91st ACSA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HELSINKI JULY 27-30, 2003 9

Modernism in America:
from Hound & Horn to an Americanized International
Style
MARDGES BACON
Northeastern University
The Museum of Modern Arts Modern Architecture: ized modernism as an elastic term that serves conve-
International Exhibition (1932), organized by director niently to designate painting, sculpture, moving pic-
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and curated by Henry-Russell Hitch- tures, architecture, and the lesser visual arts, original
cock and Philip Johnson, is generally credited with the and progressive in character, produced within the last
initial advancement of International Style architec- three decades but including also pioneer ancestors of
ture. In preparing the exhibition Barr, Hitchcock, and the 19th century.
1
Many of the Moderns early exhibi-
Johnson were confronted with an ideological conflict tions bring into sharp relief, sometimes in a tensional
that had beset the new museum since its founding only relationship, the dual commitment to the formal search
a week after the Wall Street stock market crash in 1929: for quality and the institutional mission to democratize
to introduce European avant-garde developments and an appreciation of modern art and understand in Barrs
yet also be both American and democratic. What I words, that which is different from us.
2
The Muse-
want to demonstrate is that the International Style ums discourse on modernism incorporated the received
was broadly conceptualized as part of Barr and the tradition of European abstraction, American traditions
Moderns larger project to establish an American site of realism, romanticism, and folk art, indigenous art in
for modernism in all the visual arts, thereby validating both Africa and the pre-Columbian New World, con-
its internationalism. Moreover, Barr, Hitchcock, and temporary American art, and a broad range of disci-
Johnson formed a common understanding of an Inter- plines including architecture and the design of everyday
national Style as participants in an avant-garde stu- objects. In addressing a field of modernism from
dent organization, the Harvard Society for Contempo- international to local and from high to low, the
rary Art, as well as contributors to the arts and letters Museum also engaged vernacular concerns.
journal, Hound & Horn, with which it was associated.
In one sense Barr viewed modernism as a critical term Within these Harvard circles, as in his later direction of
associated with the European avant-garde. In another the Museum of Modern Art, Barr held the dominant
sense he understood that the essence of modernism was vision of modernism, shaped by his critical position of
its pluralistic character embracing representation as formalism, which defined the International Style as a
well as abstraction.
3
In 1933 Barr advanced his concept set of principles, both transnational and cross-disciplin-
of modernism in the context of forming a permanent ary. For what emerged during the Moderns path to
collection as a torpedo moving through time. Barr institutional maturity was a discourse on modernism
represented it graphically as a diagram, its nose the that engaged a range of interdisciplinary issues and
ever advancing present, its tail the ever receding past of objectives. With the diffusion of International Style
fifty to a hundred years ago.
4
From that vantage principles following the exhibition, its partisans sought
modern extended back to the early 1880s and be- both its Americanization and its democratization as
yond. Barr sought to mine the historical legacy of paths to attain cultural authenticity, on the one hand,
modernism, exhibiting the work of Paul Ce zanne, and to dilute the European project, on the other.
Georges Seurat and others as European ancestors and
Alfred Barrs vision of modernism was both intellectual- Winslow Homer, Thomas Eakins and others as American
ly complex and purposely open-ended. Barr character- pioneers.
10 CONTRIBUTION AND CONFUSION: ARCHITECTURE AND THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER FIELDS OF INQUIRY
The term International Style owes its origin to the symmetry; and fine proportions, technique, and elegant
mid-1920s when Barr, Hitchcock, and Johnson were at materials rather than applied decoration. The resulting
Harvard. In their graduate studies with Paul Sachs, style constituted a new international language with a
associate director at the Fogg Art Museum, Barr and range of personal expression, as noted in the work of
Hitchcock were immersed in formalisma critical per- Gropius, Le Corbusier, Oud, and Mies van der Rohe.
9
spective based on the formal qualities of a work rather The term International Style had been used liberally
than its meaning, symbolism, or content and aestheti- by Barr, Jere Abbott, Hitchcock and others within the
cism.
5
In 1926-27 they participated in Sachss museum Harvard Society circle. It surfaced in accounts of Barr
seminar, which stressed connoisseurship based on the and Abbotts study tour to Europe and Russia in 1927-
empirical study of objects in a tradition going back to 1928. For example, Abbott employed International
Giovanni Morelli and Bernard Berenson as well as Style in his published account of their Russian trip in
objective beauty following the aesthetics of George Hound & Horn in 1929.
10
During their tour of London,
Santayana. Holland, Dessau, Berlin, Moscow, Leningrad, Czechoslo-
vakia, Vienna, Stuttgart, Munich, and Paris, Barr and
Abbott found expressions of modern culture. Their visits
In addition to Sachss museum course, the Harvard
to low-cost housing estates in Hook of Holland by J.J.P.
Society for Contemporary Art and Hound & Horn, both
Oud and at the Weissenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart by Mies
founded and directed by Lincoln Kirstein, also shaped
van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and others, for example,
Barrs views of modernism.
6
In their orbit were not only
helped to refine Barrs formalist and transnational
Barr and Hitchcock but also Jere Abbott (later Barrs
approach to the International Style, which would
assistant and associate director at the Modern) and
inform the 1932 exhibition.
11
Moreover, their four-day
Johnson. The art and architecture exhibitions organized
visit to the Bauhaus in Dessau, and 10-week trip to
by the HSCA from 1929 to 1932 served as models for the
Russia confirmed that these cultures interpreted mod-
Modern. Most were devoted to contemporary painting,
ernism as an interdisciplinary project linking the arts
sculpture, and decorative art, ranging from the Schools
with everyday life. At the Bauhaus Barr absorbed the
of Paris and New York, contemporary Mexican and
idea of a unity of style among the fine and applied
German art, American folk art, to international photog-
arts including architecture and industrial design, which
raphy. With its exhibition The Staatliches Bauhaus,
Sybil Kantor has called the most important idea
Dessau (1930-31) the HSCA introduced American audi-
governing the founding of the Museum of Modern
ences to the Bauhaus as a comprehensive unit with
Art.
12
In Russia Barr saw further interdisciplinary
examples of paintings by Lyonel Feininger and Wassily
expressions of modern culture. His Russian Diary
Kandinsky as well as photographs from Johnsons
documents an infusion of modernism, especially con-
collection of the work of Walter Gropius and Alfred
structivism and suprematism in the art, theater, film,
Clauss as well as Mies van der Rohes Barcelona Pavilion
music, and especially architecture that he and Abbott
(1929). Buckminster Fullers Dymaxion House was the
encountered.
13
subject of two exhibitions, in May 1929 and March 1930.
The Harvard Society also exhibited work of Harvard
graduates, including drawings of prefabricated houses Such an international consensus of architects respond-
by the Chicago architect Howard Fisher.
7
As Russell ing to modern life even received the endorsement of
Lynes recounts in Good Old Modern, Museum trustee Lewis Mumford who contributed a section on housing
Monroe Wheeler claimed, the Museum of Modern Art to the 1932 exhibition. He had been reluctant to
began in Harvard.
8
collaborate on an exhibition devoted to the idea of an
International Style with a European bias. In a letter to
Frank Lloyd Wright, Mumford expressed his opposition
The Museum of Modern Arts discourse on modernism,
to the dreadful phrase, since architecture is architec-
which governed the 1932 Modern Architecture: Inter-
ture and never; except in a bastard form, a style.
national Exhibition, focused on three issues. The first
However, he conceded that while the phrase interna-
was the idea of a unified contemporary style without
tional style emphasizes all the wrong things architectur-
borders known as the International Style. In his
ally, I think it is a fine sign that men o[f] good will all
foreword to the catalogue Modern Architecture: Inter-
over the world are beginning to face life in the same
national Exhibition Barr laid out the aesthetic principles
way, and to seek similar means of expressing it.
14
that would later dominate the more famous publication
The International Style by curators Hitchcock and John-
son. There Barr advanced the idea of a transnational The second issue concerned rootedness and cultural
style based on a set of now familiar formal properties authenticity through the construction of a genealogy of
volume rather than mass; structural supports that style for modern architecture in America involving the
encouraged regularity rather than the use Beaux-Arts congruence of modernism and vernacular. Barrs associ-
91st ACSA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HELSINKI JULY 27-30, 2003 11
ation with Kirsteins Hound & Horn-Harvard Society Hitchcock it meant that the American architect shared
circle encouraged the recognition of American vernacu- with medieval builders a common approach to style as
lar buildings as models for contemporary architecture. well as technical innovation. Moreover, in the Museum
of Modern Art publication of 1934,Art in America in When the Harvard journal reproduced a quartet of Jere
Modern Times, Hitchcock also designated Richardsons Abbotts photographs of the engineer-designed Necco
simplification of design and direct expression of candy factory in Cambridge, MA (1927), Hitchcock
structure as antecedents to both The International captioned them the finest fragments of contemporary
Style and the skyscraper.
22
building.
15
Barr followed with an essay on The Necco
Factory for Arts, illustrating it with Abbotts photo-
graphs. Inspired by Le Corbusiers polemical tract Vers
Hitchcock drew other comparisons with American archi-
une architecture of 1923, which praised American
tecture. He proposed that the International Style
engineering but denounced American architecture as
recalled an earlier episode in American city building,
an expression of a regressive academic tradition, Barr
which had produced a local language. In 1934 he
called the local industrial building a document in the
curated an exhibition at Wesleyan University, The
growth of a new style at once modern and vernacu-
Urban Vernacular of the Thirties, Forties and Fifties:
lar.
16
American Cities Before the Civil War. It consisted of
fifty photographs by Berenice Abbott, a photographer
predisposed to modernism and urban architecture.
23
As Barr mined antecedents to modern painting and
Hitchcock advanced the idea that formal elements in
sculpture in the work of Ce zanne and Seurat, based on
the unadorned but well-proportioned row houses,
formal principles, he situated Wright as a pioneer
warehouses, and other utilitarian buildings in American
ancestor of International Style modernists.
17
In their
port cities during the Antebellum period were analo-
book The International Style Hitchcock and Johnson
gous to those of the International Style: extreme
expanded the list of pioneers into a family tree. It was
rationalist discipline, the sense of fine proportions,
undoubtedly a belated response to Mumford who had
and simple expanses of the best obtainable materials.
unsuccessfully lobbied Johnson to designate a section of
Alexander Parriss granite structures on North Market
the exhibition to the history of modern architecture,
Street [Quincy Market] in Boston (1823) were among
so that no one would think it was invented by Norman
the many examples that confirmed the communal
Bel Geddes and the Bowman Brothers. . . the day before
ordering of design and high general level of excel-
yesterday.
18
Under the influence of Mumfords Sticks
lence of American urban building, which compared
and Stones (1924) and The Brown Decades (1931),
favorably with their counterparts in European cities.
Hitchcock advanced American sources of modern archi-
The real architectural quality of a fine city, Hitchcock
tecture that allied modern with vernacular.
19
Toward a
emphasized, did not reside in individual monuments
search for the roots of modern architecture Hitchcock
but in the general consistency and order of its vernacu-
organized a didactic exhibition in 1933, Early Modern
lar building.
24
Thus, like the American urban vernacu-
Architecture: Chicago 1870-1910, and produced a
lar architecture of the previous century, he concluded,
catalogue. Although the theme of the exhibition was
International Style modernism could provide a model
the Chicago School, its focus was the technical, aesthet-
for the present.
ic, and pragmatic developments associated with the
skyscraper, which he called the conspicuous achieve-
A third issue addressed the Americanization of modern
ment of American architecture after 1850. Hitchcock
architecture. Although the Museums Modern Archi-
emphasized the originality of these pioneers: Jenneys
tecture: International Exhibition promoted an Inter-
precocious use of steel skeleton construction, Rich-
national Style of European extraction, its Americani-
ardsons integrity [in] his use of traditional construc-
zation seemed inevitable as a result of its popular
tion, Sullivan who turned the early skyscraper into an
diffusion and wide-spread acculturation in the United
aesthetic invention, Wright who developed a new
States. Because the International Style embodied a
type of domestic design, and Burnham and Root who
set of aesthetic principles based on formal properties,
organized and specialized [the] American architectural
American architects could appropriate certain elements
office and methods of practice.
20
In his monograph for
with little reference to social and political issues that
a subsequent exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,
informed European modernism. By 1937 even Hitchcock
The Architecture of Henry Hobson Richardson (1936),
distanced himself from the International Style in
Hitchcock continued to uphold Richardsons work as an
America when he called it aesthetically second rate.
25
ancestor of contemporary architecture, suggesting that
such buildings as the Cheney in Hartford (1875-1876)
solved modern problems in a spirit not wholly dissimi- As he predicted, some architects would adhere to the
lar to that of the men of the twelfth century.
21
To narrowly defined aesthetic parameters of the Interna-
12 CONTRIBUTION AND CONFUSION: ARCHITECTURE AND THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER FIELDS OF INQUIRY
tional Style. For example, Philip Goodwin and Edward the de Mandrot House at Le Pradet and the Swiss
Durell Stones design for the Museum of Modern Art Dormitory at the Cite Universitaire in Paris (1930-1931).
(1936-39) relied largely on formal pastiche.
26
However, Both Wright and Le Corbusier, Mock suggested, had
it was not the formal elements but the technological encouraged Americans to look at their own native folk
advances that distinguished American modernism in the architecture, including California redwood houses of
late 1930s as dependable heating and air-conditioning the late nineteenth century and Pennsylvania stone and
systems made glass walls viable and prefabricated timber barns for their straightforward use of material
building supplies fulfilled the promise of machine-age and their subtle adaptation to climate and topogra-
metaphors.
27
Lack of advanced building technology had phy. Sharing similar design objectives, the American
been one of the conspicuous defects of Russian modern- and the European together, could provide local en-
ism, which Barr and Jere Abbott had experienced couragement for the growing international movement
during the winter of 1927-1928 when they visited a
toward a friendlier, more differentiated contemporary
Moscow apartment house designed by the constructivist
architecture.
31
This synthesis had become increasingly
architect Moisei Ginzburg.
28
evident in the work of European e migre s William
Lescaze, Gropius and Marcel Breuer as well as Ameri-
cans Wallace Harrison and Edward Durell Stone, and
During the 1930s architects sought to identify modern-
Bay Area Regionalists. The Modern continued to en-
ism with place and enduring building traditions. Their
dorse the response to local conditions when it featured
emphasis on local conditions and region meant that
the work of Neutra and other West Coast modernists,
buildings might respond directly to such environmental
including William Wursters Colby House in Berkeley
conditions as contours, views, and access to sunlight.
(1931), in its subsequent exhibition Modern Architec-
Architects employed more earth-bound materials and
ture in California (1935). The Museum gave Wrights
often used curvilinear forms. From an American per-
Fallingwater (Kaufmann House) in Mill Run, PA (1934-
spective the International Style was gravitating
1937) a solo exhibition in 1938.
32
That year it also
toward a synthesis of the machine-inspired forms of
advanced the European synthesis of modern and ver-
European modernism, native technical proficiency, hu-
nacular in its exhibition Alvar Aalto: Architecture and
man-centered forms recalling the organic tradition of
Furniture. Such works as the Finnish Pavilion for the
Wright, and vernacular expressions of both materials
1937 Paris International Exhibition underscored the
and building methods. The 1932 exhibition had already
ways in which organic forms, local materials, and
explored the possibilities of a new synthesis in the work
sensitivity to both site and region joined with personal
of European modernists and Wright, notwithstanding
invention and proficient technical means.
33
As regional- the latters individualism. In his catalogue essay Hitch-
ist artists turned to local traditions in an anxious effort cock suggested that Le Corbusiers Villa Mandrot at Le
to counter loss, so architects of the 1930s engaged Pradet near Toulon (1929-1931) and Wrights R.L. Jones
vernacular culture and folk traditions to counter the House in Tulsa, Oklahoma (1931) shared in common a
consumerism of modern culture, thereby anticipating new sense of plasticity and economy of ornament.
29
A
what in recent times has been called critical regional- partisan of Wright, Mumford observed in his review of
ism.
34
the 1932 exhibition that the architects importance
should not be restricted to that of mere pioneer. Like
Mies van der Rohe, and J.J.P. Ouds design for country
With the increasing economic and social deficit of the
houses, Mumford argued, Wrights could be intellectu-
Depression the Modern placed a new emphasis on low-
ally grasped, humanly embodied, architecturally ex-
cost housing. Mumfords housing section of the 1932
pressed. Wrights love for natural materials, his
Modern Architecture: International Exhibition intro-
interest in the site and the landscape, his feeling for the
duced the general public to both European and Ameri-
region, Mumford concluded, made him a new source
can models while his catalogue essay stressed its social
of interest to European modernists.
30
need in the context of community planning. Two years
later Carol Aronovici, Director of the Housing Research
In her catalogue for the Moderns Built in USA1932- Bureau of New York City, organized Housing Exhibi-
1944 exhibition more than a decade later, Elizabeth tion of the City of New York, at the Modern in
Mock recognized that the new architecture had under- conjunction with the New York City Housing Authority
gone a process of humanization shedding its roman- (NYCHA) and other organizations in the public and
ticism of the machine which had produced. . . cold ab- private sectors. Charged with a pragmatic agenda the
stractions. She argued that American architecture had exhibition showed existing housing conditions in the
been transformed through a fusion of influences: city, identified impediments to reform, and endorsed
Wright, vernacular building, and Le Corbusiers experi- new European and American housing models. It fea-
ments with natural materials evinced in such works as tured Williamsburg Houses, a NYCHA project designed
91st ACSA INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE HELSINKI JULY 27-30, 2003 13
4
Kirk Varnedoe, The Evolving Torpedo, in The Museum of Modern
by Swiss-born Lescaze and a team headed by Richmond
Art at Mid-Century: Continuity and Change (New York: MoMA,
H. Shreve (1934-1937). To accompany the exhibition,
1995), 20.
Aronovici published an influential collection of essays
5
On Barrs formalism, see Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., xix, xxi, 38, 42-43,
by leading European and American housing experts
77-80, 141, 328, 330.
bearing the provocative title, America Cant Have
6
Nicholas Fox Weber, Patron Saints (New York: Knopf, 1992), 3-132;
Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., 140-145. Lincoln Kirstein, Mosaic: Mem- Housing.
35
oirs (New York: Farrar Strauss, 1994), 101-112.
7
Second Annual Report, The Harvard Society for Contemporary Art
In the fall of 1934 the Museum also sponsored a radio
(1930-1931).
program Art in America and published Art in America
8
Russell Lynes, Good Old Modern: An Intimate Portrait of the Museum
of Modern Art (New York: Atheneum, 1973), 26. in Modern Times, with didactic essays on architecture
9
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., foreword to Modern Architecture: International and other forms of visual culture. For an essay on
Exhibition, 14-16. Jere Abbott, Notes from a Soviet Diary, Hound
House and Cities editors Barr and Holger Cahill
& Horn 2 (Spring 1929): 263. On the origin of the term Internation-
brought in housing expert Catherine Bauer, who prof-
al Style, see Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., 167, 292-293, 408n76,
fered a social and political response to the urban
439n65; see also Terence Riley, The International Style: Exhibition 15
and the Museum of Modern Art (New York: Rizzoli, 1992), 89-93. housing crisis. Basing her argument on the European
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., and Philip Johnson, The International
models in Rotterdam and Frankfurt, such as Ernst Mays
Style: Architecture since 1922 (New York: W.W. Norton, 1932).
Siedlung Bruchfeldstrasse (1926-27), she advised Ameri-
10
On Barrs 1927-1928 tour see Rona Roob, Alfred H. Barr, Jr.: A
cans to plan for use and not for profit.
36
Chronicle of the Years 1902-1929, New Criterion special issue
(Summer 1987): 13-16 (hereafter Barr Chronicle).
11
Roob, Barr Chronicle: 16.
In promoting the Americanization of the International
12
Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., 155.
Style Barr, Hitchcock, and Johnson constructed an
13
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Russian Diary 1927-28, October 7 (Winter 1978):
archaeology of modern architecture following the ex-
7-50.
ample of the Harvard Society-Hound & Horn circle at
14
Letter, Lewis Mumford to Frank Lloyd Wright, February 6, 1932, as
Harvard. At once avant-garde but linked to historical
quoted in Robert Wojtowicz, Lewis Mumford and American Mod-
sources and vernacular traditions, modern architecture ernism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 94, 181n91.
15
Jere Abbott, Four Photographs, Hound & Horn 1 (September was advanced in ways inextricably linked to develop-
1927): 36.
ments in the other visual arts. In establishing New York
16
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., The Necco Factory, Arts 8 (May 1928): 292-295.
City as the principal site for modernism in North
17
Barr, foreword to Modern Architecture: International Exhibition, 15.
America, the Museum of Modern Art confirmed its
18
Letter Lewis Mumford to Catherine K. Bauer [Wurster], February 9,
nationalism and its internationalism as evidence of the
1931, Mumford Papers, folder 6345; as quoted in Wojtowicz, Lewis
movements diffusion within and across cultures. With
Mumford and American Modernism, 92, 180n83.
its Americanization the International Style adapted 19
Lewis Mumford, Sticks and Stones (New York: Horace Liveright ,
to local conditions. In embracing both avant-garde 1924) and The Brown Decades: A Study of the Arts in America 1865-
1895 (New York: Dover, 1955; orig. pub., 1931).
expressions of modern times and vernacular traditions,
20
[Henry-Russell Hitchcock] Exhibition of Early Modern Architecture,
American modernism arrived at an expression of visual
Chicago 1870-1910 ([New York] Museum of Modern Art, 1933;
culture more globalized than isolated, interdisciplinary,
second revised edition, 1940).
and critically examined. 21
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, The Architecture of H.H. Richardson and His
Times (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1936), 164.
22
Hitchcock, The International Style: Architecture since 1922, 25;
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., Henry Hobson Richardson: The Devel-
opment of the Skyscraper, in Holger Cahill and Alfred H. Barr, eds.,
NOTES
Art in America in Modern Times (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock,
1934), 63-67.
1
Modern and Modern, Art Digest 8 (August 1, 1934): 6; reprinted 23
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., The Urban Vernacular of the Thirties,
in Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Defining Modern Art: Selected Writings of
Forties and Fifties: American Cities Before the Civil War (Wesleyan
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Irving Sandler and Amy Newman, eds. (New York:
University Architectural Exhibitions, 1934).
Abrams, 1986), 82-83. Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Why the Museum of
Janine A. Mileaf, Constructing Modernism: Berenice Abbott and
Modern Art was Founded in The Museum of Modern Art, New
Henry-Russell Hitchcock (Middletown, Conn.: Davison Art Center,
York (undated report, submitted at the meeting of the Board of
Wesleyan University, 1993).
Trustees of the Museum of Modern Art on November 12, 1936), 4
24
Hitchcock, The Urban Vernacular of the Thirties, Forties and Fifties,
(Rockefeller Family archives, R.G. 2, OMR, Cultural Interests, Box 22,
2, 7, 8.
Rockefeller Archive Center [hereafter RAC]).
25
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., The Architectural Future in America,
2
Alfred H. Barr, Jr., Why the Museum of Modern Art Was Founded,
Architectural Review 82 (July 1937): 2.
8 (RAC). 26
On Goodwin and Stones design for the Museum of Modern Art, see
Mardges Bacon, Le Corbusier in America: Travels in the Land of the 3
Sybil Gordon Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., and the Intellectual Origins
Timid (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001), 284-287.
of the Museum of Modern Art (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002): 51, 61.
Marshall Berman, All That Is Solid Melts Into Air (New York: Penguin
27
William H. Jordy, The International Style in the 1930s, Journal of
Books, 1982). the Society of Architectural Historians 24 (March 1965): 10-14.
14 CONTRIBUTION AND CONFUSION: ARCHITECTURE AND THE INFLUENCE OF OTHER FIELDS OF INQUIRY
28
Alfred Hamilton Barr, Jr., Notes on Russian Architecture, Arts 15 John McAndrew, A New House by Frank Lloyd Wright on Bear Run,
(February 1929): 105; Abbott, Notes from a Soviet Diary: 263. See Pennsylvania (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 1938).
also Kantor, Alfred H. Barr, Jr., 166-169. 33
Aalto: Architecture and Furniture (New York: Museum of Modern
29
Henry-Russell Hitchcock, Jr., Frank Lloyd Wright, in Modern Art, 1938).
Architecture: International Exhibition, 36, 54. See also Henry-Russell 34
On the concept of critical regionalism, see Alexander Tzonis and
Hitchcock, Jr., Wright and the International Style, in Barr and
Liane Lefaivre, The Grid and the Pathway: an Introduction to the
Cahill, Art in America in Modern Times, 70-72.
Work of Dimitris and Susana Antonakakis, Architecture in Greece
30
Lewis Mumford, Organic Architecture in The Sky Line, New no. 15 (1981): 164-178; Kenneth Frampton, Prospects for a Critical
Yorker 8 (February 27, 1932): 45-46. Regionalism, in Perspecta 20 (1983): 147-162.
31
Elizabeth Mock, ed., Built in USA 1932-1944 (New York: MoMA,
35
Carol Aronovici, Housing and Architecture, Bulletin of the Muse-
1944), 13-14. um of Modern Art 2 (October 1934): 2-3; Carol Aronovici, America
Cant Have Housing (New York: MoMA, 1934), 78. 32
Alan R. Michelson, William Wurster Chronology, in Marc Treib,
ed., An Everyday Modernism: The Houses of William Wurster
36
Catherine Bauer, House and Cities, in Barr and Cahill, Art in
(Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1995), 227. America in Modern Times, 80.