Green Energy Course-

Renewable Energy Systems

Bin san: Nguyn Hu Phc
Khoa in- in T- i Hc Bch Khoa TPHCM
PV Systems
How Fast is Solar PV Growing?
The growth
in total solar
energy is slower
(0.06 quad in 2001)
versus 0.081 quad
in 2007) partially
due to solar thermal
retirements
PV Current-Voltage Variation with
Insolation and Temperature
Pat Chapman Solar Example
When Prof. Chapman built a new house in Urbana in
2007 he added some solar PV.
His system has 14 modules
with 205 W each, for a
total of 2870W. He has
a 3300 W inverter.
Total cost was about $27,000,
but tax credits reduced it
to $16,900.
He should be getting about 3700 kWh per year
Source: www.patrickchapman.com/solar.htm
Lecture 24
PV Systems
Professor Tom Overbye
Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
ECE 333
Green Electric Energy
PV Systems Three configurations
Grid-connected systems
PV Systems Three configurations
Stand-alone systems which charge batteries
PV Systems Three configurations
Stand-alone systems with directly-connected loads
Load I-V Curves
PV panels have I-V curves and so do loads
Use a combination of the two curves to tell where the
system is actually operating
Operating point the intersection point at which the PV
and the load I-V curves are satisfied
Resistive Load I-V Curve
Straight line with slope 1/R
As R increases, operating point moves to the right
V IR =
1
(9.1) I V
R
| |
=
|
\ .
Can use a potentiometer
to plot the PV modules
IV curve
Resistance value that
results in maximum
power
(9.2)
m
m
m
V
R
I
=
Figure 9.5
Maximum power transfer
Maximum
power point
(MPP) should
occur when the
load resistance
R =V
R
/I
R
under
1-sun 25C, AM
1.5 conditions
A MPP tracker maintains PV systems highest
efficiency as the amount of insolationchanges
DC Motor I-V Curve
DC motors have an I-V curve similar to a resistor
e =k is back emf, R
a
is armature resistance
(9.3)
a
V IR k = +
DC Motor I-V Curve
Linear Current
Booster (LCB) helps
the motor be able to
start in low sunlight
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Battery I-V Curves
Energy is stored in batteries for most off-grid
applications
An ideal battery is a voltage source V
B
A real battery has internal resistance R
i
(9.4)
B i
V V R I = +
Battery I-V Curves
Charging I-V line tilts right with a slope of 1/R
i
,
applied voltage must be greater than V
B
Discharging battery- I-V line tilts to the left with slope
1/R
i
, terminal voltage is less than V
B
Figure 9.12
Maximum Power Point Trackers
Maximum Power Point Trackers (MPPTs) are often a
standard part of PV systems, especially grid-connected
Idea is to keep the operating point near the knee of the
PV systems I-V curve
Buck-boost converter DC to DC converter, can either
buck (lower) or boost (raise) the voltage
Varying the duty cycle of a buck-boost converter can be
done such that the PV system will deliver the maximum
power to the load
MPPTs Example 9.2
A PV module has its maximum power point at V
m
=
17 V and I
m
=6A.
What duty cycle should its MPPT have if the module
is delivering power to a 10 resistance?
Max power delivered by the PVs is 17V*6A =102W
2
31.9
R
R
V
P V V
R
= =
MPPTs Example 9.2
The converter must boost the 17 V PV voltage to the
desired 31.9 V
Solving gives
0
(9.9)
1
i
V D
V D
| |
=
|

\ .
31.9
1.88
17 1
D
D
| |
= =
|

\ .
0.65 D =
Hourly I-V Curves
Current at any
voltage is
proportional to
insolation
V
OC
drops as
insolation
decreases
Can just adjust
the 1-sun I-V
curve by
shifting it up
or down
Grid-Connected Systems
Can have a combiner box and a single inverter or small
inverters for each panel
Individual inverters make the system modular
Inverter sends AC power to utility service panel
Power conditioning unit (PCU) may include
MPPT
Ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI)
Circuitry to disconnect from grid if utility loses power
Battery bank to provide back-up power
Components of Grid-Connected PV
Individual Inverter Concept
Easily allow expansion
Connections to house distribution panel are simple
Less need for expensive DC cabling
Interfacing with the Utility
Net metering customer only pays for the amount of
energy that the PV system is unable to supply
In the event of an outage, the PV system must quickly
and automatically disconnect from the grid
A battery backup system
can help provide power
to the systems owners
during an outage
Good grid-connect
inverters have
efficiencies above 90%
http://www.pasolar.ncat.org/lesson05.php
DC and AC Rated Power
Estimate the AC output power under varying conditions
P
dc,STC
- DC power of array from adding module ratings
under standard test conditions (STC) (1-sun, AM 1.5,
25C)
Conversion efficiency includes losses from inverter,
dirty collectors, mismatched modules, and differences in
ambient conditions
These losses can derate power output by 20-40%, even
in full sun
,
(Conversion Efficiency) (9.10)
ac dc STC
P P =
Losses from Mismatched Modules
Illustrates the impact of slight variations in module I-V
curves
Only 330 W is possible instead of 360 W
Losses due to Cell Temperature
As temperature increases, power decreases
PVUSA test conditions (PTC) 1-sun insolation in
plane of array, 20C ambient temperature, wind-speed
of 1 m/s
P
ac(PTC)
AC output of an array under PTC test
conditions is a better indicator of actual power delivered
in full sun than the more commonly used P
dc(STC)
Describing a system based on P
dc(STC)
without
correcting for temperature and the inverter is
misleading
Impact of Temperature
V
OC
decreases by ~0.37%
per C for crystalline
silicon cells
I
SC
increases by about
0.05% per C
NOCT Normal
Operating Temperature
20
S (8.24)
0.8
cell amb
NOCT C
T T

| |
= +
|
\ .
Figure 8.36
Ex. 9.3 - PV Derating using PTC
A PV array has rating of 1 kW under standard test
condtions (STC). Nominal operating temperature
(NOCT) from Chapter 8 is 47C
DC power output drops by 0.5%/ C above the STC
temperature of 25C
Mismatched module loss=3%
Dirt loss =4%
Inverter efficiency =90%
Estimate P
ac(PTC)
, the AC output power under PVUSA
test conditions (PTC)
Ex. 9.3 1 kW PV system PTC
Rated AC Power
The estimated cell temperature is
With DC losses at 0.5%/ C above 25C,
Including inefficiencies, estimated AC rated power at
PTC is
20
S (8.24)
0.8
cell amb
NOCT C
T T

| |
= +
|
\ .
47 20
20 1 =53.8
0.8
cell
C
T C

| |
= +
|
\ .
| |
,( )
1 kW 1 0.005(53.8 25) =0.856 kW
dc PTC
P =
,( )
8.56 kW 0.97 0.96 0.90 = 0.72 kW
ac PTC
P =
Peak-Hours Approach
1-sun is 1 kW/m
2
We can say that 5.6 kWh/(m
2
-day) is 5.6 hours of peak
sun
If we know P
ac
, computed for 1-sun, just multiply by
hours of peak sun to get kWh
If we assume the average PV system efficiency over a
day is the same as the efficiency at 1-sun, then
( )
Energy (kWh/day) kW h/day of "peak sun" (9.14)
ac
P =
Capacity Factor of PV
| | | |
Energy kWh/yr kW CF 8760 h/yr (9.15)
ac
P =
( )
h/day of "peak sun"
CF (9.16)
24 h/day
=
Figure 9.28
PV Capacity
Factors for
US cities
Stand-Alone PV Systems
When the grid isnt nearby, the extra cost and
complexity of a stand-alone power system can be worth
the benefits
System may include batteries and a backup generator
Stand-Alone PV - Considerations
PV System design begins with an estimate of the
loads that need to be served by the PV system
Tradeoffs between more expensive, efficient
appliances and size of PVs and battery system needed
Should you use more DC loads to avoid inverter
inefficiencies or use more AC loads for convenience?
What fraction of the full load should the backup
generator supply?
Power consumed while devices are off
Inrush current used to start major appliances
Power Requirements of Typical
Loads
Table 9.10 Power Requirements of some typical loads
Note that these tables are useful for getting an idea of the
average values, but the best data comes from actual
measurements!
Consumer Electronics as Loads
Consider the power when the device is actively used
Also consider the power consumed when device is in
standby
Table 9.10 Power requirements of some consumer electronics
Batteries and PV Systems
Batteries in PV systems provide storage, help meet
surge current requirements, and provide a constant
output voltage
Lead-acid batteries are still the most
commonly-used batteries for PV systems
The lead-acid battery is an electrical
storage device that uses a reversible
chemical reaction to store energy.
Lead-acid batteries date back to the
1860s
http://img.alibaba.com/photo/11244127/Lead_Acid_Batteries.jpg
Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries
+ 2
2 4 4 2
Positive Plate: PbO +4H +SO +2 PbSO 2H O (9.21) e

+
2
2 4 4
Negative Plate: PbO +SO PbSO 2e (9.22)

+
Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries
During discharge, voltage drops and specific gravity
drops
Sulfate adheres to the plates during discharge and comes
back off when charging, but some of it becomes
permanently attached
Stand-Alone PV Systems Design
Summary
Analysis of load
Determine daily demands for power and energy
What fraction of the worst month design month should you
cover with the PV system? How much should you cover with
a backup generator?
What PV system voltage should you have?
Convert total DC load to amp hours @ system voltage
PV sizing
Pick a PV module based on insolation data for the site for the
design month
Determine how many parallel strings of modules and how
many modules in each string
Stand-Alone PV Systems Design
Summary
Battery Sizing How many days of storage needed?
Generator Sizing
System Costs
http://www.ecosolarenergy.com.au/How_a_Standalone_System_Works-28.htm
ECE 333
Green Electric Energy Lecture 25 Lecture 25
PV Systems, Energy Storage PV Systems, Energy Storage
Prof. Tom Overbye Prof. Tom Overbye
Department of Electrical and Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering Computer Engineering
Announcements
Homework 12 is 8.3, 8.7, 8.9, 9.1, 9.7. It should be done
before the final but need not be turned in.
Reading: Chapters 8 and 9
Final exam is on Friday December 11 from 8 to 11am.
Room 106B8 Eng. Hall and Ceramics Building 218.
If your last name begins with A through K come to 106B8
Eng Hall; otherwise go to Ceramics Building 218.
Final is comprehensive, with more emphasis on solar (since it
wasnt on an earlier exam)
Same procedure except you can bring in one new notesheet and
your two previous notesheets.
In the News
On Monday US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) said that greenhouse gases are a
danger to public health and welfare
This is a necessary first step to allow the EPA to
regulate greenhouse gas emissions
Some industries are concerned these regulations
may be more restrictive than a legislative approach
Some in Congress have called on EPA to
withdraw its proposal because of recent email
releases that question the underlying science
PV Systems Four configurations
1. Grid-connected systems
PV Systems Four Configurations
2. Stand-alone systems with directly-connected loads
DC Motor I-V Curve
DC motors have an I-V curve similar to a resistor
e =k is back emf, R
a
is armature resistance
(9.3)
a
V IR k = +
PV Systems Four Configurations
3. Stand-alone systems which charge batteries
PV Systems Four Configurations
4. Microgrids
As the name implies a microgrid can be thought of as a
small electric grid with several generation sources
The microgrid can be configured to operate either connected
to the main grid or standalone
The military is a key proponent of microgrids, since
they would like the ability to operate bases independent
of any grid system for long periods of time
Renewable generation by be quite attractive because it
decreases the need to store large amounts of fossil fuel
Time magazine reported in Nov 2009 that average US solider
in Afghanistan requires 22 gallons of fuel per day at an
average costs of $45 per gallon
47
Battery I-V Curves
Energy is stored in batteries for most off-grid applications
An ideal battery is a voltage source V
B
A real battery has internal resistance R
i
(9.4)
B i
V V R I = +
Battery I-V Curves
Charging I-V line tilts right with a slope of 1/R
i
,
applied voltage must be greater than V
B
Discharging battery- I-V line tilts to the left with slope
1/R
i
, terminal voltage is less than V
B
Stand-Alone PV Systems
When the grid isnt nearby, the extra cost and
complexity of a stand-alone power system can be
worth the benefits
System may include batteries and a backup
generator
Stand-Alone PV - Considerations
PV System design begins with an estimate of the
loads that need to be served by the PV system
Tradeoffs between more expensive, efficient
appliances and size of PVs and battery system needed
Should you use more DC loads to avoid inverter
inefficiencies or use more AC loads for convenience?
What fraction of the full load should the backup
generator supply?
Power consumed while devices are off
Inrush current used to start major appliances
Batteries and PV Systems
Batteries in PV systems provide storage, help meet
surge current requirements, and provide a constant
output voltage.
Lots of interest in battery research, primarily driven by
the potential of pluggable hybrid electric vehicles
$2.4 billion awarded in August 2009
There are many different types of batteries, and which
one is best is very much dependent on the situation
Cost, weight, number and depth of discharges, efficiency,
temperature performance, discharge rate, recharging rates
Lead Acid Batteries
Most common battery for larger-scale storage
applications
Invented in 1859
There are three main types: 1) SLI (Starting, Lighting
and Ignition) : optimized for starting cars in which
they are practically always close to fully charged, 2)
golf cart : used for running golf carts with fuller
discharge, and 3) deep-cycle, allow much more
repeated charge/discharge such as in a solar
application
53
Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries
+ 2
2 4 4 2
Positive Plate: PbO +4H +SO +2 PbSO 2H O (9.21) e

+
2
2 4 4
Negative Plate: PbO +SO PbSO 2e (9.22)

+
Basics of Lead-Acid Batteries
During discharge, voltage drops and specific gravity
drops
Sulfate adheres to the plates during discharge and comes
back off when charging, but some of it becomes
permanently attached
Battery Storage
Battery capacity has tended to be specified in amp-
hours (Ah) as opposed to an energy value; multiply by
average voltage to get watt-hours
Value tells how many amps battery can deliver over a
specified period of time.
Amount of Ah a battery can delivery depends on its
discharge rate; slower is better
56
Figure shows
how capacity
degrades with
temperature
and rate
Battery Technologies
Type Density,
Wh/kG
Cost
$/kWh
Cycles Charge
time,
hours
Power
W/kg
Lead-acid,
deep cycle
35 50-100 1000 12 180
Nickel-metal
hydride
50 350 800 3 625
Lithium Ion 170 500-100 2000 2 2500
The above values are just approximate; battery technology is rapidly changing,
and there are many different types within each category. For stationary
applications lead-acid is hard to beat because of its low cost. It has about a 75%
efficiency. For electric cars lithium ion batteries appear to be the current front
runner
Estimating Storage Needs
Stand-Alone PV Systems Design
Summary
Battery Sizing How many days of storage needed?
Generator Sizing
System Costs
http://www.ecosolarenergy.com.au/How_a_Standalone_System_Works-28.htm
Photovoltaic Solar Systems
Dr. William J .
Makofske
August 2004
What is a solar cell?
Solid state device that converts incident solar energy
directly into electrical energy
Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30%
No moving parts
No noise
Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more
Cross Section of Solar Cell
How Does It Work?
The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type
silicon) creates a voltage
Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons, creating a
electron and a hole in the junction
Connecting both sides to an external circuit causes
current to flow
In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a small
battery with voltages typically 0.5 v. DC
Combining Solar Cells
Solar cells can be electrically connected in series
(voltages add) or in parallel (currents add) to give any
desired voltage and current (or power) output since P =
I x V
Photovoltaic cells are typically sold in modules (or
panels) of 12 volts with power outputs of 50 to 100+
watts. These are then combined into arrays to give the
desired power or watts.
Cells, Modules, Arrays
Rest of System Components
While a major component and cost of a PV system is the
array, several other components are typically needed.
These include:
The inverter DC to AC electricity
DC and AC safety switches
Batteries (optional depending on design)
Monitor (optional but a good idea)
Ordinary electrical meters work as net meters
The Photovoltaic Array with its
other electrical components
PV was developed for the space
program in the 1960s
PV Price and Quantity
Manufactured Relationship
The PV Market
Solar Calculators
REMOTE POWER
Lighting
Buoys
Communications
Signs
Water Pumping
Mountain Cabins
Photovoltaic Array for Lighting
Telecommunications Tower
Remote Water Pumping in Utah
Recreation Vehicle Outfitted with
Solar Panels
Solar Lanterns for Landscaping
A Solar Driven Band
The Market Expands
As prices dropped, PV began to be used for stand-alone
home power. If you didnt have an existing electrical
line close to your property, it was cheaper to have a PV
system (including batteries and a backup generator)
than to connect to the grid. As technology advanced,
grid-connected PV with net metering became possible.
NET METERING
In net metering, when the PV system produces excess
electricity, it is sent to the grid system, turning the
meter backwards. If you are using more power than is
being produced, or it is at night, the electricity is
received from the grid system and the meter turns
forwards. Depending on PV size and electrical
consumption, you may produce more or less than you
actually use. Individual houses may become power
producers.
Net Metering can be done with or
without a battery backup
BATTERIES
Batteries can be used to provide long-term or short-term
electrical supply in case of grid failure. Many grid-
connected houses choose to have a small electrical
battery system to provide loads with power for half a
day in case of outage. Larger number of batteries are
typically used for remote grid-independent systems.
Battery Sizing I
If your load is 10 kw-hr per day, and you want to battery
to provide 2.5 days of storage, then it needs to store 25
kw-hr of extractable electrical energy. Since deep cycle
batteries can be discharged up to 80% of capacity
without harm, you need a battery with a storage of
25/0.8 =31.25 kw-hr. A typical battery at 12 volts and
200 amp-hour capacity stores 2.4 kw-hr of electrical
energy.
Battery Sizing II
The relationship between energy in kw-hr and battery
capacity is
E(kw-hr) =capacity(amp-hr) x voltage/1000
E =200 amp-hr x 12 volts/1000=2.4 kw-hr
So for 31.25 kw-hr of storage we need
31.25 kw-hr/2.4 kw-hr/battery =13 batteries
If we are happy with one half day, we need only 2 or 3
batteries
2 KW PV on Roof with battery storage. Solar
hot water collectors and tank
PV On Homes
PV can be added to existing roofs. While south tilted
exposure is best, flat roofs do very well. Even east or
west facing roofs that do not have steep slopes can
work fairly well if you are doing net metering since the
summer sun is so much higher and more intense than
the winter sun. The exact performance of any PV
system in any orientation is easily predictable.
Photovoltaic Array on Roof and as
an Overhang
KW PV System Installed along
Roof Ridge
California Home PV Installation
PV on House
2.4 KW System under Installation in
New Hampshire
PV Installed at Roofline on Building
at Frost Valley, NY
PV Panels on Tile Roofs in Arizona
PV on Roof in California
Totally Inadequate Roof?
If it is impossible or you dont want to put a PV system
on your existing roof, it is possible to pole mount the
arrays somewhere near the house as long as the solar
exposure is good. Pole mounted solar arrays also have
the potential to rotate to follow the sun over the day.
This provides a 30% or more boost to the performance.
Pole Mount for Solarex Modules
Pole Mounted PV
Pole Mounted PV
Roof Integrated PV
If you are doing new construction or a reroofing job, it
is possible to make the roof itself a solar PV collector.
This saves the cost of the roof itself, and offers a more
aesthetic design. The new roof can be shingled or look
like metal roofing. A few examples follow.
Solar Roofing Shingles
Roof Integrated Photovoltaics in
Misawi, Japan
Roof Integrated PV in Japan
Roof Integrated PV in Maine
Roof Integrated Photovoltaic
System in Colorado
Roof Integrated PV
(objects below chimney are solar hot water
collectors)
PV Installation in Planned
Community in Germany
Sizing a PV System
Solar modules are typically sold by the peak watt. That means
that when the sun is at its peak intensity (clear day around
midday) of 1000 watts per m2, a solar module rates at say 100
Wp (peak watts) would put out 100 watts of power. The climate
data at a given site summarizes the solar intensity data in terms
of peak sun hours, the effective number of hours that the sun is at
that peak intensity on an average day. If the average peak sun
hours is 4.1, it also means that a kw of PV panels will provide
4.1 kw-hr a day.
Thinking About Solar Energy
When the sky is clear and it is around midday, the solar
intensity is about 1000 watts per m2 or 1 kw/m2
In one hour, 1 square meter of the earths surface facing
the sun will intercept about 1 kw-hr of solar energy.
What you collect depends upon surface orientation and
collector efficiency
Sizing a PV System to
Consumption
A PV system can be sized to provide part or all of your
electrical consumption. If you wanted to produce 3600
kw-hr a year at a site that had an average of 4.1 peak
sun hours per day,
PV Size in KWp = 3600 kw-hr
4.1 kw-hr/day x 365 days/yr x 0.9 x0.98
=2.7 KWp
Note: the 0.9 is the inverter efficiency and the 0.98
represents the loss in the wiring.
Thinking About Electrical
Consumption
1 kW =1000 watts =1.34 hp (presumably the maximum
sustained output of a horse)
1 kW-hr =3413 Btu is the consumption of a 1 kW
device operated for an hour (E=Pxt)
Now think about a Sherpa mountain guide carrying a 90
lb pack up Mount Everest, about 29,000 ft or 8,839
meters high, over a week, the typical time for such a
trip
The Sherpa-Week
Since we know that the energy in lifting is given by mgh or 40.8
kg x 9.8 m/s2 x 8839m =3,539,000 joules or about 1 kw-hr, we
can say that roughly 1 kw-hr = 1 Sherpa-week. Typical U.S.
household consumption is 600 kw-hr per month or 20 kw-hr per
day, or every day it is like hiring 20 Sherpa to carry the 90 lb
packs up Mt. Everest. At the end of the week, we have 140
Sherpa climbing the slopes so the equivalent power that we
consume is like having 140 Sherpa climbing Mt Everest
continually. We might want to consider reducing this number
before adding PV to our roof.
How Much Area Is Needed?
The actual area that you need depends on the efficiency
of the solar cells that you use. Typical polycrystalline
silicon with around 12% efficiency will require about
100 ft2 of area to provide a peak kilowatt. Less efficient
amorphous silicon may need 200 ft2 to provide the
same output. Modules are sold in terms of peak wattage
and their areas are given so you can easily determine
the total roof area that is needed for a given size array.
Find the efficiency of a solar cell module
given its power rating and its area
Assume it is a 100 Wp module and its area is 0.8 m2.
Remember that the peak power rating is based on an
intensity of 1000 watts/m2. So the maximum output
with 100% efficiency is P =I x A =1000 w/m2 x 0.8
m2 =800 watts
The actual efficiency =Pactual peak/Pmaximum peak
=100 watts/800 watts =0.125 or 12.5%
Larger Scale PV
Of course you dont have to stop with home based PV
systems. They make equally good sense for businesses
and corporations who want to reduce their cost of
electricity by reducing their peak power consumption,
or who want to emphasize their greenness as part of
their image, or who need to operate in a grid failure.
Rooftop Installation at Mauna Lani
Resort, Hawaii
Details of Roof Installation for
Mauna Lani Resort, Hawaii
Solar Carport
Navy Installation San Diego, California
BP Installation on their Gas Station
Large 57 KW Rural Installation
Solar Added to Flat Roofs
(can upgrade the insulation as well)
59 KW Installation of 5600 ft2 in
Greenpoint, Brooklyn
The Greenpoint, NY Building
FALA Factory Roof Installation
Farmingdale, LI, NY
Note the number of other roofs
Solar Cells Installed in Building
Facade
The sun is the primary energy source for
almost all energy flows on the planet. Its time
we started using it.
PV Photovoltaic Technology
PV systems as an alternativeenergy resource
ComplementaryEnergy-resource in hybridsystems
Necessary Necessary::
high reliability
reasonable cost
user-friendly design
PV-module connections
TThe standards he standards
EN61000-3-2, IEEE1547,
U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) 690
IEC61727
power quality, detection of islandingoperation, grounding
structure and thefeatures of the present and future PV
modules.
IEC 61000-3-2
Islanding
PV Generator Converter AC-DC Local Loads
Grid
Market Considerations PV
Solar-electric-energy growthconsistently 20%25% per
annum over the past 20 years
1) an increasing efficiency of solar cells 1) an increasing efficiency of solar cells
2) manufacturing 2) manufacturing--technology improvements technology improvements
3) economies 3) economiesof of scale scale
PV growth
2001, 350 MW of solar equipment was sold 2003, 574
MW of PV was installed.
In 2004increased to 927 MW
Significant financial incentives in J apan, Germany, Italy
and France
triggered a huge growth in demand
In 2008, Spain installed 45% of all photovoltaics,
2500MW in 2008 to an drop to 375MW in 2009
Perspectives
World solar photovoltaic (PV) installations were 2.826
gigawatts peak (GWp) in 2007, and 5.95 gigawatts in
2008
The three leading countries (Germany, J apan and the
US) represent nearly 89% of the total worldwide PV
installed capacity.
2012 are and 12.3GW- 18.8GW expected
Efficiency
Market leader in solar panel efficiency (measured by energy
conversion ratio) is SunPower, (San J ose USA) - 23.4%
market average of 12-18%.
Efficiencyof 42%achieved at the University of Delaware
in conjunction with DuPont (concentration) in2007.
The highest efficiency achieved without concentration is by
Sharp Corporation at 35.8% using a proprietary triple-
junction manufacturing technology in 2009.
Design of PV-Converters
IGBT technology
Invertersmust must be able to detect an islanding situation
and take appropriatemeasures in order to protect
persons and equipment
PV cells - connected to the grid
PV cells- isolatedpower supplies
Converter topologies
Central inverters
Module-oriented or module-integrated inverters
String Stringinverters inverters
Multistring converter
Integration of PV strings of different technologies and
orientations
Review of PV Converters
S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, F.Blaabjerg A Review of Single-Phase Grid-Connected
Inverters for Photovoltaic Modules, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY
APPLICATIONS, VOL. 41, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 2005
Demands Defined by the Grid
- standards (slide 37) EN standard (applied in Europe)
allows higher current harmonics
the corresponding IEEE and IEC standards.
Islanding
Islanding is the continued operationof the inverter
when the grid has been removed on purpose, by
accident, or by damage
Detection schemes - active and passive.
1.The passive methods -monitor grid parameters.
2.The active schemes introduce a disturbance into thegrid
and monitor the effect.
Grounding & ground faults
The NEC 690 standard- system grounded and
monitored for ground faults
Other Electricity Boards only demand equipment
ground of the PV modules in the case of absent
galvanic isolation
Equipment ground is the case when frames andother
metallic parts are connected to ground.
Power injected into grid
Decoupling is necessary
p instantaneous
P - average
Demands Defined by the Photovoltaic
Module
Voltagein therangefrom23 to 38V at apower generation of
approximate160W, andtheir open-circuit voltageis below45
V.
New technolgies - voltage range around 0.5 -1.0 V at several
hundredamperesper squaremeter cell
Maximum Power Point Tracker
EX.: ripple voltage should
be below 8.5% of the MPP
voltage in order to reach a
utilization ratio of 98%
Cost
Cost effectiveness
usingsimilar circuits as in single-phasepower-factor-
correction (PFC) circuits
variable-speeddrives (VSDs)
High efficiency
wide range of input voltage and input power
very wide ranges as functions
of solar irradiation and ambient temperature.
Meteorological data
.
(a) Irradiation distribution for
a reference year.
(b) Solar energy distribution
for a reference year.
Total time of
irradiation equals 4686 h per
year.
Total potential energy is equal
to 1150 kWh=(m2 year) 130
W/m2
Reliability
long operational lifetime
most PV module manufacturer offer a warrantyof 25
years on 80% of initial efficiency
The main limiting components inside the inverters are
theelectrolytic capacitors used for power decoupling
between thePV module and the single-phase grid
Topologies of PV inverters
Centralized Inverters
String Inverters
Multi-string Inverters
AC modules & AC cell technology
Centralized Inverters
PV modules as seriesconnections (a
string)
series connections then connected in
parallel, through string diodes
Disadvantages !
String Inverters
Reduced version of the centralized
inverter
single stringof PV modules is connected
to the inverter
no losses on string diodes
separate MPPTs
increases the overall efficiency
AC module
inverter and PV module as one
electrical device
No mismatch losses between PV
modules
Optimal adjustment of MPPT
high voltage-amplification
necessary
Future topologies
Multi-String Inverters
AC Modules
ACCells

Multi-string Inverters
Flexible
Every string can be controlled
individually.
AC cell
One large PV cell connected to a dcac inverter
Very low voltage
New converter
concepts
Classification of Inverter
Topologies
Single-stage inverter
Dual stage inverter
Multi-string inverter
Power Decoupling
Capacitors
Transformers and Types of
Interconnections
Component to avoid (line transformers=high size,
weight, price)
High-frequency transformers
Grounding,

Types of Grid Interfaces

Inverters operating in current-sourcemode
Line-commutated CSI
switching at twice the line
frequency
Voltage-Source Inverters
standard full-bridge three-level VSI
VSI
Half-bridge diode-clampedthree-level VSI
AC Modules
1. 100-W single-transistor flyback-type HF-link inverter
100 W, out 230 V, in 48 V, 96%, pf=0,955
AC modules
2. 105-W combined flybackand buckboost inverter
105 W, out 85V, in 35V, THD <5%
AC modules
3. Modified Shimizu Inverter (160W, 230, 28V, 87%)
AC modules
4. 160-W buckboost inverter
in 100V out 160V
AC modules
5. 150-W flyback dcdc converter with a line-frequency
dcac unfolding inverter
in 44V, out 120V
AC modules
6. 100-W flyback dcdc converter with aPWM dcac
inverter
30V 210 V
AC modules
110-W series-resonantdcdc converter with an HF
inverter toward the grid
30-230V , 87%
AC modules
dual-stage topologyMastervoltSoladin120
in24-40V, out 230V, 91%, pf=0,99
String Inverters
Single-stage
Dual-stage
String Inverter
a transformerlesshalf-bridge diode-clampedthree-level
inverter
String Inverter
two-level VSI, interfacing two PV strings
SMA Sunny Boy 5000TL
three PV strings, each of 2200 W at 125-750 V, with
ownMPPT
PowerLynx Powerlink PV 4.5 kW
three PV strings, each 200-500 V, 1500 W
Evaluation and Discussion
component ratings
relative cost
lifetime
efficiency
Results
Dual-stage CSI =large electrolytic decoupling
capacitor
VSI =small decoupling electrolytic capacitor.
Results - Efficiency
Low efficiency=87%
C=68 F 160V
High efficiency=93%
C=2,2 mF 45V
Discussion - String Inverters
The dual-grounded multilevel invertersp.82 good
solutionbut quitelargecapacitors2x640F 810V ->
half-periodloading
bipolar PWM switching toward the gridp.83 & 84 (no
groundingpossible, largegroundcurrents) 2x1200 F
375 V
current-fed fullbridgedcdc converters with embedded
HF transformers, for each PV string p.85 3x 310F
400V
Resume PV Inverters
Large centralized single-stage inverters should beavoided
Preferable location for thecapacitor is in the dc link where the
voltage is high and alarge fluctuation can be allowed without
compromisingthe utilization factor
HFTs should be applied for voltage amplification in theAC
module and AC cell concepts
Line-frequency CSI are suitable for low power, e.g., for ac
module applications.
High-frequencyVSI is also suitable for both low- and high-
power systems, like the ac module, the string, and the multistring
inverters
Converter topologies (general)
PV inverters with dc/dc converter (with or without
isolation)
PV inverters without dc/dcconverter (with or without
isolation)
Isolation is acquired using atransformer that can be
placed on either the grid or lowfrequency(LF) side or
on the HF side
HF dc/dc converter
full-bridge
single-inductor pushpull
double-inductor pushpull
Another classification
number of cascade power processingstages
-single-stage
-- dual-stage
-----multi-stage
There is no any standard PV inverter topology
Future
very efficient PV cells
roofing PV systems
PV modules in high buildingstructures
Future trends
PV systems without transformers - minimize the cost of
the total system
cost reduction per inverter watt -make PV-generated
power more attractive
ACmodules implement MPPT for PV modules
improving the total systemefficiency
plug and play systems
Research
MPPT control
THD improvements
reduction of currentor voltageripple
standards are becoming more and more strict
The Georgia Tech
Aquatic Center
PV Generator
Systems + Components