deliver a total volume of 33..25 25xx10 10
66
mm
33
to the upper to the upper
reservoir uniformly during reservoir uniformly during 66 hours in the off hours in the off--peak period. peak period. Ans.: Ans.: 365 365mm--370 370 mm reservoir uniformly during reservoir uniformly during 6 6 hours in the off hours in the off peak period. peak period. Ans.: Ans.: 365 365mm 370 370 mm
Assignment 5 Assignment 5
A reservoir A reservoir AA delivers water to a reservoir delivers water to a reservoir BB through two uniform pipelines AJ:JB of through two uniform pipelines AJ:JB of g p p g p p
diameters diameters 300 300 mm and mm and 200 200 mm respectively. Just upstream of the node J (change mm respectively. Just upstream of the node J (change
in section) a control discharge of in section) a control discharge of 30 30 l/s is taken off. l/s is taken off.
Length AJ= Length AJ=3000 3000 m; JB= m; JB=4000 4000 m ; effective roughness of both pipes m ; effective roughness of both pipes 00..015 015 mm; and mm; and
h d t l l h d t l l 25 25 head water level = head water level =25 25 m. m.
Determine the discharge to B (neglecting losses at node Determine the discharge to B (neglecting losses at node J) J)..
Ans. Q Ans. Q1 1==62 62..5 5 l/s, Q l/s, Q2 2==32 32..5 5 l/s l/s
Assignment Assignment 44
A pump delivers a steady flow of water (,) from a large tank to two other higher A pump delivers a steady flow of water (,) from a large tank to two other higher-- p p y ( ) g g p p y ( ) g g
elevation tanks, as shown. The same pipe of diameter d and roughness is used elevation tanks, as shown. The same pipe of diameter d and roughness is used
throughout. All minor losses except through the valve are neglected, and the partially throughout. All minor losses except through the valve are neglected, and the partially--
closed valve has a loss coefficient K closed valve has a loss coefficient K
valve valve
. Turbulent flow may be assumed with all kinetic . Turbulent flow may be assumed with all kinetic
energy flux correction coefficients equal to energy flux correction coefficients equal to 11..06 06. The pump net head H is a known . The pump net head H is a known energy flux correction coefficients equal to energy flux correction coefficients equal to 11..06 06. The pump net head H is a known . The pump net head H is a known
function of Q function of Q
AA
and hence also of V and hence also of V
AA
= Q = Q
AA
/A /A
pipe pipe
. Subscript . Subscript JJ refers to the junction point at refers to the junction point at
the node J where branch A splits into B and C. Pipe length L the node J where branch A splits into B and C. Pipe length L
CC
is much longer than L is much longer than L
BB
. It . It
is desired to predict the pressure at is desired to predict the pressure at JJ, the three pipe velocities and friction factors, and , the three pipe velocities and friction factors, and
the pump head Thus there are the pump head Thus there are 88 variables: H V variables: H V VV VV ff ff ff pp Write down the Write down the the pump head. Thus there are the pump head. Thus there are 8 8 variables: H, V variables: H, V
AA
, V , V
BB
, V , V
CC
, f , f
AA
, f , f
BB
, f , f
CC
, p , p
JJ
. Write down the . Write down the
eight equations needed to resolve this problem, but do not solve for now, since an eight equations needed to resolve this problem, but do not solve for now, since an
elaborate iteration procedure, or an equation solver would be required. elaborate iteration procedure, or an equation solver would be required.