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CHAPTER 1

CONCRETE MATERIALS & MIXTURE


INTRODUCTION:
a) This topic covers the composition of
concrete materials, concrete structure and
development in construction industries.
b) It also includes, the relation of the concrete
mix strength with the mixture ratios, the
workability of wet concrete and properties
of hardened concrete.
In its simplest form, concrete is a
mixture of paste and aggregates.
The paste, composed of Portland
cement and water, coats the
surface of the fine and coarse
aggregates. Through a chemical
reaction called hydration, the
paste hardens and gains strength
to form the rock-like mass known
as concrete.

Within this process lies the key to
a remarkable trait of concrete: it's
plastic and malleable when newly
mixed, strong and durable when
hardened. These qualities explain
why one material, concrete, can
build skyscrapers, bridges,
sidewalks and superhighways,
houses and dams.

1.1 BASIC PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
1. Concrete is a composite construction material composed of cement and other
cementations materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse
aggregate made of gravels or crushed rocks such as limestone or granite, plus a fine
aggregate such as sand), water and chemical admixtures.
2. Concrete strength depends on the mixture ratio (refer Table below).





3. Cement is a substance that produced by burning a mixture of limestone and clay.
4. Cement has abilities of cohesive (sticky) & adhesive, which enable its to bind
component materials, sand and aggregates to be solid concrete.




5) Fine and Coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose.
6) Water used for mixing concrete should be free from substances such as silt, soil,
organic acids and other organic materials such as salt and alkali. Usually the
water used for mixing concrete is eligible drinking water or taken from approved
source.
1.2 CEMENT
i. Cement can be described as a material with adhesive & cohesive properties which
make it capable of bonding material fragments into a compact whole.
ii. In construction purpose, the term cements is confined to the bonding materials used
with stones, sand, bricks, building blocks, etc..
iii. The function of cements are:
To bind the sand & coarse aggregate together.
To fill the voids in between sand & coarse aggregate particles to form a
compact mass.
iv. Cement is usually gray. White cement can also be found but it is usually more
expensive than gray cement.
v. Cement mixed with water, sand and gravel, forms concrete.
vi. Cement mixed with water and sand, forms cement plaster.
vii. Cement mixed with water, lime and sand, forms mortar.
1) There are two types of cements known as Hydraulic Cement & High Alumina Cement.
2) Hydraulic cement is the cement that would set & hardened under water by virtue of a chemical
reaction between the constituent compounds of cement & water.
3) Hydraulic cement consists mainly of silicates & aluminates of lime.
4) It may be classified as Natural Cement, Portland Cement & Aluminous Cement:
a) Natural Cement are powders obtained from certain natural rocks (clayey lime stone type)
which are quarried, crushed & processed. If enough heat is applied to dry off carbonic
acid gases, a Hydraulic Cement results. It is brown & set slowly or quickly when mixed
with water, depending on the amount of clay in the limestone. But this has low strength.
Because of that, it is now not used for concrete work.
b) Portland Cement is obtained by burning in a large rotary kiln at 1400 calcareous &
argillaceous materials (containing lime & clay respectively) and iron oxide bearing
materials which are previously ground to small particles. This forms a small modular
particles (CaCO
3
) called clinkers which are then grounded to fine powders. Thus
limestone @ chalk & clay are used as principal materials.




1.2.1 TYPE OF CEMENT:
c) Aluminous Cement containing the chief ingredients namely calcareous (clay, shale) &
aluminous materials (limestone or chalk & bauxite). These are heated to a temperature of
1400 and then the whole mass is grinded to powder form.
5) High Alumina Cement is quite different both in composition & properties from Portland
Cement. It is comparatively slow setting but very rapid hardening, thus produces very high
early strength. As a considerable amount of heat is generated during the setting &
hardening processes, it should not be used in rich mixes or large masses.
6) It essential that the concrete be kept continuously wet for at least 24 hours from the time it
begins to harden. About 80% of ultimate strength is developed during that time. High
alumina cement has initial setting time about 4 hours & final setting time about 5 hours.
7) The heat generated during hardening period has one advantage, it is enables concrete to be
placed at lower temperatures than OPC concrete.
8) The alumina cement is more workable than Portland Cement. High Alumina Cement
concrete is more resistant than OPC concrete to the action sulphates, therefore suitable for
undersea water applications.
9) The Alumina Cement is considerably more expensive than any others cement.





1) Portland Cement is made by mixing substances containing calcium carbonate, such as
chalk or limestone, with substances containing silica, alumina and iron oxide, such as
clay or shale & heating them together to clinker which is subsequently ground to
powder.
2) There are 8 types of Portland Cement knowingly as:
a) Ordinary Portland Cement @ OPC (BS 12 : 1971).
b) Rapid-Hardening Portland Cement @ RHPC (BS 12 : 1971).
c) White & Coloured Portland Cement.
d) Low Heat Portland Cement @ LHPC (BS 1370 : 1974).
e) Portland-Blast furnace Cement (BS 146 : 1973).
f) Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (BS 4027 : 1972).
g) High Strength Portland Cement .
h) Masonry Cement (BS 5224 : 1976).



1.2.1.1 TYPE OF PORTLAND CEMENT:
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT (OPC)
i. Has a medium rate of hardening & suitable for most type of work.
ii. One of the most commonly used for structural purposes when the special properties
specified for other four types of cement are not required.
RAPID-HARDENING PORTLAND CEMENT (RHPC)
i. Hardens rather more rapidly than OPC.
ii. It is similar in chemical composition to OPC but proportions of various compounds may be
slightly different, and is more finely ground.
iii. Due to it finer grinding, it will increase the rate of hydration at early ages and this leads to
the increased rate of early hardening as implied by the name.
iv. Useful when concrete of highly early strength is required or when necessary to strike the
form work quickly. Also useful when concreting in cold weather.
v. Concrete made with RHPC develops in 7 days, the same strength with 28 days to develop in
concrete made with OPC.
vi. RHPC should not be regarded as a quick setting cement because the hardening refers to its
rate of increasing strength and not setting time.
WHITE & COLOURED PORTLAND CEMENT
i. Used as decorative work.
ii. White cement is made by using china clay in a place of ordinary clay in order
to exclude impurities, especially iron oxide & lime stone.
iii. Coloured cement are made by mixing a pigments with Portland Cement.
LOW HEAT PORTLAND CEMENT (LHPC)
i. LHPC hardens & evolves heat more slowly than OPC. It has slightly
different chemical composition.
ii. It obtained by increasing the proportion of Dicalcium Silicate (C
2
S) &
reducing Tricalcium Silicate (C
3
S) & Tricalcium Aluminate (C
3
A). It thus
hydrates more slowly and evolves heat less rapidly than the OPC.
iii. The development of early strength is less than OPC but ultimate strength is
the same. The initial setting time is greater than OPC.
iv. Used for mass concrete applications.
v. If OPC used in a large masses that cannot lose heat by radiation, it develop
enough heat during hydration to raise temperature.
vi. This result in a relativity large increase in dimension while concrete is still
plastic and later differential cooling after hardening cause shrinkage
cracks to develop.
PORTLAND-BLAST FURNACE CEMENT (RELAU BAGAS)
i. Is made by grinding a mixture of OPC clinker with selected granulated blast
furnace slag.
ii. The proportion of slag is limited by the BS to not more than 65% of finished
cement.
iii. The properties of blast furnace cement are similar to OPC but it hydrates
slower than those Portland Cement, so this evolves less heat & hardens more
slowly than OPC.

SULPHATE-RESISTING PORTLAND CEMENT
i. Used for resistance extensive exposure sulphates. Typical applications include
hydraulics structures exposed to water with high alkali content & structures
subjected to seawater exposure.
ii. Has a higher content of Tetra-Calcium Aluminoferrite (C
4
AF).
iii. The colour is more darker compare to OPC.


HIGH STRENGTH PORTLAND CEMENT
i. Produced by the same materials as in the case of OPC.
ii. The higher strengths are achieved by increasing the Tricalcium Silicate (C
3
S) content and
also by finer grinding of the clinker.
iii. The initial & final setting times are same as OPC.
iv. At higher water cement ratios, the high strength concrete has about 80% higher strength &
at lower water cement ratios 40 % higher strength than OPC.

MASONRY CEMENT
i. For hand works uses such as rendering and bricklaying, mortars composed only of Portland
Cement & sand are not ideal.
ii. Such mortars harden too quickly, are too strong and lack plasticity and water retention
desirable in masonry mortar.
iii. It has been customary to overcome this difficulty by mixing lime with the cement, but
alternative procedure is to use masonry cement in place of the lime-cement mixtures.
iv. Masonry cement, under various brand names consists of Portland Cement with a fine inert
admixture & a plasticising agent.


1.2.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT:
1) Portland Cement is made up of four main compounds: tricalcium silicate
(3CaO.SiO
2
), dicalcium silicate (2CaO.SiO
2
), tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al
2
O
3
),
and a tetra-calcium aluminoferrite (4CaO.Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
).
2) In an abbreviated notation differing from the normal atomic symbols, these
compounds are designated as C
3
S, C
2
S, C
3
A, and C
4
AF, where C stands for calcium
oxide (lime), S for silica, A for alumina, and F for iron oxide.
3) Small amounts of uncombined lime and magnesia also are present, along with
alkalies and minor amounts of other elements.
4) The composition ranges of various kinds of Portland cement are shown in the table:


Name of Compound
Chemical
Composition
Usual
Abbreviation
Tricalcium Silicate 3CaO.SiO
2
C
3
S Quick Reaction
Dicalcium Silicate 2CaO.SiO
2
C
2
S Slow Reaction
Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO.Al
2
O
3
C
3
A
Very Quick
Reaction
Tetra-Calcium
Aluminoferrite
4CaO.Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
C
4
AF
Not Very
Important
1) When cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water are mixed and
blended, water and cement come together through a chemical process called
hydration and produced cement paste.
2) This cement paste was acted as a binder/adhesive to the concrete components
such as fine (sand) or coarse aggregates.
3) The active materials in concrete are cement and water, meanwhile aggregates
are inert (lengai) material.
4) Aggregates doesnt provided any action during the hydration process but acts as
a space filler and give strength, restless and resistance force from being
contraction (pengecutan).
5) After hydration process, the water content in the concrete becomes less and
gradually dried.
6) The hardened & good design concrete must have the voids about 1% and cement
paste (water / cement / aggregate mix coarse and fine) about 75%.







1.2.3 HYDRATION OF WATER IN CEMENT:
1.3 STORAGE METHODS OF CEMENT:
1.3.1 STORE STORAGE
1) The arrangement should be such that it is convenient both for stacking and removal of
cement bags and it also leaves adequate space for movement and inspection of bags for
counting purposes etc.,
2) No cement bags should be stacked in contact with an external wall. A clear space of at
least 60 cm should be left between the exterior wall and the stacks.
3) Cement bags should be placed closely together in the stack to reduce circulation of air as
much as possible.
4) Cement bags should not be stacked more than ten bags high to avoid lumping or
warehouse pack under pressure.
5) If the stack is more than seven bags high, arrange the bags in header and stretcher
fashion (i.e.) alternately length-wise and cross-wise, to achieve interlocking between
them and lessening the danger of toppling over, the arrangement of two stacks with a
height of seven bags and ten bags respectively.
6) For extra safety during rainy season, the stacks of cement bags should be enclosed
completely in polythene sheets or similar material if it is anticipated that cement would
not be required for a prolonged period.
7) This can be achieved by making a large loose sack of the polythene sheet and arranging
cement bags within it with flaps of the sheet closing on the top of the pile.
8) Care should be taken to ensure that the polythene sheet is not damaged any time while
in use.

1.3.2 SILOS STORAGE
1) Stored in dry conditions to prevent freezing of the air (air setting) to establish the details of the
half-frozen cement.
2) Silo must be in waterproof.
3) Inspection should be done regularly to detect that it is always air-tight and waterproof.
4) Keeping with this method is better for use with a minimum of labor. No need to transport to
storage.
5) Avoid waste if the bag of cement leakage or rupture.
6) Controlled in a working and efficient storage.
7) Silo is a place to store the cement at the concrete mixing plant (batching plant).

1.3.3 Storage Method In Construction Site:
1) FOR TEMPORARAY GODOWN STORAGE: In most construction projects godowns are constructed
at site for storage of a few days requirement of cement. It must confirm to the following
requirements:
a) The walls must be plastered and made damp proof.
b) The roof must be given an appropriate water proofing treatment.
c) The floor must be raised by at least 80 cm above the ground level to prevent any inflow of
water. The flooring may consist of a 15 cm thick layer of dry bricks laid in two courses over
a layer of earth consolidated to a thickness of 15cm above the ground level.
d) For further protection, cement bags should be stacked at least 10-20 cm clear above the
floor by providing wooden battens and planking arrangement. For saving timber concrete
may be used.
e) If any windows are provided , these should be few and small and normally kept tightly
closed to prevent entry of atmospheric moisture from outside.
f) A newly constructed godown should not be used for storage of cement unless its interior is
thoroughly dry.
2) FOR TEMPORARY STORE STORAGE:
a) In such cases cement bags should be laid on a dry platform made of wooden planks resting
over brick-masonry concrete, dry sand aggregates raised about 15 cm above the ground
level.
b) The stack must be kept fully covered with tarpaulin or polythene sheet and protected against
atmospheric moisture.
c) The covering sheets must overlap each other properly.
d) Temporary storage on open storage should not be adopted in wet weather.


1.3.4 EFFECT OF STORAGE ON STRENGTH OF CEMENT
i. The cement when stored for longer period of time loses its strength characteristics.
ii. The strength of cement when used after one year of its production loses its strength
by about 40-50% on application as compared to that of freshly produced cement.
iii. The loss of strength characteristic of cement at different interval of times is as given
below in the table.





iv. A cement can absorb up to 1.2% moisture but if absorption exceeds 5%, the cement
is destroyed for all practical purposes.
v. Different types of cements should not be mixed while using them for constructional
purposes.

AGE OF CEMENT % REDUCTION IN ITS STRENGTH
3 Months 20-30
6 Months 30-40
12 Months 40-50
1.4 AGGREGATE
1.4.1 CRITERIA S OF AGGREGATE
1. Aggregate is used to describe the gravels, crushed stones & other materials which are mixed
with cement & water to make concrete.
2. Aggregate is form 75% of the volume of concrete, so chosen the suitable materials is
important & also aggregate should contain no constituent material which might have
adverse affect of the hardening of cement or the durability of hardened cement.
3. The functions of aggregate in concrete is as a mass particle which are suitable for resisting
action of applied load, abrasion & percolation of moisture and the action of weather.
4. It is also as to reduce the volume changes resulting from setting and hardening of concrete.
5. Aggregate can be classified according to their unit weight and are grouped into 3
categories, there are:
a) Normal Aggregate Rushed Rock, Sand & Gravel, Broken Bricks.
b) Light Weight Aggregate Pumice, Expanded Shale, Expanded Clay.
c) Heavy Weight Aggregate Magnetite, Hematite, Limonite.




1.4.1.1 Normal Density Aggregate:
1. Aggregate having a specific gravity between about 2.5 and 3.0 & a bulk density in ranges
1450 to 1750 kg/m
3
.
2. It can be classified as normal aggregate and it may be of crushed aggregate or naturally
reduced in size.
3. There are 3 groups of normal density aggregate:
Coarse Aggregate.
Fine Aggregate.
All-In Aggregate.




1.4.1.2 Light Weight Aggregate:
1. Any aggregate with a particle density of less than 200 kg/m
3
or dry loose bulk density of
less than 1200 kg/m
3
is defined as Light Weight Aggregate.
2. Subdivided into following groups:
Naturally Occurring Materials Important examples of these are pumice, volcanic
tuff, porous limestone.
Naturally Occurring Materials Which Required Further Processing Expanded
Clay, Shale & Slate and other Expanded Minerals such as Perlite & Vermiculite.
Materials Which Occur as Industrial By Products Sintered Pulverished Fuel Ash
(Fly Ash), Sintered Slate & Colliery Waste, Foamed or Expanded Blast Furnace Slag.
Has Low Density & High Water Absorption.
Other characteristic of concrete using Light Weight Concrete are coarse surface
texture due to reduced workability, lower tensile strength, lower modulus of elasticity
(50% - 70% of the normal concrete), tendency to segregate, higher creep and
shrinkage.




1.4.1.3 High Density Aggregate:
1. Aggregate of specific gravity, that is ranging from 2.8 to 2.0 & unit weight
from 2800 to 2900 kg/m
3
are used to make high density concrete.
2. Examples of aggregate: magnetite & barytes.
3. The compressive strength: 20 21 N/mm
2
.
4. The cement-aggregate ratio varies from 1:5 & 1:9 with a water-cement ratio
between 0.5 0.65. They produce dense & crack free concrete.
5. This aggregate is not suitably graded and hence, it is difficult to have
adequate workability without segregation.




1.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF AGGREGATE
1) The aggregate used in concrete must be clean, hard, strong, properly shaped & well graded.
2) The characteristics includes are that, it must possess chemical stability, abrasion resistance,
resistance to freeze & thawing, compressive strength, good particle shape & surface texture.
3) The Chemical Stability of an aggregate indicates that the aggregate will not react chemically with
cement or be affected chemically by other external influences.
4) The Abrasion Resistance of an aggregate is often used as a general index of aggregate quality.
Abrasion resistance is essential when the aggregate is used in concrete subject to abrasion as in
floors & pavements.
5) Resistance to freeze & thawing is important when the aggregates are used in exposed concrete. The
freeze-thaw resistance of an aggregate is related to its porosity, absorption & pore structure.
6) The Compressive Strength of an aggregate is its resistance to compressive forces.
7) The Particle Shape & Surface Texture of an aggregate influence of the properties of fresh concrete
more than they affect the properties of hardened concrete.

1.4.2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATE
1) It can be classified into: Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Durability, Porosity & Water
Absorption.
2) Strength:
a) The strength of concrete cannot exceed of the bulk of aggregate contained therein.
b) Normally, the strength of concrete does not exceed 80 N/mm
2
and generally
between 20 50 N/mm
2
.
c) Whilst the strength of rock aggregate (coarse) varies between 70 350 N/mm
2
.
d) A good aggregate value of crushing strength of aggregate is 200 N/mm
2
.
e) The test conducted to determine the strength of aggregate are namely as Aggregate
Crushing Value, Aggregate Impact Value & Ten Percent Fines Value.
3) Hardness:
a) It is the ability of the aggregate to withstand wear @ load @ applied pressure.
b) This hardness of aggregate depend on the type of parent rock.
c) The test for obtain the hardness of aggregate is the Abrasion Test.

4) Toughness:
a) The resistance of aggregate to failure by impact.
b) It can be determined by Aggregate Impact Test. This aggregate impact value shall
not exceed 45% by weight for aggregate used for concrete other than those used
for wearing surfaces.
5) Durability:
a) Is the ability of aggregate to withstand external or internal damaging attack
(soundness of aggregate).
b) This can be obtained by carrying out Soundness Test.
c) Aggregate with high modulus of elasticity generally produces a concrete with
higher modulus of elasticity.
d) Aggregate with high modulus of elasticity also affect the magnitude of creep &
shrinkage of concrete.
e) The compressibility of aggregate would reduce distress in concrete during its
volume changes while a strong & rigid aggregate might lead to the cracking of the
surrounding cement paste.

6) Porosity:
a) Aggregate normally have pores of various sizes. Some are small & some are big.
b) Aggregate will absorb water when its dry but release water in the concrete mix
when its wet.
c) The amount of water and its rate or permeation depends on the size & volume
of aggregate.
7) Water Absorption:
a) Is the weight of water absorbed by an oven dry aggregate in reaching the
saturated & surface dry condition.
b) The water absorption is express as percentage of the weight of the dry
aggregate (moisture content).
c) Its determine by measuring the increase in weight of an oven dry sample
immersed in water for 24 hours & weighed at a saturated and surface dry
condition.

1.4.2.2 THE GOOD QUALITY AGGREGATES
1) The properties of good quality aggregates are specified as
follows: -
a) The aggregate strength and bonding.
b) Physical properties like relative density, the density of loose,
porosity, moisture absorption, bulking, soundness and
resistance against acid & alkali attack.
c) Particle size and distribution.
d) It hardness must exceed the cement hardness.
e) Does not contain substances that prevent the hydration
process.
f) The form must be nearly rounded and its surface must be
rough to produce a strongest concrete.

1.4.2.2 PARTICLE SHAPE OF AGGREGATE
It can be classified into 6 groups as shown in table below:

Rounded
(Bulat)
Full water-worn or completely shaped by
attrition or abrasion. e.g river or sea shore
gravel.
Irregular
(Tidak
Sekata)
Naturally irregular or partly shaped by
attrition & having rounded edges. e.g. other
gravel land or dug flint.
Angular
(Berkeping)
Processing well defined edges formed at the
intersection or roughly planes faces. e.g.
Crushed Focks of all types.
Flaky
(Bersegi
Tajam)
A material of which the thickness is small
relative to other dimensions. e.g. Laminated
Rocks.
Elongated
(Panjang)
The aggregate is usually angular, shape & the
length is considerably larger than the other
two dimensions.
Flaky &
Elongated
Material having the length which is
considerably larger than the width, and the
width considerably larger than the thickness.
1.4.2.3 SURFACE TEXTURE OF AGGREGATE
1) Is a measure of the smoothness or roughness of the aggregate.
2) The strength of the bond between aggregate and cement paste depends upon the
surface texture.
3) Aggregate with a rough & porous texture is preferred to one with smooth surface.
4) It because the rough & porous texture can increase the aggregate-cement bond 1.75
times, in which may increase the compressive & flexural strength of concrete up to
20%.
5) The aggregate with polished surface do not produce such strong concrete compare to
those with rough surface.
6) The more angular the aggregate, the more surface area it will produce, thus result in
greater bonding.
7) Classification of surface texture is based on:
The degree to which the particles surface are polished, dull, smooth or rough.
Hardness.

Grain Size.
Pore characteristic of the parent material.
Degree to which forces acting on the surface have smoothed or roughened.
8) The BS 812 : Part 1 : 1975 characterized the surface texture of aggregate as:
Glassy Conchoidal Fracture.
Smooth Water-worn or smooth due to fracture laminated or fine grained
rock.
Granular Fracture showing more or less uniform rounded grains.
Rough Rough fracture of fine or medium grained rock containing no
easily visible crystalline constituents.
Crystalline Containing easily visible crystalline constituents.
Honeycombed With visible pores & cavities.


1.4.3 FINE AGGREGATE
1) Fine aggregate is a material which passes through a 4.75 mm (3/16 inch) BS 410 Test
Sieve.
2) Sand is generally considered to have a lower size limit of about 0.07 mm, material
between 0.06 mm and 0.002 mm is classified as silt and smaller particles are called
clay.
3) Sand may be described as:
a) Natural Sand Fine Aggregate resulting from natural disintegration of rocks.
b) Crushed Stone Sand @ Crushing Gravel Sand Fine Aggregate produced by
crushing hard stone or natural gravel respectively.
4) The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act
as a workability agent.
5) For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine
aggregate should have a rounded shape.

6) The following table shows grading of Fine Aggregate:








7) Aggregates Form with a smooth surface can provide a good workability, but has a
low bond of strength.
8) While the aggregate with a rough surface produces less workability, but the bond
strength between aggregates and cement is better.
Sieve No. IS Sieve Designation % Passing by Weight
1. 10 mm 100
2. 4.75 mm 95 - 100
3. 2.36 mm 75-100
4. 1.18 mm 55 - 90
5. 600 micron 35 - 60
6. 300 micron 8 - 30
7. 150 micron 0 - 10
1.4.4 SUITABILITY OF RIVER SAND, MINING SAND &
SEA SAND AS FINE AGGREGATE
1) River sand and sea sand are the most suitable fine aggregate because its clean
from any chemical impurities or other substances that may affect the quality
of concrete.
2) Mining Sand is called M-Sand is a substitute for river sand that hardly get in
large quantities.
3) M-Sand is obtained from the quarry through the crushing process is filtered
and graded.
4) Graded sand generally has good quality and comparable with river sand and
the cheaper price.
5) As the conclusion, all three sand is suitable for used to make a quality
concrete.

1.4.5 COARSE AGGREGATE
1) Coarse Aggregate consists of natural occurring stones (crushed, uncrushed or
broken).
2) Coarse aggregates are any particles greater than 0.19 inch (4.75 mm), but
generally range between 3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5 mm to 37.5 mm) in
diameter.
3) It should be hard, strong, dense, durable, and clean.
4) It must be free from veins, adherent coatings and injurious amounts of
disintegrated pieces, alkali, vegetable matter and other deleterious substances.
5) It should be roughly cubical in shape. Flaky pieces should be avoided.
6) Commonly used in Malaysia is granite, limestone, sandstone and
conglomerate.



1.5 PROPERTIES OF WATER USED IN CONCRETE
MIXTURE
1.5.1 QUALITY OF WATER SUITABLE FOR CONCRETE MIXTURE:
1) It should be free from oil.
2) It should be potable i.e. Fit for drinking purpose.
3) Free from acids or alkalis or other such organics impurities. The PH value of
water shall generally be not less than 6.
4) Free from iron, vegetable matter or any other substance which is likely to
have adverse effect on concrete.
5) Salt water is not recommended because of the present of harmful salt.
1.5.1 ROLE/FUNCTION OF WATER IN THE CONCRETE MIXTURE:
1) To enable the chemical reaction which cause setting & hardening.
2) To lubricate the mixture of gravel, sand and cement in order to facilitate
placing.
3) To easy a workability for concrete mixture.

1.6 CONCRETE MIXTURE
1.6.1 DEFINITION OF CONCRETE MIXTURE:
a) Is a process of selecting the appropriate constituents of concrete materials to
produce concrete mixes that can be strong, tough, has high workability and
economical.
b) Concrete can be found in 3 ways:
i. Blending with shovels.
ii. Blending the machine concrete mixer
iii. Supplied from the factory as a ready mixed concrete.
c) There are two things that should be taken to identify the good mixes of
concrete:
Workability Define as the ease with which a concrete can be
transported, placed and consolidated without excessive bleeding or
segregation.
Strength - The strength of concrete is usually meant when it shattered the
cube strength reached 150 mm (6 ") on the extent of 28 days. Strength is
known as the characteristic strength of concrete.


1.6.2 CONCRETE MIX RATIO:
1) The use of concrete to determine the required mix ratio.
2) Normally, concrete is strong in compression stresses but weak in the
tensile stress.
3) Mix ratio usually used was 1:2:4 (cement: sand: coarse aggregate), 1:3:6
and 1:5:10 depended on its purpose and application.
4) Table below shown an example of concrete mix ratio that depends on its
purpose:



MIX RATIO USES
1:1.5:3 For Pre-Cast Concrete, Water Tank, etc
1:2:4
For Reinforced Concrete to make column,
beam, wall, etc
1:3:6 For Floor, Mass Concrete, etc
1:5:10
For site wall in the trenches of hard ground and
a concrete floor under suspension
1.6.3 TYPES OF CONCRETE MIXTURE:
There are three types of concrete mixture, namely: -
i. Standard Mixture.
ii. Designed Mixture.
iii. Nominal or Nominated Mixture.
1.6.3.1 STANDARD MIXTURE:
a) The rate is usually based on the weight of the mixture (CP 110) and
the mixture is set out in CP 110.
b) Level (grade) represents the strength characteristic of concrete is
expected to be minimal on the concrete.
c) In some cases, the engineers have set the mix ratio, and the
contractor must provide the correct mixture, as described.
1.6.3.2 DESIGNED MIXTURE:
a) To this mixture, usually the contractor is responsible for selecting the
mixing ratio for the strength and level of work required.
b) The rate is usually based on the volume of the mixture.
c) For this case, to obtain a mixture that is in the best condition and
quality, some of the mix should be modified.
1.6.3.3 NOMINAL MIXTURE:
a) To this mixture, usually the contractor is responsible for selecting the
mixing ratio for the strength and level of work required.
b) The rate is usually based on the volume of the mixture.
c) For this case, to obtain a mixture that is in the best condition and
quality, some of the mix should be modified.
1.7 WET @ FRESH CONCRETE
1.7.1 DEFINITION OF WET CONCRETE:
Is a mixture of water, cement, aggregate and admixture. The constituents
materials should be uniformly distributed after mixing within the concrete
mass during handling and placing.
1.7.2 PROPERTIES OF WET CONCRETE:
1) The properties are defined as follows:
a) The wetness or dryness of the mix, that is the consistency or slump.
b) Uniformity of the mixing meaning that the concrete is mixed thoroughly
has a standard appearance, and that all ingredients are evenly
distributed in the mix.
c) Workability of wet concrete, that is the ease with which concrete is
placed and consolidated.

1.7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING WORKABILITY:
Factors that affect the workability of concrete are:
a) Water-Cement Ratio.
b) Aggregate-Cement Ratio.
c) Admixture/Additives Substances.
d) Shape & Fleshiness of Aggregate.
e) Time & Temperature.
1.7.2.1 WATER-CEMENT RATIO
i. Higher water-cement ratio would increase workability consequently void in
concrete.
ii. It will be a stage that increase in workability will result in segregation &
bleeding.
iii. Use of higher water content will result in more serious problem of shrinkage
and creep of hardened concrete.
iv. Generally, the mixes with higher water-cement ratio would require a finer
grading and for mixes with lower water-cement ratio (in case of high
strength concrete) a coarse grading is preferable.
v. Lesser water-cement ratio would lower the workability.
1.7.2.2 AGGREGATE-CEMENT RATIO
i. Finer aggregate would reduce workability because of high specific
surface are.
ii. Irregular & angular aggregate also reduce workability.
iii. Whereas, rounded aggregate increase workability because of reduction in
particle interference.
iv. Lower aggregate-cement ratio will increase the workability. On the other
hand, if the ratio of volume of coarse to fine aggregate is high, it will
lower the workability and cause segregation.
v. The use of coarse aggregate of larger size gives higher workability
because of the reduction in total specific surface area.
vi. The use of elongated aggregate results in low workability, primarily due
to increase in particle interference.
1.7.2.3 SHAPE & FLESHINESS OF AGGREGATE:
i. Aggregates that have a smooth surface can provide a good workability, but
has a low bond strength.
ii. While the aggregate with a rough surface produces a low workability, but the
bond strength between aggregates and cement are much better.
1.7.2.4 ADMIXTURE/ADDITIVES SUBSTANCES:
i. Addition of air entraining admixture and plasticizer will increase workability.
ii. Pozzolanic materials like Pfa and slag would likely reduce workability.
1.7.2.5 TIME & TEMPERATURE:
i. High temperature for longer period of time would result absorption &
evaporation hence reduce workability.
ii. During hot day, it becomes necessary to increase water content of the
concrete mix in order to maintain the desired workability.
iii. The fresh concrete loses workability with time mainly because of the loss
of moisture due to evaporation.
1.8 ADDITIVES IN CONCRETE MIXTURE
1.8.1 DEFINITION OF ADDITIVE
1. Admixtures are materials other than cement, aggregate and water , in
liquid or powder form that are added to fresh concrete either before or
during its mixing to improve its properties, such as workability, curing
temperature range, setting time , slump retention and etc.
2. Some admixtures have been in use for a very long time, such as
calcium chloride to provide a cold-weather setting concrete.
3. Others are more recent and represent an area of expanding
possibilities for increased performance.
4. Not all admixtures are economical to employ on a particular project.
5. Also, some characteristics of concrete, such as low absorption, can be
achieved simply by consistently adhering to high quality concreting
practices.


6. The chemistry of concrete admixtures is a complex topic requiring in-depth
knowledge and experience.
7. A general understanding of the options available for concrete admixtures is
necessary for acquiring the right product for the job, based on climatic
conditions and job requirements.
8. Based on their functions, admixtures can be classified into the following
five major categories:
a) Retarding Admixtures.
b) Accelerating admixture.
c) Super plasticizers.
d) Water reducing admixtures.
e) Air-entraining admixtures.
9. Among other important admixtures that do not fit into these categories are
admixtures whose functions include bonding, shrinkage reduction, damp
proofing and coloring.
10) Purposes of admixture/additives:
i. To improve workability of fresh concrete.
ii. To improve durability by entrainment of air.
iii. To reduce water required.
iv. To accelerate setting & hardening and thus to produce high early strength.
v. To promote pozzolanic reaction with lime liberated by cement due hydration.
vi. To aid curing.
vii. To impart water repellent or water proofing property.
viii. To retard setting.
ix. To improve wear resistance.
x. To cause dispersion of the cement particles when mixes with water.
xi. To offset or reduce shrinkage during setting & hardening.
xii. To cause expansion of concrete and automatic prestressing of steel.
xiii. To impart colour.
xiv. To reduce bleeding.
xv. To reduce the evolution of heat.
xvi. To reduce some chemical reaction.
xvii. To aerate mortar or concrete to produce a light-weight product.


1.8.1.1 RETARDING SUBSTANCES
i. Retarders are used to delay the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
ii. High temperatures of fresh concrete (85F 90F) are often the cause of an
increased rate of hardening that makes placing and finishing difficult.
iii. One practical way to reduce the temperature of the concrete is by cooling the
mixing water or the aggregates.
iv. Retarders do not decrease the initial temperature of the concrete.
v. Retarders are sometimes used for:
a) Offset the accelerating effect of hot weather on the setting of concrete.
b) Delay the initial set of concrete when difficult or unusual conditions of
placement occur, such as placing concrete in large piers and foundations.
c) Delay the set for a special finishing process, such as an exposed aggregate surface
vi. Some of the materials used to retard the set of a concrete mixture are lignin, borax,
sugar, tartaric acid, and salt. These materials should be added to the mixing water.
1.8.1.2 ACCLERATING SUBSTANCES
1. Accelerators shorten the set time of concrete, allowing a cold-weather pour,
early removal of forms, early surface finishing, and in some cases, early load
application.
2. Proper care must be taken while choosing the type and proportion of
accelerators, as under most conditions, commonly used accelerators cause an
increase in the drying shrinkage of concrete.
3. Calcium chloride is a common accelerator, used to accelerate the time of set
and the rate of strength gain.
4. Excessive amounts of calcium chloride in concrete mix may result in rapid
stiffening, increase in drying shrinkage and corrosion of reinforcement.
5. In colder climates, calcium chloride should not be used as an anti-freeze.
6. Large amount of calcium chloride is required to lower the freezing point of
the concrete, which may ruin the concrete.
1.8.1.3 SUPERPLASTICIZER SUBSTANCES
1. Super plasticizers, also known as plasticizers, include water-reducing admixtures.
2. Compared to what is commonly referred to as a "water reducer" or "mid-range water
reducer", super plasticizers are "high-range water reducers".
3. High range water reducers are admixtures that allow large water reduction or greater
flow ability (as defined by the manufacturers, concrete suppliers and industry standards)
without substantially slowing set time or increasing air entrainment.
4. Each type of super plasticizer has defined ranges for the required quantities of concrete
mix ingredients, along with the corresponding effects.
5. They can maintain a specific consistency and workability at a greatly reduced amount of
water.
6. Dosages needed vary by the particular concrete mix and type of super plasticizer used.
7. They can also produce a high strength concrete.
8. As with most types of admixtures, super plasticizers can affect other concrete properties
as well.
9. The specific effects, however, should be found from the manufacturer or concrete supplier.
1.8.1.4 WATER REDUCING SUBSTANCES
1. Water reducing admixtures require less water to make a
concrete of equal slump, or increase the slump of concrete at
the same water content.
2. They can have the side effect of changing initial set time.
3. Water reducers are mostly used for hot weather concrete
placing and to aid pumping.
4. A water-reducer plasticizer, however, is a hygroscopic
powder, which can entrain air into the concrete mix via its
effect on water's surface tension, thereby also, obtaining some
of the benefits of air-entrainment
1.8.1.5 AIR ENTRAINING SUBSTANCES
1. Air-entraining agents entrain small air bubbles in the
concrete.
2. The major benefit of this is enhanced durability in freeze-
thaw cycles, especially relevant in cold climates.
3. While some strength loss typically accompanies
increased air in concrete, it generally can be overcome by
reducing the water-cement ratio via improved
workability (due to the air-entraining agent itself) or
through the use of other appropriate admixtures.
4. As always, admixtures should only be combined in a
concrete mix by a competent professional because some
of them can interact in undesirable ways.
1.8.1.6 OTHER SUBSTANCES
1. Mineral admixtures:
a) Make mixtures more economical, reduce permeability,
increase strength, and influence other concrete properties.
b) Mineral admixtures affect the nature of the hardened
concrete through hydraulic or pozzolan activity.
c) Pozzolan are cementitious materials and include natural
pozzolans, fly ash and silica fume.
d) They can be used with Portland cement, or blended cement
either individually or in combination as a cement
substitutes.
e) Cement substitutes also change concrete properties, but
typically are not classified as admixtures.
2. Bonding Admixtures:
a) Bonding admixtures, including addition of compounds and materials such
as polyvinyl chlorides and acetates, acrylics and butadiene-styrene co-
polymers, can be used to assist in bonding new / fresh concrete with old /
set concrete.
3. Coloring Agents:
a) Have become more commonly used, especially for patios and walkways.
b) Most are surface applied and often have the additional effect of surface
hardening.
c) Such surface applied coloring admixtures generally should not be used on
air-entrained concrete.
d) Integrally colored concrete is also available.
4. Waterproofing and Damp proofing admixtures:
a) Including soaps, butyl stearate, mineral oil and asphalt emulsions, are used
to decrease the amount of water penetration into the larger pores of
concrete.

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